Two Principles and Some Rules For Gender in German Inanimate Nouns

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Two principles and some rules for gender in

German: Inanimate nouns
Donald Steinmetz
To cite this article: Donald Steinmetz (1986) Two principles and some rules for gender in German:
Inanimate nouns, Word, 37:3, 189-217, DOI: 10.1080/00437956.1986.11435777
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00437956.1986.11435777
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DONALD S T E I N M E T Z - - - - - - - - - - -
Two principles and some rules for

gender in German: Inanimate nouns
1. Introduction. In the traditional literature on German, ranging from

textbooks and reference works to more theoretical writings, a curious
duality of opinion is evident on the subject of gender. While these discus-
sions typically include statements to the effect that the genders of Ger-
man nouns are arbitrary and hence unpredictable, nearly all sources also
offer a number of suggestions for predicting the genders of at least some
groups of nouns. In Duden: Grammatik 1966 these suggestions amount
to ten pages of more or less loosely stated rules of two types: (a) rules
which relate the gender of a noun to its morphological and/or phonetic
shape, and (b) rules which relate gender to meaning. Many of these rules
are familiar even to beginning students of German, e.g.,
(I) Nouns ending in certain suffixes such as -heit, -keit, -ung are femi-
nine, e.g. die Freiheit 'freedom', die Gerechtigkeit 'justice', die Unter-
haltung ·conversation'.
(2) Nouns ending in the suffixes -chen, -lein are neuter, e.g. das
Miidchen 'girl', das Briinnlein 'small well'.
(3) Nouns ending in the segmentable morpheme -er are masculine, e.g.
der Stromziihler 'electricity meter', der Stripper 'stripper'.
(4) Nearly all nouns denoting human beings are masculine or feminine
depending on whether they denote males or females, e.g. der Mann
'man, husband', die Frau 'woman, wife', der Sohn 'son', die 1hchter
'daughter' . 1
(5) Nouns denoting animals of husbandry are neuter if they refer in a
sex-neutral way to the species or the young of the species but masculine
or feminine if the denotata are adult males or females, e.g. das Pferd
'horse', das Fohlen 'foal', der Hengst 'stallion'; die Miihre 'mare', das
Huhn 'chicken', das Kiiken 'chick', der Hahn 'rooster', die Henne 'hen'.
Frequently mentioned are also a number of correlations between gender
and meaning for certain groups of inanimate nouns, such as:
(6) Nouns denoting alcoholic and other plant-extract beverages are
masculine, e.g. der Wein 'wine', der Whiskey 'whiskey', der Rum 'rum',
der Kaffee 'coffee', der Tee 'tea', der Kakao 'cocoa', etc.
189
190 WORD, VOLUME 37. NUMBER 3 (DECEMBER 1986)
(7) Nouns denoting rocks, stones, and particulates are masculine, e.g.
der Stein 'stone', der Fels 'rock, cliff', der Basalt 'basalt', der Sand
'sand', etc.
(8) Nouns denoting units of measurement, letters of the alphabet, and
musical notes are neuter, e.g. das Pfund 'pound', das Ypsilon 'y', das
Cis 'C sharp', etc.
Taken all together, the observations found in the traditional literature
correlating gender with either form or meaning strongly challenge the no-
tion of arbitrary gender and suggest instead that gender in German is to
some significant extent systematic and predictable. To determine the ex-
tent to which this is true has been the focus of some recent research which
has resulted in the discovery of a large number of previously unnoticed
correlations between gender and morphological or phonetic shape on the
one hand and gender and meaning on the other.
For example, in several recent studies, Zubin and Kopcke ( 1981) and
Kopcke ( 1982) present evidence for a number of correlations between
gender and phonetic shape in the case of German monosyllabic nouns.
Among other correlations, they propose that the feminine gender of
nouns such as die Luft 'air', die Fracht 'freight' is at least in part deter-
mined by a rule which assigns feminine gender to nouns having final con-
sonant clusters consisting of a non-sibilantfricative + t.
With regard to previously unnoticed correlations between gender
and meaning, other research by Zubin and Kopcke and research by
Steinmetz has been quite fruitful. The number of such correlations
pointed out in the past few years now approaches 100 and new ones are
being found regularly. Consider, for example, the neuter gender of nouns
such as: das DinK 'thing', das ZeuK 'stuff' das Gut 'property, goods',
das Ohst 'fruit', das Or!{an 'organ', das Glied 'limb, member', das
Mabel 'furniture', das Mittel 'means, remedy' etc. What such nouns
have in common is that they are superordinate nouns, i.e. nouns which
refer to sets of objects at a high level of categorization, and this observa-
tion suggests a semantic gender rule superordinate nouns = neuter (Zu-
bin and Kopcke 1983, 1984a). 2 There are of course non-neuter superor-
dinate nouns such as the feminine nouns die Waffe 'weapon', die Planze
'plant', die Frueh! 'fruit', where the semantic gender rule superordi-
nate = neuter apparently yields to other rules which assign feminine gen-
der on the basis of shape, i.e. the traditional rule -e =feminine and the
above-mentioned rule assigning feminine gender to nouns ending in t pre-
ceded by a non-sibilant fricative.
Such cases of gender rule competition, which are by no means unu-
sual, represent one of the two problems to which this paper is mainly ad-
dressed.
STEINMETZ. GENDER IN GERMAN 191
The other problem is that of reducing the number of semantic gender

rules required to account for the genders of German nouns. As mentioned
earlier, the number of known correlations now approaches 100 and addi-
tional ones are being pointed out regularly as new areas of the lexicon are
studied. Not surprisingly, the proliferation of semantic gender rules, to-
gether with the fact that known gender rules often compete with each
other, as we have just seen in the case of Wajf"c etc., introduces consid-
erable complexity and some untidiness in the theory of gender in German.
The aim of the present paper is to outline an approach to gender in
German which incorporates two general principles, !{ender tally and !{en-
der eclipsis, such that in conjunction these principles operate both (a) to
resolve all instances of gender rule competition in favor of the correct
gender assignment and (b) to eliminate the need for many individual se-
mantic gender rules. In the process, many apparent exceptions to known
gender rules are also accounted for.
2. The operation of gender tally and gender eclipsis in the German gender
system. To illustrate the operation of these principles, let us consider the
following nouns representing one section of the German lexicon, namely
nouns denoting fruits. In this semantic field, we find nouns of all three
genders:
masculine: der Apfel 'apple'. der Pjirsich 'peach'
feminine: die Frucht 'fruit', die Dattel 'date', die Ananas 'pineapple',
die Mango 'mango', die P./lllume 'plum', die Kirsche 'cherry', die
Orange 'orange', and many others ending in -e
neuter: das Obst 'fruit'
To date, the literature contains several proposals which bear on the
genders of these nouns (cf. fn. 5) all of which leave Apfel as an unac-
counted exception and furthermore fail to deal in a principled way with
the gender rule competition which arises in the case of nouns like die
Frucht, which is assigned feminine gender on the basis of its phonetic
shape and neuter gender on the basis of its meaning.
The theory here proposed utilizes gender rules of three types:
(I) M-rules, which assign gender on the basis of morphological or pho-
netic shape,
(2) S-rules, i.e. semantic rules, which, as the name implies, assign
gender on the basis of meaning, and
(3) SC-rules, i.e. subcategorization rules, which apply only within the
domain of certain S-rules and assign gender either on the morpho-
logical/phonetic shape or on the basis of meaning, depending on
the domain involved. 3
192 WORD, VOLUME 37, NUMBER 3 (DECEMBER 1986)
To account for the genders of the nouns now in question, the theory
uses the following rules of these types:
M-rules
(a) the familiar rule -e =feminine, which assigns feminine gender to all
nouns ending in -e.
(b) a rule -ucht =feminine (a restricted version ofZubin/Kopcke's rule
mentioned above) which assigns feminine gender to nouns ending
thus 4 •
S-rules
(c) the aforementioned rule superordinate noun = neuter, which assigns
neuter gender to all superordinate nouns.
(d) a rule fruit=(/), i.e. a rule of the form category = zero gender, which
specifies that the fact that a noun denotes a fruit does not entail any
specific gender assignment.' Such zero S-rules, which are by far the
most common type in the theory, function to define semantic do-
mains within which specific SC-rules apply.
SC-rule
(e) (fruit = 0) tropical =feminine, which applies within the domain of
fruit = (/) to assign feminine gender to nouns which denote tropical
fruits.
Concerning the application of these rules, the theory employs the
convention that for each noun all applicable rules are listed to form a gen-
der table, with the restriction that the gender table of any given noun may
contain no more than one S-rule. In cases where more than one S-rule
might appear applicable, only the more general of the S-rules will apply.
Thus, in the case of a noun like Obst, which would appear to fall within
the domain of both superordinate = neuter and fruit = (/),only the former
rule, which is the more general of the two, will appear in the gender table.
These conventions mean that the gender table of a given noun will never
contain more than four rules, i.e. at most two M-rules (one assigning gen-
der on the basis of a prefix and one assigning gender according to the end
of the noun), oneS-rule, and one SC-rule. As we shall see, however, most
gender tables contain fewer than four rules and many contain no rules
at all.
Already at this point it is probably clear that the theory tolerates and
even encourages multiple gender assignments, such that the gender table
of a given noun may contain more than one rule and that these rules may
assign different genders. In such cases, the two general principles men-
tioned earlier operate to assure correct gender assignments. These are:
STEINMETZ, GENDER IN GERMAN 193
Gender Tally
This principle can be expressed as an instruction: Count the number
of times each gender is assigned and assign the noun the gender with
the highest value. 6
Gender Eclipsis
If two or more genders have the same value, gender is assigned by
the principle m > f > n, i.e. masculine eclipses feminine and femi-
nine eclipses neuter. 7
The above rules and conventions together with the two principles
just defined yield the following gender tables and gender assignments for
the nouns in question. In the gender tables, applicable rules, if any, are
listed in this order: M-rule(s), S-rule, SC-rule. The bottom line of the gen-
der table shows the application of gender tally and gender eclipsis.
Obst Frucht Pflaume
-ucht = f -e = f
superord. = n superord. = n fruit= 0
0m0f In= n 0m If In= f 0m lf0n = f
Kirsche Orange Dattel
-e = f -e = f fruit= 0
fruit= 0 fruit= 0 SC:trop. = f
0m lf0n = f SC:tropical = f 0m lf0n = f
0m 2f0n = f
Ananas Mango Apfel
fruit= 0 fruit= 0 fruit= 0
SC:trop. = f SC:trop. = f
0m lf0n = f 0m lf0n = f 0m0f0n = m
Pfirsich
fruit= 0
0m0f0n = m
The bottom line of these gender tables illustrates the operation of

gender tally and gender eclipsis. In the case of Obst, Pflaume, Kirsche,
Orange, Dattel, Ananas, and Mango, one gender has a higher value than
the others and by gender eclipsis, that is the gender assigned to each such
noun. In the gender table of Frucht, feminine and neuter both have the
value 1, but in such cases gender a· lips is (m > f > n) gives priority to fern-
inine. In the gender tables of Apfel and Pfirsich all three genders have the
same value, namely zero, in which case J;ender eclipsis assigns mascu-
line gender.
In addition to making correct gender assignments, gender tables of
the kind just illustrated also reflect the way in which formal and semantic
criteria interact in the classification of nouns in the German gender sys-
tem. As we have just seen, within the semantic field of nouns denoting
fruits, gender is determined by both form and meaning in ways which can
be summarized as follows: Nouns denoting fruits are feminine if they
have a feminine shape, i.e. end in-e. For fruit nouns not having a feminine
shape, classification is semantic: superordinate nouns are neuter, nouns
denoting tropical fruits are feminine, the others are masculine. Here as
well as in the case of nouns representing other semantic fields, the seman-
tic classification often appears to reflect a sort of folk taxonomy, a
point which has been particularly emphasized by Zubin/Kopcke ( 1983,
1984a, b).x
As might be expected, semantic subcategorization by SC-rules fo-
cuses on different features of meaning in different semantic fields. As we
have just seen, in the field of nouns denoting fruits, semantic subcatego-
rization by SC-rule results in different gender tables for nouns referring to
tropical and non-tropical fruits, e.g. die ManJ;o 'mango' vs. der Apfel
'apple'. For a look at subcategorization by SC-rules in a rather different
semantic field, let us now turn to the field of nouns denoting articles of
clothing. Here too we find all three genders represented:
masculine nouns: der Hut 'hat', der Mantel'coat', der Kittel'smock',
der Schuh 'shoe', der Pantoffel'slipper', der Sakko 'suitcoat', der
Schlips 'necktie', der KraJ;en 'collar', etc.
feminine nouns: die Hose 'pants', die Bluse 'blouse', die Sandale
'sandal', die Weste 'vest', die Schiirze 'apron', die Krawatte 'neck-
tie', and many others ending in -e.
neuter nouns: das Hemd 'shirt', das Kleid 'dress', das Warns 'jerkin,
waistcoat', das Mieder 'bodice', das Korsett 'corset'
The data here include only nouns denoting individual articles of clothing.
Omitted are nouns like der AnzuJ; 'suit', das Kostiim 'costume, woman's
suit', die Tracht 'regional costume', der Smoking 'tuxedo', which refer
to sets of clothing, as well as the superordinate nouns die Kleidung
'clothing', whose gender is exclusively determined by the strong M-rule
-ung =feminine (strong rules erase all others from the gender table, cf.
Steinmetz 1985a), and das Kleidungsstiick 'article of clothing', which is
a compound having das Stuck 'piece, article' as its last member.
The gender tables of nouns denoting articles of clothing contain the

following rules:
M-rules:
(a) the familiar M-rule -e =feminine
(b) the familiar M-rule syl + ett = neuter
(c) an M-rule -en = m n, which assigns both masculine and neuter gen-
der to nouns ending in -en.
S-rule:
(c) clothing (cloth.) = fb, i.e. another rule of the form category = zero
gender, which in this case means that a noun is not assigned a partic-
ular gender because it denotes an article of clothing.
SC-rule:
(d) SC: primary, midr(ff (p. mid.) = neutet~ which is based on the ob-
servation that all the neuter nouns listed above refer to articles of
clothing which are (a) primary garments. i.e. not added outer gar-
ments such as coats, smocks or scarves, and (b) garments that cover
the body area between the waist and the chest in addition to any
other parts of the body they may cover. As we see below, this SC-rule
appears in the gender tables not only of these neuter nouns but ap-
propriately also in the gender tables of feminine nouns like die Bluse.
Examples of gender tables for nouns in this group are:

Hut Mantel Schuh
cloth. = 0 cloth. = 0 cloth. = 0

0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m
Sakko Kragen Hose
-en= m n -e = f
0m0f0n = m Im0fln = m 0m lf0n = f
Schiirze Sandale Bluse
-e = f -e = f -e = f
0m If0n = f 0m If0n = f SC: p. mid. = n
0m If In= f
Weste Hemd Kleid

-e = f
SC: p. mid. = n SC: p. mid. = n SC: p. mid. = n
0m If In= f 0m 0f In= n 0m 0f In= n
Warns Mieder Korsett
syl + ett = n
SC: p. mid. = n SC: p. mid. = n SC: p. mid. = n
0m0f In= n 0m 0f In= n 0m0f2n = n
Schlips Krawatte
-e = f
cloth. = 0 cloth. = 0
0m0f0n = m 0m lf0n = f
In contrast to semantic domains such as those just examined where

SC-rules impose a semantic classification, there are also domains where
subcategorization is by phonetic shape. For example, the final syllables
er and/or el (not the homophonous segmentable morphemes!) are asso-
ciated with feminine gender in certain semantic fields. To distinguish
these final syllables from the homophonous morphemes, they are repre-
sented in this paper as = er and = el in SC-rules. To illustrate, consider
some representative nouns denoting musical instruments and other anal-
ogous sound-making devices:
neuter nouns: das (Musik) instrument 'musical instrument', Klavier
'piano', Horn 'horn', Banjo 'banjo', Cembalo 'harpsichord, Tam-
tam 'tomtom', etc.
feminine nouns: die Harfe 'harp', Trompete 'trumpet', Gitarre 'gui-
tar', Glocke 'bell', and many others ending in -e
die Trammel 'drum', Orgel 'organ', Zither 'zither', Harmonika 'har-
monica', Klingel '(small) bell', Klapper 'rattle', etc.
Omitted from the data are (a) compound nouns such as der Kon-
trabajJ 'contrabass', whose gender is determined by the last member
principle, and b) a few masculine nouns, all of which are instances of po-
lysemy, such as der Fliigel 'wing, grand piano', i.e. a piano having the
shape of a wing and named accordingly.
In addition to the general M-rules -e = feminine, -ment = neuter,

and -ier = neuter, the gender tables of these nouns contain the following
S-rules and SC-rules which apply in this semantic field:
S-rule: musical or analgous instrument (mus. inst.) = neuter
SC-rules: = er, = el =feminine
-a =feminine
Applying these rules and the two principles, gender tally and gender
eclipsis, we obtain for nouns in this field gender tables such as the follow-
mg:
(Musik) instrument Klavier Banjo
-ment = n -ier = n
superord. = n mus. inst. = n mus. inst. = n
0m 0f2n = n 0m 0f2n = n 0m 0f In= n
Harfe Glocke Trommel
-e = f -e = f mus. inst. = n
mus. inst. = n mus. inst. = n SC: =er, =el = f
0m If In= f 0m If In= f 0m If In= f
Orgel Zither Klapper
mus. inst. = n mus. inst. = n mus. inst. = n
SC: =er, =el = f SC: =er, =el = f SC: =er, =el = f
0m If In= f 0m If In= f 0m If In= f
Harmonika
mus. inst. = n
SC: -a= f
0m If In= f
In the case of this and several other groups of nouns, subcategorization

seems to be entirely by phonetic shape without any apparent semantic
motivation.
The SC-rules = er, = el =feminine and -a =feminine just observed
in the set of nouns denoting musical instruments also operate in a number
of other semantic fields, including the set of nouns denoting herbaceous
flowers (e.g. not nouns denoting the flowers of woody plants such as der
Flieder 'lilac', whose genders are discussed in the following section).
Representative nouns are:
masculine: der Mohn 'poppy', der Sinau 'lady's coat'
feminine: die Tulpe 'tulip', die Nelke 'carnation, die Piionie 'peony',
die Chrysanteme 'chrysanthemum', and many others ending in -e.
die Aster 'aster', die Aurikel 'auricula', die Prime/ 'cowslip', and
others ending in = er, = el.
die Erika 'erica', and others ending in -a.
neuter: das Verf.:(f3meinnicht 'forget-me-not', and several other exam-
ples of zero-derivation.
das Chrysantemum 'chrysanthemum', and others receiving neuter
gender by the strong gender rule -urn = neuter (strong gender rules
erase all others in the gender table, cf. Steinmetz 1985a).
Since nouns receiving neuter gender by zero derivation or by strong
gender rules are not interesting for the purposes of the present discus-
sion, neuter-gender flower names like das Verg(/Jmeinnicht and das Chry-
santhemum will receive no further discussion here. ·
Also omitted from consideration in this section are compound nouns
like der L6wenzahn 'dandelion', whose gender is determined by the gen-
der of the last member, in this case der Zahn.
The S-rule for the set now in question is flower = (/), and within the
domain of this rule two SC-rules apply which assign feminine gender on
the basis of phonetic shape, namely the SC-rules = er, = el =feminine
and -a =feminine, which have also been observed to apply in the domain
of mus. inst. = neuter. These rules, together with the general M-rule
-e =feminine yield gender tables such as the following for nouns in this
group.
Nelke Tulpe Chrysanteme

-e = f -e = f -e = f
flower= 0 flower= 0 flower= 0
0m lf0n = f 0m tf0n = f 0m lf0n = f
Piionie Aster Aurikel
-e = f
SC: = er, = el = f SC: = er, = el = f
0m lf0n = f
0n tf0n = f 0m tf0n = f
Prime/ Erika Mohn
SC: =er, =el = f SC: =er, =el = f
0m lf0n = f 0m tf0n = f 0m0f0n = m
Sinau
flower= 0
0m0f0n = m
In some cases, subcategorization by phonetic shape may have se-
mantic implications. Consider for example the following representative
nouns denoting bushes or shrub-like plants, including woody plants and
their flowers:
masculine nouns: der Flieder 'lilac', Eihisch 'mellow', Efeu 'ivy',
Holunder 'elder', TimR 'seawood', SchierlinR 'hemlock', Jasmin
'jasmine', etc.
feminine nouns: die Rose 'rose', die Berheritze 'barberry', and other
ending in -e.
die Distel 'thistle', Mistel 'mistletoe', Nessel 'nettle'
The general M-rule -e =feminine applies to these as to all other
nouns. The S-rule for this group is shruh = (/), i.e. the fact that a noun
denotes a shrub doesn't involve a special gender assignment, rather this
rule serves simply to define the domain within which an SC-rule may ap-
ply, and the SC-rule in this case is = el =feminine. Using these rules, we
obtain for the nouns in question the following gender tables:
Flieder £feu Hoi under
shrub = 0 shrub = 0 shrub = 0
0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m
TanR SchierlinR Rose
shrub= 0 shrub= 0 -e = f
shrub = 0
0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m
0m If0n = f
Distel Mistel Nessel
shrub= 0 shrub= 0 shrub= 0
SC: =el=f SC: =el=f SC: =el = f
0m If0n = f 0m If0n = f 0m If0n = f
From these examples, gender classification in this set appears purely
phonetic. The gender tables clearly imply that a noun denoting a shrub is
going to have feminine gender if it ends in -e or = el, otherwise it will be
masculine. On the other hand, the three shrubs which receive feminine
gender by the SC-rule all have something in common, namely they denote
prickly shrubs, thus suggesting that in this instance subcategorization

may be both phonetic and semantic.
The nouns denoting shrubs are but one of a number of groups of
nouns relating to the plant world, all of which have similar although not
entirely identical gender rules. One shared characteristic is that the var-
ious groups of nouns relating to the plant world all haveS-rules like shrub
= QJ, i.e. nouns in these groups are masculine unless feminine or, rarely,
neuter gender is assigned by an M-rule or SC-rule. For all these groups
the superordinates are the nouns die Pjlanze and das Gewiichs, both of
which mean 'plant' and both of which have the S-rule superordinate = n
in their gender tables, even though this rule is eclipsed by-e =fin the
case of die Pjlanze, i.e.
Pflanze Gewiichs
-e = f ge- = n
superordinate = n superordinate = n
0m If In= f 0m 0f2n = n
In addition to providing a systematic way of resolving instances of
gender rule competition, the principles of gender tally and gender eclipsis
also have another important advantage for the theory, namely that they
permit correct gender assignments in the many cases where the semantic
classification of a noun is problematical. Consider, for example, nouns
such as the following: der Boom 'boom (in business)', der Klotz 'block,
lump', die Briicke 'bridge', die Tragbahre 'stretcher', das Gespriich
'conversation', die Finsternis 'darkness', das Gefiingnis 'prison', der
Kerker 'dungeon', which are not easily placed in one semantic group
rather than another. 9 The present theory can assign gender to such nouns
in a principled way without semantic classification, thus reducing the
need for S-rules in the theory, as the following gender tables show:
Boom Klotz Bnicke
no rules apply no rules apply -e = f
0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m 0m If0n = f
Tragbahre Gespriich Finsternis
-e = f ge- = n -nis = fn
0m If0n = f 0m0fln = n 0m If In= f
Gefiingnis Kerker
-nis = fn no rules apply
ge- = n
0m0f0n = m
0m lf2n = n
In addition to assigning gender in the absence of S-rules, gender tally

and gender eclipsis also provide the investigator with a helpful guide as to
when S-rules must be included in gender tables, as for example in the case
of nouns ending in-nis and nouns beginning with ge-. One implication of
the theory as illustrated by the preceding gender tables is that nouns in
the domain of -nis = f n will be feminine unless there is a reason for them
to be neuter. Similarly, nouns in the domain of ge = n will be neuter un-
less there is a reason for them to be feminine or masculine. If the correct
gender is not assigned with the aid of an M-rule, as in the case of das Ge-
fiingnis, then the gender table must include an S-rule. Consider, for ex-
ample, the role of the S-rules superordinate = neuter, emanation = mas-
culine (Steinmetz 1983, 1965) 10 , and superordinate of designation (sup.
des.) = neuter (Steinmetz 1985) 11 in accounting for such fractious data as:
die Kenntnis 'knowledge', das Hemmnis 'inhibition, obstacle', das Er-
eignis 'event', das Gediichtnis 'memory', das Gefiihl 'feeling', die Ge-
meinde 'congregation', das Gebiiude 'building', der Geruch 'smell,
odor'.
Kenntnis Hemmnis Ereignis
-nis = fn -nis = fn -nis = fn
sup. des. = n sup. des. = n
0m If In= f
0m lf2n = n 0m lf2n = n
Gediichtnis Gefiihl Gemeinde
-nis = fn -e = f
ge- = n ge- = n ge- = n
0m lf2n = n 0m0f In= n 0m If In = f
Gebiiude Geruch
-e = f
ge- = n ge- = n
superordinate = n emanation = m
0m lf2n = n lm0fln = m
If the notion of 'emanation' used in one of the above rules is so de-
fined as to include mental emanations, this rule then also appears in the
gender table of der Gedanke 'thought':
Gedanke
-e = f
ge- = n
emanation = m
lm lfln = m
Gender tables such as this, where masculine gender assigned by an

S-rule eclipses the feminine gender assignment of -e = f, are particularly
interesting because all such nouns, with the sole exception of der Kiise
'cheese', are weak nouns, i.e. the oblique case endings include n, e.g. ac-
cusative den Gedanken. If it can be shown that in all cases the masculine
gender of weak nouns is assigned by an S-rule, then it could be argued
that the assignment of masculine gender is prior to and criteria( for mem-
bership in the set of weak nouns. This view is the reverse ofthe traditional
position according to which weak declension is criteria( for masculine
gender. This issue is interesting not least of all because priority of gender
over declension membership appears consistent with the data examined
in Clahsen 1984 which can be interpreted as indicating that in the acqui-
sition of German as a native language, accuracy in gender assignment
emerges before accuracy in case marking. 1 ~
Since a more extensive review of known gender rules would exceed
the scope of this paper, space will be devoted here to only one additional
SC-rule, which appears to play a part in the gender tables of nouns in
many groups, before concluding with a look at a semantic field in which
more than one SC-rule is operative.
The SC-rule in question is semantic diminutive (sem. dim.) = femi-
nine. This rule applies within a number of semantic fields to assign femi-
nine gender to nouns whose denotata are perceived as being prototypi-
cally smaller, weaker, less active, less prominent, etc., i.e. as having a
lesser value along some relevant parameter than the denotata of other
nouns with similar meanings . 13 Consider the following examples from
various semantic fields, whereby the relevant parameter is indicated in
parentheses:
Nouns not in the domain of Nouns in the domain of

sem. dim =f sem. dim. =f
der Wind 'wind', der Sturm 'storm' die Bd 'gust' (duration)
der Hagel'hail' die Graupel'sleet' (size)
das Meer 'sea (superordinate)'
der Ozean 'ocean' die See '(a particular) sea' (size)
das Land 'land', der Kontinent die lnsel'island' (size)
'continent'
der Nagel'nail' die Nadel'needle' (size)
das Tor 'gate' die Tiir 'door' (size)
das Seil'rope' die Schnur 'cord' (size, thickness)
der Sumpf'swamp' die Marsch 'marsh' (wetness)

der Goif'gulf die Bai, die Bucht 'bay, inlet' (size)
der Ziege/ '(roofing) tile' die Schindel 'shingle' (size,
strength)
der Floh 'flea' die Laus 'louse' (prominence)
The way in which semantic diminutive =feminine appears in gender ta-
bles is shown in the following samples:
Sumpf Marsch
inland landscape = 0 inland landscape= 0
SC: semantic diminutive = f
0m0f0n = m
0m If0n = f
It would appear that semantic diminutive =feminine also co-occurs with

theM-rule -e =fin the gender tables of a large number of nouns, of which
the following are but a small sample:
der Wurm 'worm' die Made 'maggot'

das Loch 'hole' die Liicke 'gap, chink'
das Brett 'board' die Latte 'lath, picket'
das Haus 'house' die Hiitte 'hut'
der Strumpf'stocking' die Socke 'sock'
der Stock 'stick' die Rute 'rod, switch'
der Pfeifer 'pillar, post' die Stiitze 'prop', die Strebe 'brace'
der Goif'gulf die Fijrde 'fjord'
der Krieg 'war' die Fehde 'feud'
das Rad 'wheel' die Rolle 'roller'
der Sack 'sack' die Tiite '(small) bag', die Tasche
'pocket'
der Schuh 'shoe' die Sandale 'sandal'
der Dom 'cathedral' die Kin·he 'church', die Kappelle
'chapel'
der Schenkel 'thigh' die \#1de 'calf(ofthe leg)'
der Hut 'hat' die Miitze 'cap'
der Teppich 'carpet, rug' die Matte 'mat'
der Teich 'pond' die Pfiitze 'puddle', die Lache
'puddle'
der Nagel 'nail' die Zwecke 'tack'
der Mist 'manure' die Jauche '(light, liquid) manure'
Sample gender tables are:

Teppich Matte
-e = f
furnishing = 0 furnishing = 0
SC: semantic diminutive = f
0m0f0n = m
0m 2f0n = f
At this point it might be appropriate to recall that -e =feminine does
not always co-occur with semantic diminutive =feminine or for that mat-
ter with any otherS-rule or SC-rule. This is especially obvious in the case
of such gender doublets as der Zeh 'toe' and die Zehe 'toe', where the
difference in gender cannot possibly be semantically motivated. This is
reflected in the gender tables, where the only difference is in the gender
assignment made by -e = feminine.
Zeh Zehe
-e = f
body part = 0 body part = 0
0m0f0n = m 0m lf0n = f
3. Semantic fields containing more than one SC-rule. Heretofore we have

examined groups of nouns representing semantic fields in which only a
single SC-rule participates in gender assignment. While this situation
seems to be the most common in the German gender system, several se-
mantic fields have been identified in which two or more SC-rules appear
to be operative. One such group is the rather large set of nouns denoting
certain kinds of instrumental objects, as exemplified by the following:
masculine nouns: der Hammer 'hammer', der Nagel 'nail, der Speer
'spear', der Dolch 'dagger', der Pfeil 'arrow', der Kniippel 'billy
club', der Haken 'hook', der Spa ten 'spade (for digging)', der Lijffel
'spoon' der Rechen 'rake', der Bolzen 'bolt', der Sabel 'saber', etc.
'
feminine nouns: die Hacke 'hoe', die Harke 'rake', die Schrauhe
'screw', die Forke 'pitchfork', die Klinge 'blade', die Sense
'scythe', and numerous others ending in -e.
die Gabel 'fork', die Nadel 'needle', die Axt 'axe', die Sichel
'sickle', die Schaufel 'shovel', die Pjlugschar 'plowshare', etc.
neuter nouns: das Messer 'knife', das Beil 'cleaver', das Skalpe/1 'scal-
pel', das Schwert 'sword', das Sech 'colter', etc.
These nouns have been discussed in a number of ways in the litera-

ture. Zubin/Kopcke (1983, I984a, b) propose several rules associat-
ing gender with Gestalt, including line xestalt = masculine and sharp ob-
ject =feminine. These rules correctly assign gender to many of the above
nouns and to others not listed here, but leave all the neuter nouns as un-
accounted acceptions and also fail to clarify the problem of many nouns,
e.g. der Nagel 'nail', die Nadel 'needle' which fall in the domain of both
rules. In Steinmetz 1983 a similar approach is taken where the genders of
such nouns are seen as assigned by the rules stick-like object = mascu-
line ,furcated object = feminine,flat blade = neuter. While the latter rule
does cover the neuter nouns in this group, the first two rules encounter
the same problems as Zubin/Kopcke's rules.
Let us now consider how these nouns might be handled in the frame-
work of the present theory. It seems that the following rules will suffice,
of which only two of the SC-rules will require special discussion below:
M-rules.
(a) the familiar rule -e =feminine
(b) the aforementioned rule -en = m n
S-rule
(c) instrumental object (inst. obj.) =(/),i.e. another S-rule of the form
category = zero, which in this case means that the fact that a noun
denotes an instrumental object does not result in a specific gender
assignment.
SC-rules
(d) semantic diminutive (sem. dim.) = feminine, discussed above,
which appears in the gender table of die Nadel.
(e) simple blade (s. blade) = neuter, defined below, which appears in the
gender tables of the neuter nouns Messe1~ Beil, Skalpell, Schwert,
Sech, etc. and in the gender tables offeminine nouns such as Klinge.
(0 functionally elaborated end (j.e.e.) = feminine, discussed below,
which appears in the gender tables of feminine nouns such as Hacke,
Harke, Forke, Sense, Gabel, Axt, Sichel, Schaujel, Pflugschar and
in the gender tables of masculine nouns such as Spa ten and Rechen.
To clear the field somewhat prior to discussing the SC-rules (e) and
(f), let us first observe that these SC-rules do not appear in the gender ta-
bles of most nouns in this semantic field. Consider, for example, the fol-
lowing gender tables for nouns listed above:
Hammer Speer Dolch

inst. obj. = 0 inst. obj. = 0 inst. obj. = 0
0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m
Pfeil Kniippel L6ffel
0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m
Sabel Nagel Nadel
0m0f0n = m 0m0f0n = m SC: sem. dim. = f
0m lf0n = f
Haken Eo/zen Schraube
-en= m n -en= m n -e = f
lm0fln = m lm0fln = m 0m lf0n = f
Let us now turn to the SC-rule simple blade = neuter. This rule is a
member of a family of related SC-rules discussed in Steinmetz 1983,
1985a which assign neuter gender to various kinds of flat objects in anum-
ber of semantic fields. 14 This SC-rule is based on the observation that the
nouns Messer, Beil, Skalpe/1, Schwert, Sech, and Klinge all denote cut-
ting tools or weapons, the principal component of which is a flat, elon-
gated piece of metal or other suitable material so fashioned that it has a
more or less straight sharpened edge, such that this edge furnishes the
working surface of the objects in question, i.e. the defining characteristic
of these objects is a sharp edge, not a sharp tip. Although knives, for ex-
ample, may have sharp tips, these are incidental for 'knifehood'. Thus ex-
cluded from the domain of this SC-rule are nouns such as Dolch and Sa-
bel which denote objects having prototypically sharp tips in addition to
any sharp edges they might have, as opposed, say, to the denotata of
Schwert, which must have sharp edges while their tips may be entirely
blunt; and nouns such as Axt and Sichel, which denote objects whose tips
and working surfaces are shaped in special ways such that they do not fit
the prototype of the straight, elongated blade.
The SC-rule simple blade = neuter appears in the following gender
tables:
Messer Beil Skalpe/1
SC: s. blade = n SC: s. blade= n SC: s. blade = n
0m0fln = n 0m 0f In= n 0m0f In= n
Schwer! Sech Klin[;e

-e = f
SC: s. blade = n SC: s. blade = n SC: s. blade = n
0m 0f In= n 0m 0f In= n 0m If In= f
By contrast, let us now consider the SC-rule jimctionally elaborated
end (f.e.e.) =feminine, which appears in the gender tables of nouns such
as Spaten, Rechen, Hacke, Harke, Forke, Sense, Gabel, Axt, Sichel,
Schaufel, Pjlu[;schar. An attribute common to all these nouns and distin-
guishing them from others in this semantic field is that they denote objects
whose functional end components, in addition to having sharp tips or
edges, are constructed in a special use-adaptive fashion, e.g.
(a) the functional end is elaborated to impart a furcated Gestalt such
that it provides a row of points, cf. the denotata of Rechen, Harke, Forke,
Gabel,
(b) the functional end is elaborated to provide a broad working sur-
face with a front (not side) edge, as in the case of the denotata of Spa ten
and Schaufel,
(c) the functional end is elaborated by affixing the working surface at
an angle to the handle, e.g. the denotata of Axt, Sense, Hacke, Rechen,
Harke,
(d) the end is elaborated by imparting a functional curvature to the
working surface, e.g. the denotata of Sense, Sichel, Pjfugschar.
This SC-rule appears in the gender tables of nouns such as:
Gabel Axt Sichel
SC: f.e.e. = f SC: f.e.e. = f SC: f.e.e. = f
0m If0n = f 0m If0n = f 0m lf0n = f
Schaufel Pjfugschar Spa ten
-en= m n
0m If0n = f 0m If0n = f lm lfln = m
Rechen Harke Forke
-en= m n -e = f -e = f
in st. obj. = 0 inst. obj. = 0 in st. obj. = 0
lm Ifln = m 0m 2f0n = f 0m 2f0n = f
Hacke Sense
-e = f -e = f
in st. obj. = 0 in st. obj. = 0
SC: f.e.e. = f SC: f.e.e. = f
0m 2f0n = 1. 0m 2f0n = f
As the various groups of gender tables just considered show, the gen-
ders of nouns in this semantic field involve considerable interaction of
form and meaning which can be summarized in a non-technical way as
follows: Nouns in this semantic field are masculine if they end in -en and
feminine if they end in -e. For nouns lacking these endings, gender cor-
relates with meaning, such that nouns denoting objects having elaborate
working ends are feminine, those denoting objects with a simple sharp-
edged blade are neuter; the others (single tips, striking surfaces, etc.) are
masculine.
The nouns in this field also suggest a number of observations con-
cerning the way in which gender grouping by S-rules and SC-rules may tie
in with a variety of taxonomical parameters. For example, as defined
above, the SC-rules simple blade = neuter and functionally elaborated
end =feminine impose a classification which seems principally based on
Gestalt-like characteristics, but the groups of nouns which result from
this classification may be taxonomically interesting in a number of ways
other than Gestalt, of which only a few of those that come to mind will be
discussed here. Consider, for example, some ways in which these group-
ings also coincide, at least in part, with a taxonomy based on the pur-
poses for which the denotata of the nouns in these groups such are typi-
cally used and the way in which they are manipulated.
blunt instruments (for pounding, striking blows, etc.)
der Hammer 'hammer', der Kniippel '(billy) club, cudgel', die Keule
'club, mace', etc.
It seems that nouns in this semantic category are masculine unless
marked for feminine.
instruments with pointed extremities single points (for puncturing etc.)
der Speer 'spear', der Dolch 'dagger', der Pfeil 'arrow', der Sabel 'sa-
ber', die Punze 'punch', der Nagel 'nail', die Nadel 'needle', etc.
The nouns in this group are masculine except for the semantic diminutive
Nadel and those bearing the feminine ending -e, which may co-occur
with sem. dim. = f
multiple points (for arranging, holding, etc.)

der Rechen 'rake', die Harke 'rake' die Forke 'pitchfork', die Gabel
'fork', etc.
Nouns in this group are feminine except for Rechen, whose gender table
includes -en = m n. Notice that all these nouns denote objects having
sharp tips affixed in some way to the end of a handle, a characteristic
which distinguishes these nouns from others, e.g., der Kamm 'comb',
whose denotata have sharp tips arranged along the side of the handle.
Observations such as these are in line with the earlier comment that
gender classification, in so far as it reflects the operation of S-rules and
SC-rules, appears to coincide with certain aspects, but only some as-
pects, of broader taxonomical networks. (cf. Zubin/Kopcke 1983, 1984a,
b. for an extensive discussion of gender and taxonomy)
4. Exceptions. Although it now seems possible to account for the genders
of many groups of nouns, it is by no means the case that rules now known
cover all the data that have been investigated, and many areas of the lex-
icon remain to be examined. In short, we must reckon with the possibility
that the German gender system, like other systems in language, may ex-
hibit some irregularities, in this case individual nouns whose gender is
not systematically assigned. One such noun might be das Auge 'eye'. So
far, the following rules are known which bear on the gender of das Auge:
M-rule
(a) the familiar rule -e =feminine
S-rule
(b) body part = (/)(Steinmetz 1985a)
SC-rule
(c) (body part = 0) major organ = neuter (Steinmetz 1985a)
A gender table containing just these three rules incorrectly yields a fem-
inine gender assignment and is clearly in need of revision, e.g.:
Auge
-e = f
body part = 0
SC: major organ = n
0m lfln = *f(wronggender)
One way to handle such exceptions within the framework of the pres-
ent theory would be to append to the gender table an additional entry such
as exceptional gender = n, such that the resultant modified gender table

correctly assigns neuter gender, e.g.:
Auge
-e = f
body part= 0
SC: major organ = n
0m If In= *f
exceptional gender = n
0m lf2n = n
Such a gender table captures the fact that the neuter gender of this noun
results only through the intervention of a rule assigning exceptional gen-
der.
When we have a better understanding of just which nouns represent
true exceptions within the German gender system, these nouns may turn
out to have special interest in connection with the historical development
of the German gender system. They may, for example, be analogous to
strong verbs in that they preserve features of what was once a regular sys-
tem in the language.
In this regard, consider again the example of das Auge. This noun
has apparently had neuter gender at least since Proto-Germanic but the
assignment of this gender was probably not irregular in earlier periods of
the language. Research now in progress indicates that the M-rule -e =
feminine was not part of the Middle High German gender system, such
that the neuter gender of MHG daz ouge may have been assigned regu-
larly as per the following gender table:
ouge
body part = 0
SC: major organ = n
0m 0f In= n
If this analysis holds, then it would appear that the irregular neuter
genderofNHG Auge, i.e. the need to include exceptional gender= neu-
ter in its gender table, is a NHG innovation resulting from the following
circumstances: (a) TheM-rule -e =feminine entered the German gender
system, (b) the gender of Auge did not shift from neuter to feminine, and
(c) the phonetic shape of this noun did not undergo change from Auge to
Aug. Clearly, if either of the last two changes mentioned had in fact ac-
companied the emergence of -e =feminine in the German gender system,
Auge would not have irregular gender in NHG . 15
But there is also evidence that the MHG gender table presented
above itself reflects still earlier changes in the German gender system.
Specifically, in early Germanic and West Germanic, i.e. at a time when
gender eelips is had the form n > m > f (cf. Steinmetz 1985c and the con-
cluding discussion of this paper), the gender table of this noun (which in
WGmc. had the phonetic shape *auga) may have been simply
*auga
no rules apply
0m 0f0n = n
If this analysis is supported by further research, then the MHG sit-
uation depicted above is itself the result of changes which took place at
some time early in the history of German, namely (a) the form of gender
eclipsis changed from n > m > fto m > f> n, and (b) the S-rule body part
= QJ and the SC-rule major organ = neuter were added to the language.
If the sequence of changes in the German gender system just
sketched turns out to be reasonably accurate, these would appear to
amount to nothing less than a sort of conspiracy to retain neuter gender
for Auge and its predecessors in the history of German. Just why this and
other nouns with irregular gender in NHG have resisted integration into
the German gender system is, of course, but one of the many intriguing
questions which emerge and will hopefully find answers as our under-
standing of the German gender system and its historical development ad-
vances.
5. Summary. In this paper, I have argued that two general principles, gen-
der tally and general eelips is operate in the German gender system. Gen-
der tables utilizing rules of three types, M-rules, S-rules, and SC-rules
were proposed for several groups of nouns to illustrate that the inclusion
of these principles could benefit the theory of gender in German in anum-
ber of ways, but most importantly in the following:
(I) By resolving gender rule competition in a principled and system-
atic way, these principles make possible a theory which tolerates multiple
and possibly competing gender assignments, i.e. gender assignments of
the kind which appear necessary to capture the operation of the German
gender system, where gender can be observed to correlate both with mor-
phological/phonetic shape and with features of meaning, which often in-
teract to determine the genders of individual nouns.
(2) In addition, the inclusion of these principles simplifies the theory
by reducing the need for gender assignment by specific rules in the case
of many nouns. For example, gender eelips is renders unnecessary 39

rules utilized in Steinmetz 1983 to assign masculine gender to various
groups of nouns.
Also, gender tally and gender ec-lipsis appear to have some bearing
on matters relating to the acquisition of German as a native language.
Specifically, the relatively early age at which gender appears to become
fixed may be evidence that these principles are part of Universal Gram-
mar(cf. footnote 12).
Furthermore, from a brief look at the gender history of the noun das
Auge, it appears that gender tally and gender eclipsis (either in the form
m > f > n or the form n > m > f, cf. the following discussion) represent
constants in a history otherwise characterized by changing repertoires of
specific gender rules. Concerning such developments, research now in
progress shows promise of gaining some insight into the relevant factors
and mechanisms involved in such changes, including the change which
appears to have taken place in the form of gender eclipsis from earlier n
> m > f to later m > f > n.
6. A look beyond German. To switch briefly to a broader perspective, ini-

tial work is underway to explore the applicability of these or analogous
principles in other gender languages and in accounting for changes ob-
servable in the history of the German gender system, and the preliminary
findings are very encouraging. It seems, for example, that in the gender
systems of Icelandic, and Latin, gender tally operates exactly as in Ger-
man and that gender eclipsis also operates but in a slightly different ver-
sion, namely n > m > f. If this modified version of gender eclipsis is in-
corporated into the gender theories of Icelandic (Steinmetz 1985c) it
alone would account for the numerous cases where equivalent nouns are
masculine in German but neuter in Icelandic, thus minimizing the need to
postulate different language-specificS-rules. Consider, for example, the
following data: German der Torf'turf, peat'; Icelandic torf(neuter) 'turf,
sod'; which can be accounted for as follows, repeating again that we as-
sume here that gender eclipsis is m > f > n in German and n > m > fin
Icelandic:
Torf torf turf
landscape = 0 landscape = 0 landscape = 0
0m0f0n = m 0n0f0m = n 0n0f0m = n
The need for language-specific S-rules is also reduced when the
scope of inquiry is extended beyond Germanic. Consider, for example,
the noun meaning 'sand', which is masculine in Germander Sand, and

feminine in Latin arena. These differences can be accounted for without
recourse to language-specific S-rules, as the following gender tables
indicate:
Sand arena
-a= f
landscape = 0 landscape = 0
0m0f0n = m 0m If0n = f
In this analysis, the only language-specific gender rule involved is the fa-
miliar Latin M-rule -a =feminine.
The above is part of a growing body of evidence (cf. Steinmetz
1985c, d) that gender eclipsis operated in early Germanic (and probably
in Indo-European) in the form n > m > f and consequently that the Ger-
man version m > f> n is an innovation. Ifthis proves to be true, this in-
novation would help to explain the change observable in the history of the
German gender system whereby many nouns which were neuter in earlier
German are today masculine or feminine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is a revised and expanded version of a paper read at the annual meeting of
the International Linguistics Association on March 9, 1985 in New York. The research on
which these papers are based began in the summer of 1977, and on a number of occasions
since then interim results have been reported in the form of talks to various groups and cir-
culated manuscripts, and many of the comments and criticisms I have received have been
halpful and are greatly appreciated. Extremely helpful at various stages have been discus-
sions with my former students Hertha Guindon and Kurt Rice. Most of all. however, my
work on German genders has been greatly stimulated and facilitated by discussions with
David Zubin and Klaus-Michael Kiipcke, who share my fascination with this topic and
whose work has shed much light on many of the seemingly intractable problems and issues
relating to gender in German. I may yet regret that in this and other papers I have not always
followed their advice.
Augsburg College
Minneapolis, Minn., 55454
ENDNOTES
'The neuter gender of das Kind "child' has traditionally been regarded as associated
with the non-sex-specific meaning of this noun. The neuter gender of Kind as well as the
neuter gender of a number of nouns that refer pejoratively to females such as das Weib
"bitch', das Mensch "hussy' is discussed in Zubin/Kiipcke 1983. 1984a as motivated by
downgrading.
'A rule superordinate = nellfer is considered in Steinmetz 1983 but investigated exten-
sively and proposed in Zubin/Kopcke 1983, 1984a and in Kopcke and Zubin 1984.
1ln earlier work on gender in German, S-rules and SC-rules are not systematically dis-
tinguished, somewhat to the detriment of a coherent understanding of the way in which the
various rules which assign gender interact.
'In the present theory, only the following word-final shapes involving final -tare treated
as assigning feminine gender: -ucht. -uji. -w1st, -unft, whereby the feminine gender of
nouns such as Fracht 'freight' is assigned by S-rules (Steinmetz 1985a).
'Previous discussions of these nouns (e.g. Jarnatovskaja 1981, Zubin and Kopcke 1983,
1984a, b, Steinmetz 1983) have employed the rule fi"uit =feminine. sometimes in conjunc-
tion with -ich = masculine (applying to der Pfirsich). Such treatments leave der Apfel as an
unaccounted exception and fail to capture the fact that all feminine nouns in this group not
ending in -e refer to tropical fruits. In the present theory, nouns like Pfirsich ending in ich
are not made the object of a special gender rule, since it appears that such nouns can be dealt
with more parsimoniously as representatives of one of the many phonetic shapes that re-
ceive masculine gender by the principle of gender eclipsi.1·.
•Most if not all investigators of gender in German have considered the possibility that
the number of rules assigning a given gender to a particular noun may be an important gen-
der-determining factor, but confusion concerning the precise nature of gender rule compe-
tition has heretofore prevented systematic exploitation of this principle.
'Defined as m > f > n, the principle of !Jender ec/ipsis clearly implies that a German
noun will have masculine gender unless there is a reason for it having feminine or neuter
gender, i.e. that in the German gender system, masculine gender represents the unmarked
case. This would seem to be consistent with a number of general facts of gender in German,
e.g. (a) the set of masculine nouns is semantically more heterogeneous than are the sets of
feminine and neuter nouns, and (b) as pointed out by Kopcke 1982, some two-thirds of all
monosyllabic German nouns are masculine.
'The relationship between the system of principles and rules which appear to assign
gender to nouns in German and the resultant taxonomy is complex and in need of consid-
erable further investigation. It is, for example, by no means true that all gender assignments
are taxonomically significant, as the existence of a number of gender doublets such as der
Zeh and die Zehe, both of which mean 'toe', as well as the existence of synonyms with dif-
ferent genders such as das Autolder WaRen 'car' would seem to indicate. On the other hand,
it is possible that some gender assignments which result from M-rules may have semantic
correlates, as is mentioned later in this paper in connection with the set of nouns denoting
shrub-like plants. Regarding matters such as these, it seems likely that the theory of German
gender will in the future comprise at least two subtheories: (a) a competence and acquisition
oriented theory of gender assignments such as the one being outlined in the present paper,
which is concerned with characterizing the minimal principles and rules required to enable
fluent speakers to correctly assign gender to nouns in the lexicon, and (b) a theory with a
more general. cognitive, cultural. historical, and perhaps functional orientation, which is
concerned with the nature of the distinctions made in any resultant gender-congruent tax-
onomies, e.g. the distinction between tropical and non-tropical observed in the set of nouns
denoting fruits and the types of classification observed in other semantic fields. The latter
subtheory would address questions unrelated to acquisition such as: (a) Is it significant that
tropical fruits, rather than some other subset, receive a special gender assignment by SC-
rules in German? (b) Is it significant that these nouns are assigned feminine gender rather
than some other gender? The two subtheories do, of course, intersect in the area of S-rules
and SC-rules which assign gender on the basis of meaning.
'The uncertainties relating to the semantic characterization of nouns such as these are
perhaps obvious, but to illustrate consider briefly some questions raised by two of the nouns
treated here, das Ge.flinRnis 'prison' and der Kerker 'dungeon'. For purposes of gender as-
signment, are these nouns to be regarded as denoting physical structures, buildings or parts
of buildings? Or do they rather refer to institutions. forms of punishment, or the like? The
treatment proposed here makes it possible to evade these issues for the purpose of gender
assignment.
'"The S-rule emanation = masculine may appear self-explanatory and in need of no
further comment. Nevertheless, it is an excellent example of a persistent and pervasive
problem encountered in the formulation of S-rules which will probably be resolved in a sat-
isfactory way only as research on gender in German and other languages matures beyond its
present infancy. The problem is that the domains of S-rules as currently proposed often have
troublesomely fuzzy boundaries. Although it seems obvious that a careful formulation of
emanation = m would have to define the domain of this rule in such a way as to exclude
nouns like das Licht 'light', several details pertaining to such a formulation remain proble-
matical.
''The S-rule superordinate of designation (sup. des.) = neuter is defined in Steinmetz
1985a with reference to the example das Pfund 'pledge (as in the pawnshop)'. Like other
nouns in the domain of this rule, the denotata of Pfund comprise a set with open member-
ship, such that any object whatsoever can be a Pfund provided only that it is accepted and
designated as such by the parties of a certain kind of agreement. Similarly, using the ex-
ample of das Abenteuer 'adventure', any experience may qualify as an adventure if the ex-
periencer regards and designates it as such. As these examples indicate, nouns falling
within the domain of this rule reflect a sort of secondary classification, e.g. an object which
would ordinarily be called 'ring' or 'camera' assumes, once it is left as security in the pawn-
shop, a secondary identity and thus qualifies as P.fand. Similarly, a common experience
such as a camping trip may sometimes qualify as an Abenteuer. David Zubin and Klaus-
Michael Kiipcke (personal communication) have suggested that the essential difference be-
tween superordinates of designation and ordinary superordinates consists in the fact the lat-
ter refer to sets which have strict subclassification. Compare, for example, the superordi-
nate noun Gemiise 'vegetable' with the superordinate of designation Unkraut 'weed'. The
denotata of Gemiise are strictly subclassified by base level terms such as Gurke 'cucum-
ber', Bohne 'bean', while Unkraut refers to any herbaceous plant that is deemed undesir-
able. Other examples of nouns assigned neuter gender by superordinate of desiRnation =
neuter are: Ziel 'goal, finish line', Schicksal 'fate', Paradies 'paradise', Motto 'motto',
Hobby 'hobby', Riitsel 'riddle, puzzle', Symbol 'symbol', Symptom 'symptom', Wunder
'miracle', Omen 'omen', Opfer 'victim,' Beispiel 'example', Versteck 'hideaway', Risiko
'risk', Handicap 'handicap', Debakel 'debacle', Verdienst 'merit', etc.
"It would also seem that since cases are marked differently depending on gender, de-
termination of gender is a necessary precondition for case marking, and therefore that in the
acquisition of German as a native language there is pressure for early attainment of accu-
racy in gender assignment. To the extent that such accuracy at an early age reflects the ap-
plication of rules and principles as outlined in this paper and not simple rote-learning of the
genders of individual nouns (a question concerning which some data are available and which
would seem to admit of further investigation by testing), the suspicion arises that gender
tally and gender eelips is could be part of Universal Grammar. Specifically, access to these
principles at an early age could provide learners of gender languages with a sort of algorithm
for determining the specific gender rules operating in the target language.
"The rule semantic diminutive =feminine may also be operative in the gender systems
of other languages, e.g. French (Wienold 1967. 151, footnote 344; Cohen 1973. 212). Some
of the best evidence for an SC-rule semantic diminutil•e =feminine is supplied by the ex-
istence of fairly large sets of nouns denoting similar objects, whereby one subset contains a
number of feminine gender nouns, all of which denote smaller members of the set. An ex-
cellent example of this is found in Zubin/Kopcke' s ( 1983) discussion of nouns denoting var-
ious kinds of ropes used on sailing vessels, where the feminine gender nouns refer to the
smaller ones.
14 lt seems likely that simple blade = neuter is but one of a family ofSC-rules that assign
neuter gender to flat objects in various semantic fields (Steinmetz 1983, 1985a) Among nouns
in other fields assigned neuter gender on the basis of flatness are: das Band 'ribbon', das
Blatt 'leaf, sheet (of paper)', das Blech 'sheetmetal', das Brett 'board', das Bord 'shelf,
das Regal 'shelf, das La ken '(bed) sheet', das Sims 'sill', das Tuch, cloth', das Schnitzel
'cutlet', das Steak 'steak', das Ruder 'oar', das Paddel 'paddle', das Steuer 'rudder', etc.
Further investigation of such families of SC-rules promises to yield interesting results. some
of which may afford insight into earlier stages in the development of grammatical gender in
Germanic and Indo-European languages.
"Zubin and Kopcke ( 1983, 1984b and personal communication) suggest that nouns in
the lexical core (nouns of high frequency which are among the first learned in childhood)
are likely to resist integration into the gender system either by change in gender or change
in form.
REFERENCES
Clahsen, Harald, 1984. "Der Erwerb von Kasusmarkierungen in der deutschen Kinder-
sprache," Linguistische Berichte, 89, 1-31
Cohen, Marcel, 1973. Histoire d'une lan~:ue: le franrais. Paris: Editions sociales
Jarnatovskaja, V., 1981. Das Substantiv. Moscow: Vyssaja Skola.
Kopcke, K.-M., 1982. Untersuchun~:en zum Genussystem der deutschen Gegenwarts-
sprache. Tiibingen: Niemeyer
Kopcke, K.-M., and D. Zubin, 1983. "Die kognitive Organisation der Geimszuweisung zu
den einsilbigen Nomen der deutschen Gegenswartssprache," Zeitschrift fur german-
istische Linguistik, II, 166-182
Steinmetz, Donald, 1983. "Predicting German Genders," circulated MS
___ . 1985a. Mechanisms of gender-German inanimate nouns. Monograph in prepa-
ration.
___ . 1985b. "Two principles and some rules for gender in German: inanimate nouns,"
Paper read at International Linguistics Association, New York, March 9, 1985.
___ . 1985c. "Gender in German and Icelandic," In: Faarlund, J. T. (ed.) Germanic Lin-
guistics: Papers read at a symposium on April 24, /985. Bloomington, Indiana. Indiana
University Linguistics Club.
___ . 1985d. "Universals of Gender: Some Indo-European Evidence," Paper presented
at Minnesota Conference on Linguistics, U. of Minnesota, May 4, 1985.
Steinmetz, Donald; and Curtis Rice. 1985. "Gender in German and Dutch," Article in prep-
aration.
Wienold, Gotz, 1967. Genus and Semantik. Meisenheim am Glan: Anton Hain
Zubin, D., and K.-M. Kopcke. 1981. "Gender: A less than arbitrary grammatical cate-
gory," Chicago Linguistic Society, 17:439-449
1983 "Semantic categorization in the German gender system," Presented at the

Symposium on Categorization and Noun Classification, U. Oregon at Eugene, October
1983.
___ . 1984a. "Gender and Folk Taxonomy: The Indexical Relation between Grammati-
cal and Lexical Categorization," In: C. Craig (ed.), CateJ?orization and Noun Classi-
fication. Philadelphia: Benjamins (in press).
- - - . 1984b. Natural Classification in hmJ?Uaf?e: A study of the German Render system.
Buffalo Cof?nitive Science Report no. 2.

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Two principles and some rules for

1. Introduction. In the traditional literature on German, ranging from

The other problem is that of reducing the number of semantic gender

The bottom line of these gender tables illustrates the operation of

The gender tables of nouns denoting articles of clothing contain the

Examples of gender tables for nouns in this group are:

cloth. = 0 cloth. = 0 cloth. = 0

Weste Hemd Kleid

In contrast to semantic domains such as those just examined where

In addition to the general M-rules -e = feminine, -ment = neuter,

In the case of this and several other groups of nouns, subcategorization

Nelke Tulpe Chrysanteme

prickly shrubs, thus suggesting that in this instance subcategorization

In addition to assigning gender in the absence of S-rules, gender tally

Gender tables such as this, where masculine gender assigned by an

Nouns not in the domain of Nouns in the domain of

der Sumpf'swamp' die Marsch 'marsh' (wetness)

It would appear that semantic diminutive =feminine also co-occurs with

der Wurm 'worm' die Made 'maggot'

Sample gender tables are:

3. Semantic fields containing more than one SC-rule. Heretofore we have

These nouns have been discussed in a number of ways in the litera-

Hammer Speer Dolch

Schwer! Sech Klin[;e

multiple points (for arranging, holding, etc.)

as exceptional gender = n, such that the resultant modified gender table

of many nouns. For example, gender eelips is renders unnecessary 39

6. A look beyond German. To switch briefly to a broader perspective, ini-

the noun meaning 'sand', which is masculine in Germander Sand, and

1983 "Semantic categorization in the German gender system," Presented at the

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