Master's Level: Study Education

Master’s Level Neil Denby
Master’s Level Study

Robert Butroyd
Study in Helen Swift
Education Jayne Price
• Are you keen to study at Master’s level? Jonathan Glazzard
• Do you need to understand what is expected
from your research and written work?
• Would you like to see real examples of
successful Master’s level study?
If you answered ‘yes’ to any of these questions, then
this is the book for you.
Taking a practical approach, this book will guide you

The authors are all based
in
through and demystify the process of thinking, at the University of
researching, writing and achieving at Master’s level. It Huddersfield, UK, in the
Master’s Level
Education
offers an insight into the knowledge, tools and skills that School of Education and
need to be developed for a successful outcome in an Professional
Development.
educational context.
Neil Denby is Senior
Study in
Using detailed – and real – exemplars, the authors cover Lecturer in Education and
the conventions that need to be followed and consider the Partnership Co-ordinator
different elements of Master’s level work. Each chapter is for the PGCE (Schools).
supported by appropriate reference to, and extracts from, Helen Swift is Head of
the three most common types of work undertaken – Continuing Professional
traditional essay, curriculum package, and portfolio.
Now that the DCFS plans to make teaching a Master’s
level profession, it is vital that you can develop the
Development and Course
Leader for the MA in
Professional
Development.
Education
confidence in making the transition from H level to M Robert Butroyd is Senior
Lecturer in Education and
level. The book will enable you to:
Denby, Butroyd, Swift, Price, Glazzard

Subject Coordinator for
✦ Understand how to prepare, carry out and write a the Business Education
(with Citizenship) PGCE
literature review
Jonathan Glazzard is
✦ Consider the different methodologies and Course Leader for Primary
approaches that are inherent in Master’s level work and Early Years Education.
✦ Understand the nature of Master’s level work within Jayne Price is Senior
education as a research/evidence based profession Lecturer in Education and
A Guide
✦ Appreciate the importance of ethical underpinning
when working at this level
the PGCE Music course.
to
Master’s Level Study in Education is a valuable Success
guide not just for teacher training students but
also for their mentors and for teachers in post, for PGCE
undertaking further Professional Development.
Students
Cover design Hybert Design • www.hybertdesign.com
www.openup.co.uk
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Masters Level Study

in Education
Kerrypress Ltd – Typeset in XML A Division: a-prels F Sequential 1
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McGraw Hill - 152mm x 229mm - Fonts: Stone Sans & Stone Serif
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Masters Level Study

in Education
A Guide to Success for PGCE Students
Neil Denby, Robert Butroyd, Helen Swift,

Jayne Price and Jonathan Glazzard

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Open University Press

McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
Shoppenhangers Road
Maidenhead
Berkshire
England
SL6 2QL
email: enquiries@openup.co.uk
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk
and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121—2289, USA
First published 2008
Copyright © Neil Denby, Robert Butroyd, Helen Swift, Jayne Price and
Jonathan Glazzard 2008
All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the
purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence from the
Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such licences (for
reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing
Agency Ltd of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London, EC1N 8TS.
A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library
ISBN-13: 978-0-33-5234141 (pb) 978-0-33-5234134 (hb)

ISBN-10: 0-33-523414-3 (pb) 0-33-523413-5 (hb)
Typeset by Kerrypress, Luton, Bedfordshire

Printed and bound in the UK by Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
Fictitious names of companies, products, people, characters and/or data

that may be used herein (in case studies or in examples) are not intended
to represent any real individual, company, product or event.

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Contents
Notes on the Authors vii

Foreword viii
Preface x
Acknowledgements xviv
List of abbreviations xx
Introduction 1
Part I Study Skills at Masters Level
1 Writing at M Level: Good practice in essay writing 13

2 Reading at M Level: Learning to use literature 27
3 Researching at M Level: Focus, context and rationale 46
Part II Research Skills at Masters Level
4 Methodology 61
5 Methods of evaluation 79
6 Developing a critical eye 94
Part III Written Outcomes at Masters Level
7 Drawing conclusions 109

8 Presenting work, focusing on a portfolio 121
9 Creative approaches to assessment 139
Part IV Case studies
Case study A Dissertation: A study into the factors which contribute

to pupils not achieving in line with national average at Key Stage 3 in
Information and Communication Technology in one local authority

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vi CONTENTS
Debbie Williams 152
Case study B Curriculum package: Music curriculum package

teaching strategy – modelling and explaining Renaissance music in
Year 7
Michelle Bentley 174
Case study C Action Research Report: A study into the effectiveness

of a tailored intervention for a child with an autistic spectrum disorder
Laura Eaglen 187
Further reading 203
Index 205

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Notes on the Authors
Neil Denby has been involved in teacher education for over 15 years. An
experienced and successful author, he has written over two dozen texts at
various levels from GCSE to post-graduate. He is a Senior Lecturer in
Education and Partnership Co-ordinator for PGCE (Schools) in the School of
Education and Professional Development (SEPD) at the University of Hud-
dersfield. Research interests include using the abilities of gifted and talented
students to enhance the learning experience and the training and certifica-
tion of teachers in Citizenship at Masters Level.
Dr Helen Swift is the Head of Continuing Professional Development and
Course Leader for the MA in Professional Development in the School of
Education and Professional Development at the University of Huddersfield.
Previously she taught in a variety of school and college settings. Her research
interest is in the impact of continuing professional development (MA) on
institutions, teachers and pupils.
Dr Robert Butroyd is a teacher educator of 16 years experience and leads
the Business Education (with Citizenship) PGCE in the School of Education
and Professional Development (SEPD) at the University of Huddersfield. Prior
to this he taught Economics and Business Education in secondary schools for
14 years, including schools in the West Midlands, Yorkshire, and Galloway.
His current research interests include teachers’ occupational experiences and
pupil disengagement.
Jonathan Glazzard is Course Leader for Primary and Early Years Education
in the School of Education and Professional Development at the University
of Huddersfield. He has worked in primary schools and has experience of
teaching across the Foundation Stage, Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 2. He is
actively involved in research in special and inclusive education.
Jayne Price taught for 15 years and was Head of Music and Continuing
Professional Development Manager in an inner city secondary school in
Leeds before becoming involved in teacher training in the School of Educa-
tion and Professional Development at the University of Huddersfield in
2003. She is Subject Coordinator for the PGCE Music course.

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Foreword
This book is written for post-graduate education students, who may be

studying on a PGCE course or an MA, as well as those teachers who are
taking Masters Level modules as part of a process of continuing professional
development (CPD). This guide will be useful to teachers returning to study
after a break to pursue an MA or to take a single module as part of CPD, or
indeed those undertaking education studies for the first time. It will also
serve as a helpful handbook for international students entering UK higher
education for the first time. For such learners, this book provides an
invaluable resource that will enable students to steer a path successfully
through Masters (M) Level work.
One of the key strengths of the book is that it offers very useful
guidance for teachers and those who are returning to higher education after a
break from study. It guides learners through the MA process and gives them a
basic framework with which to approach their studies. It reintroduces
learners to academic conventions and the rigour of writing at M Level, and as
such it will serve to bolster confidence and thus the likelihood of success. It
provides a useful generic study aid for any students engaged in Masters Level
work or PGCE study in education. Not all education students will enter
Masters Level work from a cognate discipline and this text will introduce
learners to the expectations, style of writing, forms of analysis, referencing
systems, and so on that underpin M Level study in education.
The book has a number of significant strengths. It serves as a coherent
guide to M Level study, taking learners step by step through the process. One
of its distinctive features is the way in which it draws upon learners’
assignments in the case studies to illustrate the expectations surrounding M
Level work. It is one thing to describe the expectations surrounding this level
of work, but what is so valuable about this book is that it ties these
expectations to particular examples drawn from students’ assignments. These
assignments are quoted to illustrate particular points being made about M
Level work. The case studies are presented at the back of the book. This will
allow learners to contextualize the extract and will enable them to review the
assignment as a totality.
The book provides a systematic engagement with the process of writing
at Masters Level, showing the way in which literature can be used and

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FOREWORD ix
evaluated. Importantly, it addresses the research process at M Level, offering

guidance in conducting research and the writing of a dissertation. The book
recognizes the range of assignments that can be used for M Level assessment
and therefore not only discusses the traditional forms of writing such as the
essay, the dissertation, the portfolio, but also considers other forms of
assessment such as poster presentations, curriculum packages, and so forth.
Throughout this book the authors emphasize the importance of criti-
cality. Although this is a contested term which can be bent to a number of
different purposes, it is crucial for success at M Level study. It is also crucial
for teachers to develop and hone such skills at a time when education is
constantly subject to change.
The authors should be congratulated on producing an accessible and
timely text that will surely contribute towards the success of M Level
students.
Professor James Avis

January 2008

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Preface
This book is designed to guide you through the process of studying, writing
and achieving at Masters Level. You may be a post-graduate student in
education on a PGCE course, a teacher in post, or a mentor in a school or
college-based setting, helping trainee teachers to achieve. In whatever setting
or position you find yourself, this book will aid you – or the person that you
are supporting – in achieving Masters Level (M Level). Masters Level is a level
of achievement beyond that of a first degree, implying not just deeper study
of a specialized part of the subject area but, with this, a deeper understand-
ing. There are key phrases that typify Masters level such as engaging with the
subject or being critical and demonstrating expertise. The characteristics of
the level of qualification are explored in the introductory chapter but, as you
read through, you will quickly become familiar with them.
Focus
The primary focus of the book is on studying at M Level generally – on the

knowledge, tools and skills that need to be developed for a successful
outcome in an educational context. Our aim is to demystify the process by
tackling those issues which in our experience students have found difficult.
The book therefore contains a balance of practical guidance and exemplar
material and takes a common-sense approach to studying and writing at this
level.
Many post-graduate students (and teachers in post undertaking con-
tinuing professional development (CPD) at this level) have little idea of what
is required to achieve at Masters Level, and no idea as to whether or not they
can reach this level. There are conventions and guidance which need to be
followed, and these are clearly explained. The book is designed to enable
readers to do the following:
+ Understand the nature of M Level work within education as a

research-evidence-based profession.
+ Understand how to prepare for such work by identifying a focus
and a suitable process.

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PREFACE xi
+ Understand how to prepare, carry out and write a literature review.

+ Understand the different methodologies and approaches that are
inherent in M Level work.
+ Understand the importance of ethical underpinning when working
at this level.
+ Develop confidence in making the transition from H to M Level.
The book covers the various elements of different Masters Level approaches
to help both students and mentors in schools and colleges. The process of
working at M level is not just about producing assignments, but about the
thought processes, research and other skills that success at this level requires.
How to use this book
The book is divided into four Parts that naturally follow one another: study
skills, research skills and writing up a research outcome are followed by
Part IV containing the ‘full’ versions of the assignments (Case studies A–C).
In their original state, each of these ran to tens of thousands of words so they
have been carefully cut down to provide a ‘snapshot’ of crucial practice and
to demonstrate expectations at Masters Level. Throughout, extracts from the
case studies are used to illustrate specific points, to provide practice and to
link with the exercises. To see the ‘wider’ picture, and to achieve context, the
extracts can also be read in their proper place in Part IV.
Structure
Parts I–III follow in logical order the process through which Masters Level
may be achieved. Part I details the expectations regarding good writing at M
Level and explains basic writing skills such as paragraphs, cross-references
and Harvard referencing. You may think that, as a graduate, these need little
explanation. However, you may have graduated in a discipline that did not
require writing of this depth, at this length, or requiring this degree of
accuracy. Also, it may be a long time since you completed your degree and
you may have forgotten some of the rules! The ideas of normal structure,
elegant expression and lay-out conventions are explored along with guidance
on plagiarism and referencing. We then identify sources of information and
the breadth and depth of reading required at M Level including practical
advice on how to carry out a literature review. The focus is on developing a
critical approach and coherent arguments within identified themes. Key
skills such as reflection and criticality are also explored. We then consider
how to identify a focus and rationale for research, and how to embed this in

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xii PREFACE
both micro and macro contexts, paying particular attention to key drivers
such as personal professional development needs, issues connected with
pupils’ experience and school and departmental priorities.
Part II investigates the major aspects of the research skills needed at M
Level through an exploration of methodology, evaluation and developing
criticality. Strategies for undertaking research and collecting data are outlined
and, in addition, innovations such as listening to the pupils’ voice are
discussed. The focus then moves to the notion of learning from practice and
developing evaluative skills. The concept of linking theory and practice is
further explored here, to encourage you to synthesize the various parts of
your M Level studies. Finally, the idea of criticality is developed and ways to
demonstrate both your learning and your achievement are detailed.
Part III tackles the writing and presentation of assignments. It explains
how to identify the main outcomes of research and present them in
appropriate ways. It will help you to consider the impact of the research on
your practice, your further professional development needs and possible
avenues for further investigation. A specific focus in this Part is the building
of a portfolio and the critical reflection that accompanies this. In addition,
other, perhaps more imaginative, types of assignment at M Level are
explored.
Case studies A, B and C are edited assignments and are presented to
show you how to write the different forms of M Level work.
Chapter structure
Each chapter opens with an introductory paragraph that outlines the content
that is to follow. On reading this, you can decide if this chapter is going to be
of particular use to you at the stage you are at in your own studies. Chapters
may be used separately, or combined with other chapters to give richer
insights. Each chapter can stand on its own which means, inevitably, there is
some overlap of concepts – it would not be possible, for example, to write a
chapter on criticality and yet avoid mentioning it in sections on literature
reviews, methodology or conclusions. Each chapter contains a number of
pedagogical exercises and activities that can be carried out either on your
own or with colleagues in group situations. These include brief tasks, many
of which are open-ended and will promote discussion and disagreement (and
so they should). Others are short exercises to help you understand a
particular technique or level of response or to practise a particular skill. Many
require you to use the extracts as primary source material.
Key Points are included at the end and in key places in each chapter.
These consist of a brief list that summarizes the main points and can be used
as reminders of the central tenets you will need to address. Each chapter

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PREFACE xiii
includes an idea for an extended project or exercise to practise and underpin

the skills discussed. Appropriate references are used in each chapter to
promote further reading.
Exemplars
Each chapter is supported by appropriate reference to and extracts from three

of the most popular methods of achieving at M Level: dissertation; curricu-
lum package; and action research. The route by which you traditionally
gained this level of qualification would have most probably been an
extended essay or ‘dissertation’. This is no longer the case as more imagina-
tive and practical ways of demonstrating Masters Level skills are devised. You
can see from our examples that, in addition to the dissertation, you could be
asked to produce a curriculum package, a detailed study or a portfolio.
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are aware that teachers (and student
teachers) have busy and hectic schedules and now devise ways by which they
can receive credit for work that they are undertaking as part of their usual
duties. Thus, a student teacher may have to produce a curriculum package –
the reflection on how it was delivered and how it might be improved could
provide the M Level component. A teacher in post might have to put a new
government ordinance into practice – an action research study of learning
‘before’ and ‘after’ could serve to show, on the basis of evidence, whether or
not the innovation is effective. The final chapter looks in more detail at even
more creative ways to achieve M Level outcomes. The methods chosen as
examples are:
+ traditional ‘essay’ or dissertation;

+ curriculum package;
+ action research study.
Chapter 8 provides details on the production and presentation of a portfolio

assignment.
Appropriate extracts from each case study are clearly embedded in each
chapter in the main text to support the learning outcomes at this level. The
use of extracts in this way allows the reader to see the point illustrated and
then continue reading, without having to search for the extract within the
whole assignment. However, in order to also allow the reader to see extracts
in context, and to see what a completed Masters Level piece might look like,
we have included edited versions of the whole assignment (Case studies
A–C). In each case, these have been edited not only to make them more
manageable, but for ethical reasons, to prevent the identification of schools

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xiv PREFACE
or individuals. Material that was not germane to discussions, evidence

collection or outcomes has been omitted. Let’s now discuss how each case
study was planned and completed.
Case study A
Dissertation
This practitioner undertook the MA in two years because she had 60 credits
through accreditation of prior learning (APLA). She works for a Local
Authority as an ICT consultant working with teachers in schools to raise
achievement in ICT.
Students are asked to critically reflect on an aspect of education in
which they are interested. The projects usually relate to students’ own
professional roles and contexts. Students attend a dissertation day in Octo-
ber. The purpose of this day is to introduce students to the structure of the
dissertation. Students are then allocated a dissertation supervisor. This can be
any member of staff from the School of Education and, where possible,
students are allocated to members of staff with appropriate expertise in the
area about which they are writing.
It is expected that the experience will impact on teachers, schools and
pupils. The dissertation is structured as follows.
Abstract
The abstract goes at the start of the study. It provides the reader with a
synopsis of the research by summarizing the aims, the methods of data
collection and the key findings.
Introduction
The student introduces the reader to the area for investigation and presents
the rationale for the research. Students must justify why the topic is worthy
of investigation and relate this to local and national contexts. The student
clearly outlines the aims of the research.
Literature review
The student provides an overview of the key literature related to the area of
investigation. Students are expected to cite a wide range of literature from

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PREFACE xv
books, journal articles, government publications, newspapers and web-based

sources. Students must demonstrate that they have critically engaged with
the literature.
Methodology
In this section students must justify their chosen research methods and
discuss how ethical issues have been addressed. Additionally, students are
required to explain how they have ensured that their research findings are
valid and reliable. Students are also required to explain their sampling
strategies, methods of data collection and analysis.
Analysis
In this section students analyse the key themes which have emerged from
their data. Students present their key findings and analyse these in relation
to literature.
Conclusion
In this section the students return to the original aims of their study. The
students summarize their findings in relation to the aims of the study.
Students are asked to make recommendations for the development of
practice and consider how their research findings will be disseminated.
The word count ranges from 12,500–15,000 words for the whole study.
Case study B
Curriculum Package
This example of a curriculum package was written by a student following a

one-year secondary PGCE course in Music. It was completed during the
second school experience and was submitted in March, approximately
two-thirds of the way through the course.
For this assignment, students were asked to create a curriculum package
for a series of lessons for a particular group of pupils which developed their
own practice in helping pupils to learn. The focus for the assignment and the
class to which the package was taught were agreed with the university and
school-based tutor. Ideas for the focus of the assignment included:

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xvi PREFACE
+ teaching a particular topic area;

+ the use of equipment or technology;
+ the use of a particular strategy for teaching and learning.
The assignment brief outlined the various elements of the assignment that
should be submitted:
Introduction (500–750 words)
This section outlines the context for the study, including brief details about
the school and the class to which the package would be taught, the rationale
for the focus of the package, including consideration of how the assignment
would contribute to learning and professional development.
Literature review (1000–1250 words)
This includes an investigation of key texts from a range of sources related to

the chosen focus of topic, teaching and learning strategy or use of technol-
ogy or equipment.
Curriculum package (Equiv. 1500 words)
Students were to include the unit of work, lesson plans (lasting a minimum
of 4 hours), details of use of ICT, assessment materials and resources for the
curriculum package as well as lesson evaluations and observations of teach-
ing.
Evaluation (1500–2000 words)
In this section, students were to reflect on the effectiveness of the curriculum

package in terms of pupil learning and progress, interest and engagement.
Students were asked to discuss both summative and formative assessment,
outlining how assessment informed planning throughout the unit, illustrat-
ing the discussion with three examples of the work of pupils with differing
abilities.
Conclusion (500–750 words)
In the concluding section, students were asked to evaluate what they had
learned through teaching the package and make recommendations for the
future, describing what they would do differently next time.

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PREFACE xvii
The assignment brief was developed as a trial in 2006–7 for implementation

at Masters Level with the 2007–8 cohort of students. A number of revisions
to the assignment brief in light of the trial were made:
+ more guidance about how the curriculum package should be

evaluated to ensure that this was more rigorous and more appro-
priate to an assessment at M Level;
+ further guidance to encourage more synthesis between the theory
outlined in the literature review and practice which is evidenced in
the unit and lesson planning and the evaluation section of the
assignment;
+ further guidance given about narrowing the focus for the study, to
enable more in-depth study with subject-specific suggestions and
preliminary suggested reading given.
This example of the assignment has a strong focus but there are some
weaknesses related to the other two areas of development.
Another major change is that the assignment is now to be submitted
towards the end of the course primarily to enable the creation and delivery
of the package to be much more informed by the reading and theoretical
underpinning of the chosen focus of the assignment.
Case study C
Action research
This example of an action research project was completed by a student who

is a practising teacher working in the Foundation Stage. It was the first
assignment undertaken on the MA programme and was submitted in
January.
In this assignment, students are asked to carry out some action research
related to their own professional context. Students on the Early Childhood
Studies route focus on a piece of action research related to teaching and
learning in the early years. Typically, early years practitioners undertake
action research within their own settings. Projects vary depending on
practitioner’s own professional contexts.
The assignment requires students to critically reflect on aspects of their
own practice that they wish to develop or change. By engaging in action
research, students are able to identify problems and issues in their own
professional contexts and develop creative solutions to these. Some students
have developed new approaches towards working with children and evalu-

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xviii PREFACE
ated these as part of their assignment. Other students have developed

strategies to improve the engagement of boys in literacy. Projects are exciting
and innovative and students have the freedom to decide on the issues which
are pertinent to their own professional context.
Students develop many skills through this assignment. They benefit
through sharing their projects with fellow students and they become more
critical of their own practice. Busy practitioners rarely have the time to reflect
critically on their own practice. However, this project enables the students to
stand back, think about the issues which need to be addressed and find
solutions to these problems. The students evaluate the impact of their action
research through a range of research methods.
The project enables students to share solutions to the issues which
practitioners must address in early years settings. It encourages the students
to be reflective about their own practice and to see teaching as a research-
based profession.

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Acknowledgements
The authors would like to record their grateful thanks to the three Masters
Level students who have so kindly allowed their work to be used as
exemplars in this book.

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List of abbreviations
Education is an area which seems to coin new acronyms with alarming

regularity. It is almost as if an idea or organization has no validity unless it
can be shortened to a collection of letters. Never let an acronym pass without
making sure that you understand what it means!
Afl Assessment for Learning

APLA accreditation of prior learning
AST advanced skills teacher
BERA British Educational Research Association
CAT cognitive ability test
CPD continuing professional development
CUREE Centre for the Use of Research and Evidence in Education
DCSF Department for Children, Schools and Families
DfES Department for Education and Skills (now DCSF)
EAL English as an additional language
ECM Every Child Matters
FE Further Education
GNVQ General National Vocational Qualification
GTCE General Teaching Council for England
GTP Graduate Teacher Programme
HEI Higher Education Institution
HMI Her Majesty’s Inspector
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IEP individual education plan
ILP individual learning plan
LA Local Authority
LftM leading from the middle
LSA learning support assistant
LSC Learning and Skills Council
MFL modern foreign languages
NFER National Foundation for Educational Research
NPQH National Professional Qualification for Headship
NQT newly qualified teacher
NVQ National Vocational Qualification
Ofsted Office for Standards in Education

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxi
PGCE Post Graduate Certificate in Education

PPD postgraduate professional development
QCA Qualifications and Curriculum Authority
QTS qualified teacher status
SATS standard assessment tests
SEF self-evaluation form
SEN special educational needs
SLT Senior Leadership Team
SMART Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-related
SMT Senior Management Team
TDA Training and Development Agency for Schools
UCET Universities Council for the Education of Teachers
VLE Virtual Learning Environment

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Introduction
Why would you wish to achieve at a higher level

than Honours?
University degrees, at the end of three years study, are usually awarded at
Honours level. The best receive the coveted ‘First’ – a First Class Honours. For
many others an Upper Second or 2.1 is sufficient. What used to be called (in
less enlightened times) the ‘gentleman’s degree’ was the 2.2. or Lower Second
– indicating that the candidate had done enough, but probably also enjoyed
the social side of university life. Enjoying it too much, to the detriment of
your studies, led to a Third. All work at this level is marked according to
Honours level criteria and specific percentages are usually allocated to each
degree level. Once this has been achieved, the next level is Masters. There is
no ‘easy step’ from Honours to Masters Level work – although based on
many of the same skills, it is really a different world.
In the field of education, there are a number of strong reasons that
provide motivation for embarking on Masters Level studies. Most signifi-
cantly, for those undertaking a post-graduate course of teacher training, is
the Bologna Agreement. In addition, the profession of teaching, with
government encouragement and support, has been recognized as a research-
based profession. It has been accepted that improvements to teaching and
learning are only possible based on considered research, properly funded.
Schools that have already embraced this have seen its truth in the improve-
ments to their own practice and outcomes. Third, education is an area where
change is normal, and where teachers need to constantly update knowledge,
skills and techniques. Think of the classroom where you undertook your own
secondary education, then ask a parent or someone from a previous genera-
tion to describe their schooling. Imagine, then, what a teacher of 20 or 30
years ago would make of today’s classrooms, replete with computers, interac-
tive whiteboards and internet access, along with innovative seating arrange-
ments and the novelty of pupils helping to make decisions! Yet, of course,
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2 INTRODUCTION
teachers are still in practice after many years, but have changed their practice
– they adapted, adopted, altered – to the benefit of their learners.
The Bologna Agreement
The Post Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) has, as a result of the

Bologna Agreement, been subjected to a ruling stating that to remain as a
post-graduate (rather than ‘professional graduate’) certificate, it must contain
a significant amount of work at Masters (‘M’) level. The Bologna Process
(1999) created an agreed equivalency of pathways for academic work
throughout the European Union. The ruling took effect from the cohort
which started in September 2007. The Universities Council for the Education
of Teachers (UCET) carried out a survey in late 2006 to see if all Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) were planning to offer PGCEs at Masters Level.
The result showed that 87 per cent intended to offer courses at M Level,
either in conjunction with Honours Level (Professional Certificate) courses or
on their own. Most institutions will offer 60 credits at Masters Level (a third
of a full qualification) via either two 30 credit or three 20 credit modules. The
majority of trainees will therefore have the opportunity to obtain a third of a
Masters qualification and an excellent grounding for them to continue in
their induction year and with subsequent professional development.
Continuing professional development (CPD)
Continuing professional development (CPD) has been recognized by the

government as vital to the future of good education and funding has been
allocated within ‘the Children’s Plan’, the ‘blueprint for the future’ published
by the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) in December
2007. It states that:
We already have many teachers and headteachers who are among

the best in the world. However, to deliver a teaching workforce and
a new generation of headteachers which is consistently world class,
we will allocate £44m over the next three years to make teaching a
Masters-level profession, with all new teachers able to study for a
Masters-level qualification through a focus on continued profes-
sional development.
The Training and Development Agency (TDA) offers HEIs funding for
postgraduate professional development (PPD) for educational practitioners
who have qualified teacher status (QTS). PPD is available through Masters
Level courses. The TDA website states:

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INTRODUCTION 3
Course providers can tailor their programmes so that the content is

negotiated by the school and its staff, allowing teachers to focus
their learning in their particular school context – often through
action research centred on the workplace. These pieces of independ-
ent study are often related to whole school improvement and can be
integrated into school development plans and self-evaluation proc-
esses.
Groups of teachers are also encouraged to work together.
Personal development and improved practice
You should develop the ability to reflect on your own writing and your own
practice as well as that of others. The effective reflective practitioner recog-
nizes that improvements can be made and is willing to make them. Static or
stagnant teaching is characterized by those who see no fault in what they are
doing and are happy never to question their practice. Mezirow (1991)
explains the idea of reflection followed by re-assessment as a ‘transformative’
process. Your aim will be to reflect in order to transform some part of your
professional practice.
To succeed at this level requires a three-pronged approach, which
encompasses the skills associated with academic reading and writing and the
application of these to your own practice.
Reading
Reading is about ‘engaging with the literature’. It means not just reading the
key articles, journals, chapters or books linked to your area of study, but
demonstrating wider reading to put these into context. It means recognizing
that just because John Smith says that such-and-such is so, it doesn’t
necessarily follow that this is the only valid opinion. Who was John Smith
writing for?; when was he writing?; did he have an alternative agenda? (Even
Shakespeare wrote to resonate with a particular political climate. His Richard
III is written as sufficiently evil to please Queen Elizabeth I, while good King
James VI and I is descended from heroic Banquo in Macbeth.) In addition,
how sound are the arguments and conclusions of writers? Who contradicts
them, and who concurs? Are the values and contexts within which they were
written still valid? This is all ‘criticality’. Unlike at undergraduate level where,
to an extent, you are expected to defer to ‘authority’, at Masters Level you
can allow your own voice to be heard – this is one of the key differences
between the levels of work.

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4 INTRODUCTION
Writing
What do HEIs require from your writing at this level? Clarity, certainly;
coherent argument; evidence of scholarship in research and methodology;
and the triumvirate of ‘higher level’ skills of analysis, evaluation and
synthesis. Analysis refers to the process of sifting and comparing evidence
and opinion; evaluation is better thought of as making judgements and
justifying decisions or positions; synthesis is drawing together the different
parts of an argument so that each supports the other.
There are clear (and basic) rules. Write simply and with grammatical
accuracy, following the rules of punctuation. Avoid complex constructions,
don’t coin phrases, use double-negatives or clichés and use the active voice
wherever possible. Your tutors (and readers) should not have to try to pick
the sense out of sentences such as ‘It was then noted, however, that in the
definitive period of action, whilst observation was taking place, the observee
was not particularly distracted by the observer.’
George Orwell’s advice remains apposite (and if you read nothing else
on writing good prose, you should read his essay):
Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech which you
are used to seeing in print.
Never use a long word where a short one will do.
If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.

Never use the passive where you can use the active.
Never use a foreign phrase, scientific word, or jargon if you can

think of an everyday English equivalent.
Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright barba-
rous.
(Orwell 1946)
Exercise 0.1
Consider the following as a piece of ‘academic’ writing. What do you

think is wrong with it? How would you improve it? A suggested answer
is given on p. 7.
It is essential for the efficacy of the research that the voice of the
pupil is listened to. Their central contribution has been dissemi-
nated by numerous commentators such as Convery (1992),

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INTRODUCTION 5
Dadds (1998), Ruddock and Flutter (2000), Cooper and MacIntyre

(1996), Nieto (1994), and Sammons (1995). Sammons opines that
they make an essential contribution to overall pupil achievement
levels while MacGilchrist (2005) agrees with this view, discussing
younger pupils. Gray et al. (1999) expound that listening to
pupils will make schools improve better and ‘The views of
pupils/students’, according to Hannam (1998) are really essential
to ‘school improvement’.
Practice
This book is aimed at those who currently are, or intend to be, engaged in
the practice of education, primarily those who are or who aspire to be
teachers. Therefore, one of the key dimensions that you can bring to your
work is that of your own practice, and considering how it might be
improved. It involves thinking about how you achieve teaching and learning
outcomes and how these may be accomplished more easily or efficiently.
This is the ‘reflective practitioner’. This practitioner recognizes that teaching
is not static, but can be taken forward; that there are different ways to solve
problems (and different problems to solve) and that one of the people best
placed to observe and record practice and to attempt innovations is the
classroom teacher.
Comparing outcomes
Obviously, expectations of quality at Masters Level are different from those at

Honours level. The assignment outcomes and abilities to be demonstrated
can be compared by looking at the bullet points below. You will notice that
while Honours level outcomes do include critical understanding and analy-
sis, there is a greater emphasis on knowledge and understanding.
Honours Level assignment outcomes
+ Demonstrates knowledge and understanding of teaching and

learning strategies.
+ Demonstrates knowledge and understanding of requirements
and arrangements for the subject/curriculum area in the age
ranges they are trained to teach.

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6 INTRODUCTION
+ Critically understands the subject/curriculum area and re-

lated pedagogy.
+ Shows a knowledge and understanding of relevant statutory
and non-statutory guidance and policies for a subject/
curricular area.
+ Synthesizes theory and practice.
+ Critically analyses and reflects on pedagogy.
+ Critically assesses teaching and learning within the subject
specialism.
Masters Level assignment outcomes
+ Demonstrates addressing the title, the aims of the assignment

and learning outcomes.
+ Demonstrates a range of depth in the use of literature and
materials.
+ Uses critical analysis: breakdown and examination of issues
and the inherent relationships between parts.
+ Demonstrates the application of conceptual ideas and theory
to professional practice.
+ Provides an evaluation of theory and research in the context
of professional practice.
+ Provides enunciation, development and support of a case or
argument.
+ Demonstrates organization and control over complex mate-
rial.
+ Presents ideas, information and material in a clear and
coherent manner using the Harvard referencing system.
Exercise 0.2
Consider the M Level criteria above. How do you think each of these
could be demonstrated in a very good submission? Answer on p. 8.
Terminology
In this book, the authors talk of notions such as ‘criticality’ and ‘the
reflective practitioner’. They refer to ‘reviewing literature’ and ‘generalizabil-
ity’; to ‘scaffolding’, ‘synthesizing’ and to writing ‘with authority’. They

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INTRODUCTION 7
mention ‘validity’, ‘reliability’, ‘triangulation’ and ‘ethics’. All these are key
features of work at this level, but what do they mean? Each term or idea is
described in detail in its proper place short definitions that follow should
mean that you are not thrown by a term if you encounter it elsewhere.
The whole crux of Masters Level work is that you show a degree of
‘mastery’ of the area under investigation. This is demonstrated by showing
that you know what has been written about the area (a literature review), can
discuss its features and failings and recognize the points of consent and
contention (criticality). You can then look at your own practice (reflection)
and change it to improve an aspect of teaching or learning (reflective
practitioner). To achieve this, you undertake research that harms or hampers
no-one (ethics), that could be repeated with similar results (reliability), that is
honest and open to discussion by colleagues (validity) and that may be
applied more widely for greater effect (generalizability). Throughout this
process you use frameworks provided by tutors (scaffolding), check outcomes
carefully by cross-referencing with other research (triangulation), and bring
various aspects of your work together to underpin conclusions (synthesis).
Throughout you write clearly and with a knowledgeable voice (authority).
Key points
+ You are embarking on Masters Level study because you want

to, and because you can see a benefit to it. You are therefore
motivated.
+ There are several good reasons for M Level study in educa-
tion.
+ There is a step change from Honours to Masters Level work so
you need to be aware of M Level quality indicators.
Answers to the exercises
0.1 The book does not always provide the answers, as many of the questions
are open for discussion, but in this case, it is worth making an exception and
pointing out the flaws in this passage.
It is essential {unsupported opinion} for the efficacy {not quite the

right word: the thesaurus might give ‘efficacy’ as a substitute for
‘effectiveness’ but its normal usage is related to the effectiveness of
specific interventions, such as medicine} of the research that the
voice of the pupil is listened to {clumsy construction}. Their {singu-
lar pupil has become plural ‘their’} essential contribution has been

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8 INTRODUCTION
disseminated {spread, in the sense of ‘sown’ or ‘scattered abroad’

does not have the right ‘ring’ to it} by numerous commentators such
as Convery (1992), Dadds (1998), Ruddock and Flutter (2000),
Cooper and MacIntyre (1996), Nieto (1994), and Sammons (1995)
{just a list, do something with it! Also, should be in date order}.
Sammons opines {OK, acceptable, but it’s a fairly antiquated usage,
one of those verbs that has dropped out of fashion} that they make
an essential {repetition} contribution to overall pupil achievement
levels while MacGilchrist (2005) agrees with this view, discussing
younger pupils {Lame, it needs more, why not quote the ‘discus-
sion’?}. Gray et al. (1999) expound {not quite right} that listening to
pupils will make schools improve better {aargh!} and ‘The views of
pupils/students’, according to Hannam (1998) are really essential to
‘school improvement’ {why split the quotation? Why use so little of
it?}.
One way of rendering the same information more elegantly could be:
The importance of listening to the pupils’ voice is central to this

research. Key commentators include Convery (1992), Cooper and
MacIntyre (1996), Dadds (1998) and Ruddock and Flutter (2000).
Nieto (1994) discusses its importance, while Sammons (1995) points
to increases in overall pupil achievement from listening to (and
acting on) pupil opinions. Day (1992) considers that one of the ways
in which teachers can act as role models for students is by listening
to them. MacGilchrist et al. (2005: 65) believe that pupils have
much to teach us:
Particularly, we learn how articulate and in touch even the

youngest pupils can be when they are given time to talk about
their learning and their experience of it at school.
Gray et al. (1999) agree that schools which combine paying heed to
pupils’ views with any of the suggested approaches to school
improvement will achieve a more speedy improvement while Han-
nam (1998: 3) is of the opinion that: ‘The views of pupils/students
represent the single most neglected source of potential data for
school improvement.’
0.2 A ‘very good’ pass will have the following characteristics:
+ The assignment title and aims are thoroughly addressed in a

detailed and well-balanced fashion.
+ Knowledge of subject matter is free from errors and confusions and
is applied to professional practice with confidence and insight.

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INTRODUCTION 9
+ Issues are critically analysed through skilled synthesis of relevant

literature and professional experience.
+ The line of argument is well developed, evaluative and consistently
supported by reference sources.
+ The writer has identified the implications and relevance of present
knowledge and experience to future practice.
+ There is evidence of flair and originality of thought throughout.
References
Convery, A. (1992) Insight, direction and support: a case study of collabora-
tive enquiry in classroom research, in C. Biott and J. Nios (eds) Working and
Learning Together for Change. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Cooper, P. and MacIntyre, D. (1996) The importance of power-sharing in

classroom learning, in M. Hughes (ed.) Teaching and Learning in Changing
Times. Oxford: Blackwell.
Dadds, M. (1998) Supporting practitioner research: a challenge, Educational

Action Research, 6: 39–52.
Gray, J., Hopkins, D., Reynolds, D., Wilcox, B., Farrell, S. and Jesson, D.
(1999) Improving Schools: Performance and Potential. Buckingham: Open Uni-
versity Press.
Hannam, A. (1998) cited in J. Ruddock and J. Flutter (2000) Pupil participa-

tion and pupil perspective: ‘Carving a new order of experience’, Cambridge
Journal of Education, 30(1): 75–89.
MacGilchrist, B., Myers, K. and Reed, J. (2005) The Intelligent School, 2nd edn.
London: Sage.
Mezirow, J. (1991) Transformation dimensions of adult learning, in M.

Welton (ed.) Defense of the Lifeworld Critical Perspective on Adult Learning. New
York: SUNY Press.
Nieto, S. (1994) cited in J. Ruddock and J. Flutter (2000) Pupil participation

and pupil perspective: ‘Carving a new order of experience’, Cambridge Journal
of Education, 30(1): 75–89.
Orwell, G. (1946) Politics and the English language, Horizon.
Ruddock, J. and Flutter, J. (2000) Pupil participation and pupil perspective:

‘Carving a new order of experience’, Cambridge Journal of Education, 30(1):
75–89.

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10 INTRODUCTION
Sammons, P.M. (1995) Gender, ethnic and socio-economic differences in

attainment and progress: a longitudinal analysis of student achievement over
nine years, British Educational Research Journal, 21(4): 465–85.
The Children’s Plan. Available at www.dfes.gov.uk/publications/
childrensplan.

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Part I
Study Skills at Masters Level
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1 Writing at M Level
Good practice in essay
writing
People think that I can teach them style. What stuff it all is! Have
something to say, and say it as clearly as you can. That is the only
secret of style.
(Matthew Arnold, 1822–1888)
Introduction
This chapter presents an introduction to the conventions and expectations of

academic writing at Masters Level. Good writing is inextricably linked to
wide reading. You will learn a great deal about academic style through
reading journal articles and other texts. However, some caution is needed as
some journal articles are often written in ways that make the content
inaccessible to the reader. Clarity of expression is essential. Some authors try
very hard to be too ‘academic’. The result is that their writing is incompre-
hensible and sounds pompous and this should be avoided. As writers, we
should aim for our readers to understand what we are writing about. Some
articles in journals have to be read and re-read several times before they
become even slightly comprehensible. This largely renders them useless,
especially if the aim of the article is to impact on practice or advance social
justice. Writing should be clear, concise, and complex terminology should be
explained to the reader.
That said, it is important to remember that you are writing for an
academic audience. Therefore, there are certain assumptions that you can
make. For example, you do not need to spell out to readers that Key Stage 1
focuses on the education of pupils aged 5–7. They already know that! This is
one example of unnecessary description. Generally, you should avoid

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14 WRITING AT M LEVEL
description in your academic writing. For example, rather than describing a

particular theory of learning, it is better to explore the criticisms of it. In
other words, it is necessary to move from the descriptive level to the reflective
level.
The focus of your writing should therefore be on exploring the issues
related to the topic about which you are writing. Successful M Level writers
focus on the issues and problems associated with the field of enquiry rather
than describing it. The aim of academic writing at this level is to problema-
tize, i.e. to explore the problems, issues and criticisms associated with the
topic. Successful writers draw on a wide range of literature to do this
effectively.
An essay on the history of Special Educational Needs would be very
descriptive if it presented the reader with a description of the significant
legislation of the past 30 years. To move this to the reflective level, the writer
needs to explore the problems and issues associated with the legislation and
the criticisms of the various Acts of Parliament. A study of the teaching of
reading would be descriptive if it presented the reader with an overview of
the stages through which children progress when they learn to read. A more
reflective account would explore the criticisms of theoretical frameworks,
which have been proposed as models of reading development. Successful
students at M Level continuously question commonly held assumptions.
They also explore the criticisms of theories, models, frameworks, legislation
and new agendas.
Tutors need to feel the criticality within a piece of M Level writing.
Successful writing will also challenge the reader’s own thinking. The writer
should explore the viewpoints in the literature and question them, dispute
them or validate them. Theoretical frameworks and theories of learning
should be questioned and criticized. Government publications and educa-
tional initiatives and agendas should be subjected to the same level of critical
scrutiny. In short, successful writers take nothing for granted.
Tutor support
You will be offered tutorial support to enable you to complete your piece of
work successfully. You will be offered both formative and summative assess-
ment opportunities. The formative assessment is generally used to allow you
to demonstrate planning, provide indicative references and show that you
are ‘on the right track’. Don’t make the mistake of treating the summative
assessment as an end in itself – it can be used as formative assessment
towards a subsequent assignment.
Neither you nor your tutor want the work to fail. No one stands to gain
through this. However, work that is not well written and is poorly expressed

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WRITING AT M LEVEL 15
cannot pass. Work that lacks critical discussion and is largely descriptive also
cannot pass. Therefore, it is important that you make the best use of your
tutorial time. A substantial part of tutorial discussions should focus on how
you can develop a critical and reflective discussion. Your tutor will help you
to question commonly held assumptions and will help you to engage in a
critical manner with the field of enquiry. A knowledgeable tutor will
introduce you to texts that will help you to generate a critical debate. It is
vital that you make use of this tutorial support. Your tutor will have a great
deal of experience in marking work at this level and in educational theory in
general. However, the onus is on you to maintain contact with your tutor
and to ensure that the focus of the tutorials is related to what you need. You
need to be proactive and ensure that you ask the right questions in tutorial
sessions that will help you to engage with the topic in a critical and
thoughtful manner. Therefore it is essential that you do some reading prior
to these sessions. Nothing is more irritating to a busy tutor than a student
who comes to a tutorial unprepared and with a limited number of ideas. Your
tutor will be more than happy to help you if you can also demonstrate that
you have put in the same level of commitment.
Further advice on reading is given in Chapter 2 and on developing a
critical voice in Chapter 6. The rest of this chapter will look at the technical
issues associated with academic writing at M Level.
Key points
+ Avoid excessive description in your work.

+ Be critical – challenge viewpoints and question assumptions.
+ Explore the issues associated with your field of enquiry.
Expression
It goes without saying that accurate expression is essential at this level. On a

simplistic level, this means ensuring that your work is error-free. Tutors find
it offensive to mark work with careless spelling and punctuation errors. This
is clearly unacceptable. To avoid this, a critical friend should proofread your
work carefully. Someone else reading your work will often spot mistakes that
you have missed. It is not your tutor’s responsibility to detect these types of
errors, either at the draft stage or at the stage of final submission. Tutors
cannot and should not be expected to engage in microscopic marking. Work
presented to tutors should therefore be error-free.

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It is essential that you organize your work into logical paragraphs. A

paragraph contains a number of points that are linked in some way. Tutors
find it annoying when students present them with two-line paragraphs. Try
to develop your paragraphs fully and at the end of each paragraph try to
write a sentence that makes a link to the next paragraph. You will also need
to develop an academic style of writing. To help to achieve this it is
recommended that you write in the third person.
Exercise 1.1
Smith (2003) identifies over thirty variables that have been linked
to underachievement such as socio-economic group and free
school meal entitlement. Sammons et al. (1994) identified six
groups of variables which linked socio-economic status and
attainment including; pupils’ personal characteristics, family
structure, socio-economic factors; parent education, ethnicity and
other. Baker (1998) believes that the main area for concern in
underachievement is from low-income families. Kutnick (2000)
argues that factors such as home background and school struc-
tures are influential. Tymms (2003) contend that the size of the
school is an important factor.
(Case study A)
Explain how the writer uses a variety of language to introduce view-

points from the literature. Suggest other ways in which this could have
been achieved.
Structure
You need to plan your work carefully into various sections. Your assignment
details may provide you with a writing frame, which will help you to
structure your work. If you are not provided with a writing frame you will
have to structure your own work into appropropriate sections. For the
purposes of this chapter it will be assumed that you are carrying out a
traditional piece of empirical research, in which case the structure adopted
could be as follows:
+ Abstract
+ Introduction

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+ Literature review
+ Methodology
+ Analysis
+ Conclusion.
Abstract
This will be a short statement (approximately 150–200 words) where you

outline the aims and purposes of your research study, your chosen research
methods, including samples and your key findings.
Introduction
In the Introduction you should provide contextual information about the

research institution. For example, you could include the size of the institu-
tion, data on attainment and achievement of learners and factors that
influence this, such as the socio-economic context.
You then need to provide a rationale for your research. It is here where
you tell the reader why you are researching your chosen topic. In essence,
you are justifying the worth of your study. The rationale can be examined on
two levels:
1 The local context: Tell the reader what the issues are within the
research institution, for example, has there been a fall in standards
in a particular subject? Have informal observations and conversa-
tions with colleagues led you to believe there is a problem with an
aspect of learning? Have Ofsted reports identified issues within the
institution? Has school performance data indicated that there is a
problem with a particular area of learning? Try to support your
rationale with evidence (such as school results tables, inspection
reports and information from improvement plans).
2 The national context: This is where you draw on the literature to
determine whether there is a national problem with the local issue
you have described. For example, you may have identified in the
local context that boys are underachieving in your school. This is
also a national issue and is supported by a wide literature base.
Therefore, introducing the reader to wider literature on the issue
will strengthen the rationale for your research.
You then need to identify the aims of your research. These need to be
expressed clearly and succinctly. Avoid the temptation to include too many
aims. It is better to keep your study focused.

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Literature review
Start with an opening paragraph outlining the content to be covered in this

section. In this section you will present the reader with an outline of the key
literature related to your field of study. You need to discuss with your
supervisor which key texts and writers you might cite in this section.
However, you cannot include everything you read and you will need to
define the parameters of your literature review. It is best if you can identify
the key themes you intend to read about in the literature at the start, prior to
doing any reading. (Further details on this, and other aspects of reading, are
given in Chapter 2.) This will then give you a focus for your research. You
need to identify the theories or theoretical frameworks you will include in
this section. Clarify the theoretical content of your literature review through
discussions with your tutor. Eaglen (Case study C) identifies the relevant
theories in her study about a child with autism, as illustrated below:
Baron-Cohen (1995) suggests that people with autism have a lack of
‘theory of mind’, or ‘mind-blindness’ which means that they cannot
recognize the mental states of others.
Once you have identified the relevant theories, you can then develop a
critical discussion of the theories. You can explore the criticisms/limitations
of the theories in the literature and you can apply the theories to a practical
context. It is important that you are able to demonstrate an understanding of
the inter-relationship between educational theory and practice.
Exercise 1.2
In the example above, how could the writer have made links between
theory of mind and practice?
Organise your literature review into sub-sections using sub-headings. You

need to aim to produce a critical review of the literature. A good way to
proceed is to model your literature review on a funnel. Start by citing the
broader literature on the topic, then narrow the focus by concentrating on
one or two key articles, which you can use as a basis for a critical discussion.
(Further advice on how to produce a critical discussion is provided in
Chapter 6.) The literature review should end with a summary of the key
research findings.
Methodology

section. In the methodology section you need to justify your research

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methods to the reader. However, you also need to acknowledge the limita-
tions of these methods. You need to discuss ethical issues associated with
your research and how you have addressed these. You need to discuss the
specific procedures you adopted, such as your sampling strategy, sample
sizes, methods of data collection and data analysis. You also need to show the
reader how you have made your research valid and reliable. Acknowledge the
limitations of your study in this section. Organize this section into appropri-
ate sub-sections using sub-headings and draw on the literature written about
methodology throughout this section. The methodology section should end
with a summary of the research methods to be adopted and the samples used
in the research. (Further detailed advice on methodology is provided in
Chapter 4.)
Analysis

section. Try to organize your research findings into themes. These can be
explored as sub-headings. Therefore prior to writing this chapter it is
necessary to identify the themes which have emerged from your data.
Decide, on the data you are going to present. You cannot present it all! Data
can be presented in the form of quotations from interviewees, field notes in
the case of observational work and graphs, charts and tables for numerical
data. Then you need to discuss your findings. Discuss the implications of
your findings for a range of stakeholders and relate your findings to literature.
You need to summarize the key findings at the end of this section.
Conclusion
Summarize your key findings in relation to the original aims of your study, as
outlined in the Introduction. Then discuss how you intend to disseminate
your findings in order to impact on practice, particularly for the research
institution. Then discuss if any further research is needed and what form this
might take.
Key points
+ Your work should make use of sub-headings throughout.

These act as signposts for the reader.
+ Draw on literature throughout your study, not just in the
literature review.

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Plagiarism
You need to avoid plagiarism in the production of your academic work.

Plagiarism can take many forms. If you plagiarize, you could be guilty of one
or more of the following:
+ Presenting the ideas of others as if they are your own (citing

arguments from the literature without proper acknowledgement).
+ Using the words of others without proper acknowledgement.
+ Copying the work of another student.
+ Resubmitting your own work or parts of it (in the case of assign-
ment work which has been submitted as credit towards an award
and is then resubmitted to gain further credit towards the same or
a different award). This is known as self-plagiarism.
+ Allowing other students to copy your work, in the sense that you
could be accused of aiding plagiarism.
+ Inventing false data.
+ Making up references.
+ Accessing material on the web and presenting it as your own.
+ Ghost writing: paying someone else to do the work for you.
+ Presenting lecture notes as your own work as part of an assign-
ment.
This list is not exhaustive and your own HEI will have its own rules that will
be shared with you. There will also be a policy or a statement in your student
handbook and it is recommended that you read this very carefully. You will
usually be required to sign a statement to the effect that the work is your
own, and not copied or plagiarized in any way. Plagiarism is an academic
offence and it is important that you do not fall into this trap. Quite often
students will plagiarize without realizing what they have done. This is
because they might not understand how to reference material properly. The
library or the faculty will produce a referencing guide and you are advised to
read this very carefully.
Key points
+ Ensure that you know how to reference work properly.

+ Never present the words and viewpoints of others without
crediting them to an author.
+ Read and ensure you understand the university policy or
statement on plagiarism.

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Use of references
Universities will recommend a referencing system and one of the most

widely adopted is the Harvard system. The Harvard system explains how
references should be cited, both within the text and in the list of references.
The Harvard system of referencing shows the author’s name and the date of
the work in brackets, e.g. (Smythe 2003). (Beware! There are not only
different versions of Harvard, but also other systems, such as Vancouver,
using only notes. Be sure you know the conventions of your own HEI.) It is
expected that you will read widely and cite references throughout your work.
This is a way of demonstrating to your tutor how much research you have
done. References also enable you to support the claims you make. Examples
of supported claims are shown below:
Research has found that if classroom support assistants are well
trained and supported in their duties, they offer the potential to
make inclusion effective for a range of children with special educa-
tional needs (Farrell, Balshaw and Polat 1999).
Research has also found that inclusion is often inadequately ad-
dressed and often neglected in initial teacher training programmes
(Barton 2003; Booth et al 2003; Garner 2001; Jones 2002; Thomas
and Loxley 2001).
You should avoid vague phrases such as research has found that … without
supporting this. Students are often guilty of making sweeping generalizations
in their work, without backing them up with research and literature.
Examples of these are listed as follows:
Many headteachers in primary schools lack an understanding of
effective early year’s pedagogy.
Many teacher-training programmes do not give sufficient focus to
Special Educational Needs.
Boys prefer to read non-fiction texts and like to learn outdoors.
While these claims may ring true from your own classroom experience,
statements like these are likely to encourage tutors to ask How do you know?
and Where is your evidence? Therefore, claims must be backed up with
research and literature. Your own HEI will have a guide to referencing
available. [For an example, go to wwwols.hud.ac.uk/cls/docs/helpsheets/
Referencing.pdf where you will find the University of Huddersfield’s excel-
lent guide.]
The list of references is a list of all the texts you have specifically cited
in the essay. The bibliography is a list of all the texts you have read but not
cited within the essay.

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Referencing within the text
Paraphrasing
You will find it useful throughout your work to use paraphrases. This is
where you summarize someone’s argument in your own words, i.e. you are
not making a direct quotation. When you are paraphrasing, you do not need
to give a page number. It is only necessary to give the surname of the author
and the date of the text where the argument was cited.
Exercise 1.3
It is widely acknowledged that parental involvement impacts on
a child’s attainment (Douglas 1964; Plowden 1967).
Haverman and Wolfe (1995) found that children of parents with
a high level of education performed better than children with less
educated parents.
What two ways does the student use here to paraphrase an argument?
In the first paraphrase, how does the author validate the underlined
phrase?
Direct quotations
Generally you are only advised to use a direct quotation if it says something
really important. You should avoid the temptation to use too many quota-
tions in your work. Lengthy quotations should also be avoided. One sure way
to irritate a tutor is to include a quotation with no further discussion of it. If
a quotation is worthy of being cited in your work, it is worthy of discussion.
Quotations with no introduction are also equally irritating, as in the
following example:
Inclusion will certainly happen increasingly over the first part of the
new century … The desegregationist and anti-discriminatory politi-
cal environment is now international and it seems impossible that
its direction will be reversed.
(Thomas 1997: 106)
This needs to be placed in context, so there should be an opening phrase

such as: ‘ Literature indicates that inclusion has now taken hold’.

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Long quotations
The following example taken from Case study B illustrates that long quota-
tions should be separated from the text and indented. Quotations should be
properly referenced with the surname of the author (initials of first name are
not necessary), the date of text from which the quote was taken and a page
number (Harvard referencing). It is not necessary to cite the title of the text
as this will be given in the list of references. Quotation marks are not needed
for indented quotations. Some students prefer to put quotes in italics and
tutors may have preferences about this. However, the key is to be consistent
throughout the work so that all quotes are set out in the same way. Indented
quotations are generally presented using single line spacing and the reference
is generally positioned at the bottom of the quotation near the right-hand
side, on a new line, as shown below:
There is an argument about modelling which suggests that teachers
are merely providing an opportunity for pupils to reproduce the
presented task or process without internalizing it. In defence, Swan-
wick argues that this is not necessarily a negative facet:
Imitation is not mere copying, but includes sympathy, empa-

thy, identification with, concern for, seeing ourselves as some-
thing or someone else. It is the activity in which we enlarge
our repertoire of action and thought … [Imitation] is certainly
not hostile to creative imagination.
(Swanwick 1988: 45)
Exercise 1.4
+ How effective is the writer’s introduction of the quote?

+ Suggest ways in which this could be made more effective.
+ In what other way could the quote be referenced?
The reference and page number for quotations can also be placed before the
quotation, as in the following example. However, the key is to be consistent:
Wilson (1999: 111) argues that:
The more radically we come to see the school as a community which

primarily has a social function, roughly to make everyone feel
‘included’ whatever activity they undertake, this is substantially

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different from seeing a school primarily as a learning community. A

learning community exists for a certain purpose – to promote
learning – and will attend to and value its clients as learners, not just
as people in general. The hard, inescapable fact is that learning,
however broadly defined, is a particular kind of human
activity …which different people may be more or less good at.
Short quotations
Short quotations do not need to be indented and can fit smoothly within the
text. Single quotation marks should be used and a reference for the quotation
should be provided indicating the surname of the author, the date of the text
from which the quote was taken and a page number. Again, it is not necessary
to give the title of the text, as this will appear in the list of references. Some
examples of short quotations from Case study A are listed below:
Feinstein and Symons (1999: 306) contend that ‘variables such as

class size and teacher experience are usually found to have little
effect on attainment’.
Gorard and Smith (2004: 216) argue that ‘the overwhelming major-
ity of variance in school results is predicted by the nature (or prior
attainment) of the intake’.
Baker et al. (2003: 77) argue that ‘there are troublesome conceptual
issues involved in identifying membership of social classes’.
Exercise 1.5
Sometimes it is possible to put the reference after the quote. The

following example provides an illustration:
It has been argued that ‘the interaction in focus groups empha-
sises empathy and commonality of experiences and fosters self-
disclosure and self-validation’ (Madriz 1998: 116).
Look at the following quote from Case study B:
Kerry (1998) describes explaining as ‘a complicated process’ and
insists that ‘those who want to become good at it must analyse,
practise and acquire the skills involved’ (Kerry 1998: 120).
How could this be re-worded so that the reader is only introduced to
the author after the quotation?

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Secondary referencing
Secondary referencing is where you cite the research or viewpoint of an

author but have not read the original text where that research or viewpoint
was originally cited. Instead you have read about their work in another text.
You should keep secondary references to a minimum. Where possible, you
should consult the original text. This is because in secondary referencing you
are only reading someone’s interpretation of another’s work. It is not always
possible to access all the texts so some degree of secondary referencing will
be inevitable, in which case you need to make it clear to the reader that you
have not consulted the original text. Some examples of how to do this are
shown below:
Bullough (1998) writes about this when he argues that:
We cannot write just anything we wish … interpretations,

however tentative, must be disciplined by data, and … we
must proceed cautiously and carefully before proclaiming a
plot.
(Bullough 1998, in Goodson and Sikes 2001: 56)
Goodson and Sikes (2001) cite Plummer (1995) who has written
about the way in which life stories can also be empowering to the
reader.
It is clear that the rationale for life history research is based on solid
arguments. Goodson and Sikes (2001: 99) cite McLaughlin and
Tierney (1993), who argues that narrative research allows individuals
to ‘name their silenced lives’.
A perceptive comment is made by Hargreaves (1997) who is critical
of the political demand for more quantitative data by arguing that it
can ‘promote a narrowly utilitarian and philistine approach to
research and intellectual life’ (cited in Hughes 2003: 11).
Using ibid.
In academic texts you will often see ibid. used when referencing paraphrases
or quotes. Ibid. is short for ibidem, Latin for ‘in the same place’. This is used
when the writer is citing an author’s work that has previously been cited
elsewhere in the study. In the example, Bentley (Case study B) makes use of
this convention: ‘When teachers try to explain too much, they can often be
met by the ‘‘enemy… the limited size of the student’s short-term memory’’

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(Petty ibid.)’. Therefore, Bentley has previously cited this text and page
number in the study immediately preceding this quotation, so there is no
need to write out the full reference again. Ibid. is used only if the immedi-
ately preceding reference is the same as the ibid. reference. Writers may also
use op. cit. (opere citato – from the work cited). However, you should note
that the use of either of these conventions could be confusing. If at all in
doubt, there is no need to use them – they tend to add nothing and may
even detract from sense.
Completing the list of references
Follow the procedures for setting out a list of references laid down by your
own institution. In particular, note carefully how to set out references for
books, journal articles, web-based material, government publications and
newspaper articles. References are set out in alphabetical order, using single
line spacing, with a space between each reference. Different types of sources
are generally listed together, so there is no need to list books together, then
journal articles and so on. Tutors will check that all sources in the essay
appear in the list of references and they will also check for a balanced list of
sources such as books, journal articles and web-based sources.
Extended project
Find a critical friend to work with throughout the duration of your

course. Ask your critical friend to proofread your academic work. Ask
them to suggest ways of improving the work.
Key points
+ Do not make unsupported claims or assertions. These must

be supported with research and literature.
+ Check your referencing guide and set out quotes and para-
phrases according to its conventions.
+ Avoid the over-use of secondary referencing.

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2 Reading at M Level
Learning to use literature
The greatest part of a writer’s time is spent in reading, in order to

write: a man will turn over half a library to make one book.
(James Boswell, Life of Samuel Johnson, 1791)
Developing a literature review
This chapter identifies the reasons for writing a review of literature in your
field of study and includes suggestions and ideas on how to carry out a
literature review. Suitable sources of information for M Level literature
searches are outlined, including questions to interrogate them. The nature of
criticality within M Level is explored and ways for you to address this are
suggested. The chapter also examines the breadth and depth of reading
required at M Level using specific literature such as theoretical and research-
based literature, government publications and policy documents. Key aspects
of an effective literature review are specified.
The chapter clarifies the relationship of the literature review to an M
Level assignment and concludes by presenting study skills which can be
developed to enhance your literature review.
Why write a literature review?
The literature review is a critical examination of the existing theory and

research that is important to your project. You will be expected to demon-
strate quality in exercising judgement in assessing the coherence and
relevance of literature, in relating this to practice and in evaluating
the outcomes. You must establish a theoretical framework for the study
through your literature review, thus setting it within the context of current

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28 READING AT M LEVEL
knowledge. Being clear about your theoretical framework at this stage will
help you determine the main areas to be covered by the literature review, and
this will break the writing down into manageable chunks. A planning
framework can be developed to help you ascertain the direction your
theoretical framework is going to take. The example shows what you could
include in your planning framework.
+ Draft Title (note that this is a working title only – it can be refined
at a later date)
+ Background to the study and rationale (reasons for the study; how it
came about/why it needs to be done)
+ What will my particular focus be? (aim to choose an original focus)
+ Aims of the study (these should be related to your research problem)
+ Literature review (what themes of literature could be included)
+ Methods of data collection (outline which methods you propose to
use and the number of participants, if applicable)
+ Are there any ethical considerations? (confidentiality, positionality;
participant involvement, etc., does permission for the research
have to be obtained?).
Thinking about and reflecting on your proposed project will give you an
opportunity to consider the focus, context and rationale, as outlined in
Chapter 3, as well as your motives for the research. However, you will be at
the very early stages of development and should expect to be open to
changes.
Scaffolding
The ‘framework’ or ‘writing frame’ (see p. 43) is designed to provide you with
the support to enable you to achieve criticality. It has its roots in educational
research linked to how parents (and therefore others, such as tutors) can help
children’s cognitive development. It forms part of what might be considered
a ‘web’ of support – mechanisms that include course readers and recom-
mended reading, tutor support, specific academic writing support, library
services and peer networks that create a scaffold. Hustedt and Raver (2002:
113) observe that:
Mothers’ provision of guidance, encouragement, and structure dur-

ing routine problem-solving tasks has been viewed as a critical
‘‘scaffold’’ to young children’s cognitive development (Wood,
Bruner, & Ross, 1976). One hypothesis is that sensitive low-income
parents may effectively scaffold their children’s problem-solving
skills, facilitating their children’s later cognitive competence.

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READING AT M LEVEL 29
and in the same work:

Scaffolding refers to a co-constructive process by which a tutor, often a
parent, takes into consideration the abilities of a learner, typically a
child, to structure a task in accordance with those abilities. Scaffolding
research has a basis in Vygotsky’s (1978) idea that tutors should target
their instruction toward the child’s ‘‘zone of proximal development’’,
which includes abilities that are currently developing.
(Hustedt and Raver 2002: 113)
Your ability to synthesize, critically consider, evaluate and reflect may be

considered to be at a developmental stage at the start of your Masters
assignment, so ‘scaffolding’ is appropriate.
Sources of literature
Sources of literature appropriate for M Level study include: journal articles,

books, government documents and web-based sources. It is advisable to keep
your sources as up to date as possible, as education changes fairly rapidly.
However, some of the older literature may well include seminal writings,
notable reviews or pertinent issues, or could be of historical relevance and,
therefore, are valid sources.
Your starting point will always be the reading list provided by your
tutor. Each assignment will have a separate reading list of key texts, usually
focused on specific chapters, articles or pages within a publication. It is vital
that you read these first, noting any further reading to which they might
lead you. These publications and websites provide the initial guide for your
journey and save you the job of seeking your own starting point. On some
courses you will be able to obtain a ‘course reader’ containing key extracts.
Questions at the end of each section below give guidance on how to
critically interrogate the sources of literature.
Journal articles
Journals are published at regular intervals throughout the year: weekly,

monthly or quarterly, and are, therefore, a good source of up-to-date
information on your area of study. They provide access to subjects too new to
be covered in books, accounts of current trends, events and statistics, as well
as research findings. They can often be accessed on-line with a specific search
facility (check with your university librarian). There are a wide range of
journals of differing quality and usability. Terms used to describe quality are

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often used interchangeably, for example: refereed, scholarly, peer reviewed or

academic. These are the best sources to use in your study because the articles
or papers submitted for publication are evaluated by a group of individuals
who are experts in the subject area. Refereed materials assure the reader that
the information conveyed is reliable. Depending on your theoretical frame-
work, other journals may be valuable, even if they are not refereed, because
they are professional publications which relate to your practice. An example
of a refereed journal is Educational Research and an example of a professional
journal is School Leadership and Management (both used in Case study A).
Key questions you need to ask yourself are:
+ Is this a refereed or well-established professional journal?

+ What are the purpose and aims of the writer?
+ How has the writer developed his/her arguments to support the
case being made?
Books
The main thing for you to remember about books is that they tend to be less
up to date than journal articles, as it takes longer for a book to be published.
The same points mentioned above about ‘refereed sources’ applies to books.
They are a central source of literature and offer a good starting point from
which to explore other sources of information. When tracing the history of a
particular concept within education, books are a good way to establish the
time frame.
As a guide to currency of information it is better to try to have a
ten-year rule in terms of relevance (unless it is a seminal work which could
date back over 50 years).
Questions you need to ask yourself are:
+ Is the information up to date?

+ Is the author a recognized expert in this field?
+ Does the evidence being put forward support the assertions being
made?
Theoretical-based literature
Theoretical literature is based on assumptions and beliefs that have been

created within the social world. It is related to knowledge and deals with
systems of inter-related concepts which may well be drawn from other
writers’ work. An example of a widely held theoretical belief is that of the

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‘reflective practitioner’ which draws on the theories of Schön (1983) as

outlined in the section on ‘what is meant by critical reflection’. Denscombe
(1998: 240) reminds us that in the social sciences we must treat ‘theory’ with
more caution than we would if it related to the natural sciences. He argues
that this is because of ‘the complexity of social phenomena and because
people react to knowledge about themselves in a way that chemicals and
forces do not’.
+ What is the methodology?

+ What value judgements/belief systems underpin the theory?
+ Is the author linked to an organization/institution/government
body? Questions of bias or a particular way of looking at theory
may be important.
Government and corporate reports
Many government departments and corporations commission or carry out

research. Their published findings can provide a useful source of informa-
tion, depending on your field of study. In the education sector such bodies as
the Department for Children, Schools and Families (DCSF) (formerly the
Department for Education and Science: DfES) and the Office for Standards in
Education (Ofsted) publish many reports and documents. However, it must
be remembered that these are not to be regarded as fact and should be
scrutinized in the same way as any other information you have gathered.
+ What is the status of the report?

+ What is it trying to prove?
+ Are there any other perspectives on this issue that do not come
from government sources?
Web-based resources
There are many good education websites that give quick and easy access to
information, for example, the government reports referred to above. How-
ever, if you are using the web for your research, you will need to develop the
skills to evaluate the suitability of what you find. You will already be aware
that some of the information on the web is unreliable and of dubious quality.
However, it may be a useful starting point for your literature review.
Wikipedia, for example, is not acceptable as an academic source but may be a

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useful starting point as it may indicate relevant academic texts or websites.

‘Google academic’ is a similar device for pointing you in the direction of
good sources of literature.
+ Have you evidence that the information is reliable?

+ Is there an author and is s/he an expert in the field?
+ Is it possible to follow up sources of literature which are refer-
enced?
Key points
+ As your reading develops your increasing knowledge, it will

give you the basis to evaluate what has already been written
in your field of study, demonstrate the relationships between
different sources and show how this relates to your project.
+ It is important to remember, however, that you are not
writing just a summary of other people’s work.
+ You should analyse what others have written about the
subject to underpin the originality of your own research, i.e.
you have identified a ‘gap’ in the knowledge or have a new
perspective because no-one has written about your context.
Critical engagement
M Level work requires critical engagement with the ideas of those in

‘authority’, such as authors of the above sources. Learning to be critical
within academic enquiry requires a specific approach to your work, i.e. it has
a particular meaning in academic study. Wallace and Poulson (2003: 6)
outline what being critical in academic enquiry means and this includes:
+ adopting an attitude of scepticism – not cynicism;

+ a questioning approach to claims being made;
+ scrutinizing – checking the coherence of a theory, checking suffi-
ciency of evidence, checking for underpinning values and assump-
tions;
+ keeping an open mind;
+ being constructive.
They consider that becoming a critical learner requires taking responsibility

for your own academic learning and having the motivation to inform your

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own and others’ practice. If you present your own opinions, make it clear
that these are your own and ensure that no unsubstantiated statements are
made. Verbs such as ‘could’ and ‘may’ indicate that you are not making a
claim of certainty but are suggesting a possibility.
When developing your literature review, you may find one or two
sources of literature that you can relate to and the danger is to rely too
heavily on them in presenting your review. To do so would mean that your
arguments would not be balanced and you will be severely limited in your
ability to provide a critical review. A poor engagement with literature would
be where you presented chunks of material which were simply lifted from
different sources and not linked together.
There is no doubt that you will have to deal with difficult concepts
when engaging critically with literature. The dissertation (Case study A)
provides a good example with reference to the term underachievement:
‘there is no agreed or consistently applied definition for underachievement’.
It explains that ‘more recently academics are trying to define the term in
order to clarify the meaning to enable it to be applied in a consistent
manner’. The researcher has taken an earlier definition from the 1960s which
she considers encompasses the widely held belief that underachieving pupils
can be grouped by identified variables. Thus, she has acknowledged the
difficulty of defining the concept and has made her position clear.
What is meant by critical reflection?
Working at M Level you are expected to engage critically with literature at a

deeper level than on an undergraduate programme. There are various
published models of critical reflection set out in the theories of Schön (1983),
and exemplified by such writers as Kolb (1984) and Elliott (1993) that have
been influential in professional education. Reflective practitioners develop
their own ‘theories in use’ based on a range of factors, including their
experience of similar situations, the knowledge of experts around them and
their evaluation of the problems they are deciphering. Kolb (1984) demon-
strates the importance of reflection through ’the learning cycle’ which is
outlined in Figure 2.1.
In this theory, learning is presented as a dynamic process that inte-
grates direct experience, reflection on that experience, and the production of
generalized explanations that can be tested out through practical application.
The process develops from a two-dimensional cycle to a three-dimensional
spiral as ideas are transformed through experience (Harrison 2003).
However, one criticism is that this tends to be a model of ‘single loop
learning’, whereas at Masters Level you need to engage in ‘double loop
learning’. This involves reflection not only on what you do but also a

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1
Concrete
Experience
“Feeling”
4 2
Active Reflection and
Experimentation Observation
“Doing” “Watching”
3
Abstract
Conceptualization
“Thinking”
Figure 2.1 Kolb’s ‘learning cycle’
consideration of the reasons why; the assumptions that underlie your

practice that may need to be revised (Argyris and Schön 1978, cited in
Bennett 1997).
Key points
+ It is best to avoid a ‘source-by-source’ treatment of literature.

Instead, adopt a theme-by-theme approach that reflects your
theoretical framework.
+ The treatment of sources should be critical and analytical:
key ideas and themes need to be debated and contrasted, not
simply listed and described.
+ Your reading will indicate that different writers will be
making the same or similar points and these can be com-
bined.
+ The synthesis of material within the literature review, to-
gether with examples from writers who are making diverse
claims, is a good example of critical engagement with theory.
+ Through undertaking a masters programme you will begin to
engage with critical reflection and double-loop learning
which will be beneficial not only to your studies but also to
your professional role.

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Exercise 2.1
Read through the dissertation Case study literature review (Case study
A) and pick out examples of where a synthesis of concepts and views
has been achieved.
A range of literature and materials
The development of arguments which are theoretically underpinned is one

of the key aspects of engaging critically with the literature. Different types of
literature will tend to emphasize claims to different kinds of knowledge and
have different sets of strengths and limitations which you will be expected to
identify. These include: research, theoretical, policy and practice.
Research-based literature
This is based on focused and systematic enquiry and is a written account of

research by someone in authority – i.e. someone who has a real insight into
an issue – who has undertaken an investigative study using various methods
of data collection and analysis resulting in a set of research findings. In this
context, the word ‘authority’ does not mean a position of power but
someone who has real insight into an issue. The quality of research is
variable and often, to some extent, depends on who undertook the investi-
gation and for what purpose. For example, a learned professor who has
published widely and disseminated research through refereed journal articles
and conferences is, perhaps, going to present a more acceptable account of
his/her research than a novice action researcher. Although, you must remem-
ber, of course, that some widely respected research has been discredited at a
later stage. Another point you should consider is the purpose of the research.
Much of the research undertaken is funded and you must consider who the
funding body is and how it could have influenced the research outcomes.
The work may or may not be explicitly linked to a particular theory.
Theoretical-based literature
When discussing your own experience of your organization, you might wish
to comment on different theories and their uses or deficiencies when applied

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to the real-life situation being explored. You should not use theory to merely
support your ideas – again, remember to take a critical perspective and
disagree as well as agree. Consider where other theorists have identified gaps
or weaknesses or challenged the basic premises of a particular theoretical
position. Theoretical-based literature will also be present in research-based
works.
Policy literature
Literature derived from policy tends to emphasize knowledge from practice.

It is based on a set of values and assumptions in keeping with a particular
political ideology. In the case of an M Level project, you will find that it will
often relate to policy which has been developed to impact on practice.
This is a good source of evidence, particularly because of its relation-
ship to practice. For example, if you are an ‘early years specialist’ you would
want to refer to the ‘Every Child Matters’ agenda (DfES 2004) and relevant
legislation. This would certainly demonstrate that you are aware of what is
happening in the educational field. However, there is a danger that you
could get too reliant on this source of information, continually refer to it and
give it the status of an indisputable document. All government policy should
be open to discussion and debate; if you accept it uncritically, you are not
demonstrating critical integration of literature.
Practice-based literature
Literature derived from practice is a very relevant source, particularly for the
education researcher. A great deal of research/theory published in education
is related to practice. What is being expected is that through the processes
involved in developing your project, you will improve your professional
practice.
Policy-based literature relates to knowledge of everyday activities of
professional practice which could include teaching. This may be tacit
know-how, i.e. going about your daily routine without having to think too
much about it. An example of this for a teacher could be behaviour
management. Reflection is the means whereby this tacit knowledge is
brought into full consciousness in order to inform and challenge practice. In
this instance it would require motivation to engage in critical reflection with
the literature on behaviour management.

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Key points
+ The range of resources used is a key aspect of demonstrating

the extent to which you have critically engaged with the
literature and the materials.
+ You can develop more credible arguments by not relying too
heavily on one source of information.
+ Choosing a variety of sources can also be a good way to
validate your own ideas as well as providing different points
of view.
Exercise 2.2
Look at the following examples of literature from Case study A and sort
them into the above categories. However, as you progress with this
exercise, you will find that categories are ‘leaky’ and in some instances
the example could fit into two or more.
DfES (2006b) Making Good Progress. London: DfES.
Gorard, S. and Smith, E. (2004) What is ‘underachievement’ at school?

School Leadership and Management, 24(2).
Hendricks, C. (2006) Improving Schools through Action Research: A Com-

prehensive Guide for Educators. Boston: Pearson Education.
Jones, S. and Myhill, D. (2004) Seeing things differently: teachers’

construction of underachievement, Gender and Education, 16(4).
Learning and Skills Council (2006) Key Learning and Skills Facts: York-
shire and Humber, 2006–7 (online) available at: www.lsc.gov.uk.
A guide to a successful literature review
This section outlines aspects of an effective literature review. The examples

given fit into either the ‘effective’ or ‘ineffective’ categories. The effective
examples are from Case study A.

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Exercise 2.3
Use your reading and experience to decide whether the examples are
from reviews that were judged to be ‘effective’ or ‘ineffective’ and
justify how you came to that conclusion.
Effective Review Ineffective Review

Uses a range of sources of Sticks to a few sources such as
literature. text books and internet.
Example
Dolton et al. (1999) argue that the National Curriculum and
standardized tests have greatly increased the chances of pupils from
poor background achieving the grade. … Rashman et al.’s (2001)
research indicated that at KS2 pupils on free school meals (FSM) results
are lower than non-FSM pupils, with FSM being a direct measure of
poorer families. Smith (2003: 581) categorically believes that ‘pupils
from relatively more economically disadvantaged homes were less
successful as they were never expected to achieve the higher levels in
line with their affluent counterparts’.
Presents a balanced argument Relies on only one or two
by taking into consideration sources of information
the views of a selection of
authors
Example
Feinstein and Symons (1999: 306) contend that ‘variables such as class
size and teacher experience are usually found to have little effect on
attainment’. This, however, does not appear to reflect the view of
Ofsted (1997: 9) that states that ‘there are clear links between
unsatisfactory teaching and low levels of attainment’ and Wright et al.
(1997: 63) who state that ‘the most important factor affecting students’
learning is the teacher’.
Uses paraphrasing to connect Only refers to the works of
the views of writers with one or two authors and does
similar vision. not make connections
between them.

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Example
Jones and Myhill (2004: 531) claim that underachievement is
‘concerned with potential not lack of ability’ and that
underachievement should be a measure of a pupil not doing as well as
expected with the expected achievement derived from an IQ test. Both
Jones and Myhill and Plewis (1991) explain this as being the view of the
psychologists and accept that it is problematic as it relies on a reliable,
independent measure of IQ.
Keeps quotations short and Over-uses quotations and does
pithy with linkage clearly not link them to the text.
made to its reason for
inclusion in the literature
review.
Example
‘The ever-growing importance of scientific issues in our daily lives
demands a populace who have sufficient knowledge and understanding
to follow science and scientific debates’ (Miller and Osborne 1998: 5).
‘The current curriculum retains its past, mid-twentieth-century
emphasis, presenting science as a body of knowledge which is
value-free, objective and detached … a succession of ‘‘facts’’ to be
learnt, with insufficient indicated of any overarching coherence.’
Adopts a thematic approach Writes chunks of material with
to the literature review. little connection.
The dissertation literature review in the Case study has followed an
overall theme of underachievement, with sub-themes of community
characteristics; ethnicity; the teacher’s role; the role of adults in the
home; prior attainment at Key Stage 2.
Uses up-to-date sources of Uses sources which are over
materials, unless quoting ten years old where material
seminal works or following an can be out of date and no
historical time line. longer relevant.
Example
It is widely acknowledged that parental involvement impacts on a
child’s attainment (Douglas 1964; Plowden 1967).
Key points
+ A good literature review demonstrates criticality, i.e. the

ability to ‘unpick’ an issue or problem and to judge the
extent to which relevant theories are clear and coherent.
+ It should consider the extent to which the claims being made
or the arguments put forward by a writer are convincing.

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M Level assignments
When undertaking an M Level assignment it is important that you address

the title, learning outcomes and aims outlined by the module specification.
You should also make reference to the literature review in the analysis. These
are an important guide to the development of the theoretical framework for
the literature review.
Addressing the title
Addressing the title of the assignment may seem to be quite a simple task.
However, many a promising piece of research has been let down by the
researcher not addressing what the title infers. You should start by develop-
ing a ‘working title’ for the study as part of your planning framework as
outlined above and then continually make reference to it and question if it
accurately describes what you are undertaking. The title has direct relevance
to the sources of literature with which you ought to engage. For example, if
the title of a study is ‘An Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Formative
Assessment Strategies on the Quality of Writing at Years 5 and 6’, then you
could choose as one of your areas of literature ‘Formative and Summative
Assessment’.
Aims of the project
The aims of your project should be clearly articulated; three or four at the
most are advised. You should constantly use these as a reference point for the
project as they will form the framework for the literature review, methodol-
ogy, analysis and conclusions. You should check that all parts of the
literature review have relevance with regard to the aims to ensure that you
have not gone off at a tangent in your discussions.
Exercise 2.4
One of the aims used within Case study A is ‘to investigate the factors
which have the potential to cause pupils to underperform in secondary
schools’. Consider what you would choose as one of the key areas of
investigation within the literature review.

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Meeting learning outcomes
In order to achieve M Level work, you must demonstrate that you are
meeting the learning outcomes of the module you are studying. These can be
expressed in various ways but usually include the key words ‘knowledge and
understanding’. This gives you guidance on the knowledge you are expected
to acquire and understand during the course of the assessment which is, of
course, connected to the literature review.
An example of knowledge and understanding outcomes is given below
for a dissertation module which relates to Case study A:
+ Critically understands contextual theoretical and empirical re-

search literature relevant to the focus of the dissertation.
+ Critically understand the strengths and weaknesses of the chosen
methodology and data collection methods.
+ Has in-depth knowledge of appropriate data analysis techniques.
It is important that you are aware that knowledge is tentative and value-
laden; there is a lack of agreement among experts about its exact meaning. It
is also useful for you to remember that any review of the literature should
reflect more than one kind of knowledge. Wallace and Poulson (2003: 23)
refer to the use of different kinds of knowledge for different purposes.
However, the knowledge itself has little value unless you can demonstrate
that you critically understand the concepts and ideas that you are writing
about.
Exercise 2.5
Read examples in the literature of different kinds of knowledge you

could use in your project. List examples of these and consider how your
value judgements could affect your objectivity in relation to these.
Analysis of findings
It is important that when you critically interrogate your findings you

synthesize the main issues and underpin these with relevant literature, in
particular, what has been examined in the literature review. If new literature
to your study has appeared since you wrote the literature review, you can
bring it in here.

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Blend your discussion of theoretical principles and research findings

into the analysis of your professional practice, and its organizational/
national/local context, in order that direct comparisons and contrasts can be
made and that issues, tensions and debates can be drawn out.
Exercise 2.6
Read through the ‘Analysis and Discussion’ section in the dissertation

(Case study A) and pick out examples of where reference has been
made to the literature review.
The literature review is not a stand-alone examination of the reading you

have undertaken for the study. It is the basis for the theoretical framework of
the project and is created from the aims of the study, module learning
outcomes and should be related to the title of the assignment. In order to
synthesize your assignment, reference to the literature review should be
made within the analysis of findings.
Study skills for conducting a literature review
Using a thematic approach
It can be daunting setting out to write a 3000–4000 word literature review. It

is unlikely that coverage will be exhaustive and consequently reading should
be informed, selective and current. One suggestion is to choose three or four
key themes which relate to the focus of the study and the research field. This
will guide your literature search and reading. However, the areas must be
interlinked and the reasons for choice of your theoretical framework (and
hence your literature) should be clearly articulated in the introduction to the
literature review.
Word count
It is very important to stick to any word counts given for M Level

assignments. Part of the discipline in writing at M Level is being able to
produce concise and relevant material. Often going over the allocated
wordage could mean that you could have digressed in places. Many HEIs do
allow 10 per cent flexibility either side of the wordage but do check this with
your tutors. The development of a writing frame, as outlined below, is a good
tool for imposing some self-discipline on the writing up of your project.

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Writing frame
Taking the time to develop a writing frame before you commence your
project is a good study skill to ensure that you keep within the parameters of
your word count. This process involves you taking the overall total and
estimating how many words to put into each section. It is understandable
that certain sections, such as the Introduction and Conclusion will not carry
the same weight as the literature review. Table 2.1 is a guide to how the
wordage for a typical dissertation of 12,500–15,000 words could be appor-
tioned. Having such a plan helps you keep within your allocated word count
and put more weighting on the key areas of literature, methodology and
analysis and less on the Introduction and Conclusion.
Table 2.1 A writing frame
Section Approximate wordage

Introduction 2000 words
Literature review 3500 words
Research and methodology 2500 words
Analysis 3500 words
Conclusion 3500 words
Literary searches
You should get started with your reading as soon as you have formulated an
idea for your project. The reading of one or two articles will provide the
stimulus for you to seek out further literature and develop and refine your
search. It can be very time-consuming so it is important that you make use of
the excellent library resources available in HEIs. Libraries have a wide range
of up-to-date source material, including electronic sources. Many journal
articles/e-books are now available electronically through your library website
and search engines provide easy accessibility. Make a list of key words from
your initial ideas to use in your initial searches. It is useful to get into good
study habits right from the start, so do keep notes of each article or text that
you are reading. Remember to keep detailed accurate references (including
page numbers) for all the materials used, and cite or quote from them using
the Harvard system.
Texts and journals can also be accessed via a number of electronic
search engines, some of which require a subscription. Examples include
Metalib, BERA and the British Education Index (see websites below). It is
essential that you record references as you read them, otherwise you may

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have a brilliantly apposite piece of writing, but be unable to later track down
its provenance! If you are citing a web reference, you should also make a note
of the date accessed.
Extended project
Look at the four titles below and suggest three sources of literature
which could be related to each of the studies. Choose one of the
projects and, using the three texts as your ‘core’ reading, list ten other
pieces of literature. These should include a mixture of chapters from
books, journal articles, extracts and websites. If you carry this out in a
peer group, you can then compare lists with those of others and, in this
way, see which literature may be considered central.
+ A Study into the Cost and Impact of the Intensifying Support

Programme and its Effect on School Improvement.
+ Can the ‘Big Writing’ Initiative Improve Pupil Motivation
and Help them ‘Attain their Targets?’
+ A Study into the Impact of the New GCSE Core Science
Curriculum.
+ An assignment title pertinent to your own studies.
Conclusion
Undertaking the literature review is the first stage on your journey of

discovery. It may take many wrong turnings and send you down blind alleys
but these all contribute to the richness of your critical reflection. Remember
that writing a literature review is not an innate ability! It is a skill that can be
learned. However, it requires motivation, an enquiring and open mind,
patience and perseverance, and good time management. You must also
develop the confidence to seek advice and guidance from tutors and to ask
for clarification if needed when given feedback on your work.
References
Bennett, N. (1997) Analysing management for personal development: Theory
and practice, in L. Kydd, M. Crawford, and C. Riches (eds) Professional
Development for Educational Management. Buckingham: Open University Press,
pp. 60–73.

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Denscombe, M. (1998) The Good Research Guide. Buckingham: Open Univer-

sity Press.
Department for Education and Skills (2004) Every Child Matters: Change for
Children. London: TSO.
Elliott, J. (ed.) (1993) Reconstructing Teacher Education. London: Falmer Press.
Harrison, R. (2003) Learning for professional development, in L. Kydd, L.

Anderson and W. Newton (eds) Leading People and Teams in Education.
London: The Open University, in association with Paul Chapman Publishing.
Hustedt, J. T. and Raver, T.C. (2002) International Journal of Behavioral

Development, 26(2): 113–19.
Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Schön, D.A. (1983) The Reflective Practitioner. London: Temple Smith.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978) Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Wallace, M. and Poulson, L. (2003) Critical reading for self-critical writing, in
M. Wallace and L. Poulson (eds) Learning to Read Critically in Educational
Leadership and Management. London: Sage Publications.
Wood, D., Bruner, J.S. and Ross, G. (1976) The role of tutoring in problem
solving, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17: 89–100.
Websites
British Education Index http://www.leeds.ac.uk/bei/
British Educational Research Association http://www.bera.ac.uk/
Metalib http://exlibrisgroup.com/metalib.htm

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3 Researching at M Level
Focus, context and rationale
Our knowledge can only be finite, while our ignorance must

necessarily be infinite.
(Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations, 1963)
Introduction
Why do research? It can be time-consuming, demanding, and if embarked on
for the wrong reasons and without a clear focus, stressful. On the other hand,
of course, it can cement relationships with colleagues and learners, offer
insight into professional experience, improve your impact as a teacher and
can be enjoyable. It all depends on whether you can ‘get it right’: the right
motives, the right focus, the right preparation. What is right for one activity,
or group of researchers may be inappropriate for others. So, how does a
budding researcher find out what is ‘right’ for them? In this chapter we offer
advice for those working on a critical commentary for a portfolio-type
assignment, a piece of action research for a module or for a dissertation.
This chapter is about understanding your own motives for researching
a topic, finding an appropriate focus for that research, exploring the context,
and explaining your reasons (rationale). This chapter is laid out under these
headings. However, the process of developing a focus, determining the
appropriate context and explaining your rationale is rarely a linear process.
You will be constantly going backwards and forwards, reviewing each
section, changing, editing in the light of what you are learning while you are
doing your research.
Motivation
The first place to start is with your own motives for doing the research. It is
important to be honest about your motives with informants, collaborators

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RESEARCHING AT M LEVEL 47
and other interested parties. Crucially, it is important to be honest with

yourself. It may be that you are embarking upon research because it is a
necessary part of the requirements for the Masters qualification you are
pursuing. Maybe you had never thought of doing research, and it holds no
great interest for you. If this is the case, then there is a tendency to feel guilty
about this and pretend that you want to find something profound that is not
only going to add to the world’s knowledge but will also offer magic
solutions for you and your colleagues. This is a mistake. You are, or wish to
be, qualified in your field of work. This requires you to undertake tasks
necessary for you to achieve or develop the status that your career offers. This
is an instrumental reason for doing research. This involves your professional
development and a contribution to the development of your institution
whether it is a training organization, a school or a college. On the other
hand, you may be excited at the prospect of doing research. You can see
yourself working late into the evenings, travelling a road of discovery that
nobody else has travelled, revealing truths and making connections that
nobody else has thought of. You can’t wait to get started. This is an intrinsic
motive, and is mistakenly thought of as a more legitimate reason for
undertaking research. It may be that you feel a bit of both. However you feel
about doing research, you need to examine your motives and be truthful
about them. This examination of motives has implications.
If your primary motive is instrumental, then those affected by your
research need to know this, so that they understand that the person most
likely to gain anything from the research is the researcher. Even if your
motivation is weighted towards the intrinsic value, then the person most
likely to gain from research, is still you, the researcher. Understanding this
prevents you from making promises to people that you can’t keep. Benefits
to your informants that might accrue from your research cannot be guaran-
teed. It is wise not to raise expectations that may not be met. Research,
write-up and dissemination take time. It is possible that a current cohort of
your learners may benefit from your research (particularly if it is action
research), but if there are benefits, it may well be a future cohort who would
benefit more.
Choosing to start research is a big decision, for you, your colleagues,
your learners, and possibly your family and your friends. Expectations need
to be realistic. Your aim is to meet, or if you are really well prepared, and
lucky, to exceed expectations.
A second implication is that it starts you questioning the assumptions
we all take for granted. For example, in the course of carrying out the work of
an educational practitioner, we learn certain behaviours; some are deliber-
ately learnt, others we pick up by being around other practitioners. An
example of this would be the practice observed in a secondary school
whereby pupils always stood when a teacher entered the classroom – not the

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48 RESEARCHING AT M LEVEL
caretaker, not a technician – just teachers. When a senior teacher at the

school was asked to explain the reasoning behind this, he couldn’t. He said
he had never thought about it, they had just always done it. As researchers
we examine our reasons, actions and thoughts, and those of others.
The next section considers three areas that normally shape the first part
or chapter (if it is a dissertation) of a written assignment at Masters Level.
This next section is about the first, faltering, provisional step taken when
doing research: choosing a focus.
Finding a focus
This first step should be re-visited throughout the research project until it
becomes resilient to interrogation from others. Once a provisional focus is
identified, the feedback from data collection and analysis may lead to further
refinement of the focus and results in a robust and meaningful piece of
research. This constant move from focus to data and back again is called
progressive focusing (Altrichter et al. 1993). This often happens during the
course of a research project; you start out thinking you are looking at one
thing, then as you gather more information you realize that you are looking
at an ever narrower aspect because you have discovered in doing the research
that it is better to do it this way. Sometimes, in more extreme examples you
may even decide that you have been looking at the wrong thing and are now
looking at something else. The important thing is to be honest in what you
write, and don’t pretend that, as you decided the focus was (X) at the start
that you will keep looking at (X), even though you have now discovered that
it is better to look at (X-1), or the relationship of X and Y. For example, you
may have thought that if you want to find out how you can help a group of
20 learners increase achievement that you should collect data from all 20.
However, you find that significant data, data that raise issues, come from
eight particular underachievers. You may decide that time spent with these
informants would reveal more than the same amount of time spread thinly
over all 20. A second example from the same group might be that you have
found that there are significant issues regarding language support, so the
relationships of that group with other informants such as language tutors,
parents, etc. may lead to more significant findings. The result of this is that
you have changed your focus from all 20 pupils, to eight pupils and their
learning relationship with two language support teachers. The wider, and
vaguer the area of investigation, the greater is the likelihood that the research
will be criticized for lack of validity, i.e. it doesn’t do what it says it does.
Practical considerations are important when deciding on which issues
to focus. How much time, energy, money and support do you have? What
resources do you have? The key to developing an appropriate focus is to turn

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issues into questions, and in the process to refine and limit the area under
investigation so that the work that is then undertaken is achievable and
meaningful. How do you decide what the focus is?
Here is a scenario. Consider it, and then draw up a list of what you
think the issues are that could be the focus of any future research. At this
point consider all possibilities. Inappropriate ones can be ruled out later. You
should ask yourself what it is important to discover. Remember to question
assumptions, including your own, and then compare your ideas with those
that we have offered.
A lecturer at Valley FE college is concerned about the motivation of
her adult returners on an NVQ 2 in Environmental Conservation
course. Many are indeed drawn to this subject because of their love
of natural history. Although NVQs were principally designed to be
delivered and assessed in the workplace, this NVQ is unusual in that
it acknowledges the high levels of volunteer involvement in this
area of work. ‘Candidates’, as students are called in NVQ terminol-
ogy, can develop their skills and knowledge in a variety of ways and
in a range of formal and informal settings: college-organized activi-
ties, including practical work with local partnership organizations;
special projects with conservation organizations; regular volunteer
activities; working holidays; paid employment. The nature of the
NVQ qualification framework and the paperwork associated with it
appear to be having a negative impact on learners. There is often a
discrepancy between the high levels of enthusiasm for the subject
area and student reactions to the terminology and format of the
NVQ. The lecturer is worried about levels of achievement and
retention on the course, despite the enthusiasm of these students for
natural history.
If the text is read carefully there are a number of potential points of focus.
One reading reveals the following issues that could be a focus of the work
1 How can the motivation of adult learners on an Environmental

NVQ in an FE college be improved?
2 How can we reduce the negative impact of paperwork on the
motivation of adult learners on an Environmental NVQ in an FE
college?
3 How can the lecturer improve levels of achievement and retention
on an Environmental NVQ in an FE college?
There could, of course, be other issues to focus on. These are offered as
examples. Why do you think that the wording specifically mentions ‘adult
learners’, and ‘FE college’ in points 1 and 2? How is point 3 different? Does it
need to mention adult learners?

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The priority given to the different points of focus is shaped by the

professional and personal motives of the researcher, the micro (institutional)
context and the macro (national/policy) context. All these factors will
influence the focus and ultimately the rationale, or justification of the work
that is to be undertaken. These factors are addressed in the second section of
this chapter.
Research should have significance, and not simply be done out of
curiosity for the trivial. One way of deciding whether a focus is worth
pursuing is to try to describe the focus as a problem to be investigated. If an
issue is not a problem for the purpose of your professional duties, then it
may not be worth considering as a focus. For example, if there is low-level
noise in a classroom, this may be distracting or irritating to you, but if it does
not interfere with the learning, then it is not a problem for you in terms of
your professional duty of teaching and encouraging learning. So, if you made
the reduction in this noise level a focus for your research, it might be
considered trivial. If you had evidence (perhaps from a research diary, or
discussions with distracted pupils) that this level of noise was a problem for
teaching and learning, then it might be a worthwhile focus of your research.
It is important to find out what others have written about your
situation. You might find difficulty deciding what to read. Chapter 2 deals
with this in detail. But, when starting out, a brief selection of literature on
two or three topics that appear to be of relevance will start you on your way.
You might look at a couple of chapters from academic books, or a couple of
articles from academic journals. This will allow you to write a paragraph
using these indicative references in your rationale. You can always return to
it later.
Once you have determined what the problem might be, turn this into
aims by asking what you hope to find out about this problem. At this point
you might want to draw up a list of research questions. These aren’t
questions that you ask a key informant, they are questions the researcher
needs to answer for themselves if they are to understand the research
problem and possible implications or recommendations. Some people do this
after the literature review, but it is perfectly acceptable to put them into your
introductory section or chapter as it offers clarity to the reader right from the
start.
Exercise 3.1
Read these aims taken from the dissertation (Case study A):
Aim 1. To investigate the factors which have the potential to

cause pupils to underperform in secondary schools.

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Aim 2. To identify the factors which could potentially be contrib-

uting to the underperformance of pupils in ICT at Key Stage 3 in
the local authority.
Aim 3. To ascertain the factors which could have impacted upon
the pupils KS3 ICT teacher assessment level in 2006.
Now read the dissertation and see if you agree with the focus the
researcher has chosen as described in these aims. Do the research
questions explore some of the assumptions or ‘common sense’ in-
volved in the focus? Questioning ‘common sense’ is often a good thing
to do. Understanding often isn’t as common as you might think, and
when you explore ‘common sense’ you find it often doesn’t make
much sense either! Would you ask any different questions, or leave any
out?
Key points
+ Select a focus that you can do something about. This will

normally concern practice, or implementation – a practical
task that is within your control. It is so much more difficult
and stressful to look at something other people are doing.
+ The focus should be non-trivial and should exclude as many
variables as you can. This means that the focus should be as
tight and limited as you can make it, while still being
significant.
+ In many ways, determining the focus can be the most
difficult thing to do, and may delay your start. Don’t let it.
+ Make a start, and constantly revisit your focus, changing it as
necessary as your research increases your understanding. This
is called progressive focusing.
Exploring the context
In this section we explore the micro and macro context. Colleagues,

students, pupils and other researchers may be interested in what you have
found. If they want to learn from your work, among the things they need to
know about is who carried out the research, where and when. The reader can
then make an informed decision as to whether the research may have any
relevance to them. The following headings will give you some ideas about
how to shape the context section of your masters assignment.

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The micro context
Formal and informal
How is the research institution organized, and how does it work? The way an
institution is meant to work and how it works in practice can differ
markedly. Practice may differ from policy. For example, if your research
focuses on behaviour management, there may be a formal policy that
requires instances of misbehaviour to be reported to a line manager. How-
ever, classroom practitioners may have a support system whereby they take
each other’s ‘difficult’ learners into each other’s classrooms. This may be a
stage that is not published in a policy document. If you were looking at
systems of reward and punishment, it would be important to describe this
informal stage of support.
Your position
Your relationship to colleagues, collaborators and informants will illustrate

any power relationships or vested interests that may be relevant.
Your values
As a researcher it is difficult to put on one side the things that you think are
important in education. Try as you might to be objective (and you should), it
may well come through in your work. So, make your role in the situation you
are studying clear so that a reader can identify any bias that is present in your
work.
Collegial culture
Some institutions are ‘balkanized’ (Hargreaves 1994), where departments

work in isolation from each other. Some colleagues work in isolation from
their departments. Some institutions work in a collegial way, where co-
operation is a flexible and optional activity. Some have co-operation thrust
upon them.
It is important that we understand how educational practitioners,
whatever their institution, relate to each other, as education takes place in a
social situation. This means we all play a role and relate to each other in
these roles. How we relate to each other will influence the experience of our
learners. For example, do we share resources, learning experiences, good
practice, or bad practice?

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Subject/thematic aims
If you are researching within an academic subject there may be ways of

seeing the world that affect what you find. Science may, for example, have a
positivist view of enquiry (a search for ‘knowledge’ that is objective, that
cannot be disproved), whereas English may have a humanist view, where
interpretation of different experiences of ‘knowledge’ is held to be valid.
The influence of the learner experience
This is a significant factor in shaping the environment. How learners behave,

learn, and are perceived are important influences on what the researcher
considers to be important. What background do the learners come from, or
live and work in? Have you considered issues of diversity, for example, social
class, ethnicity, gender? What prior knowledge or experience do they have?
How does the influence of the learner affect the practitioner (whether
teacher, lecturer or trainer) and vice versa?
The macro context
Constraints
What legislative, accountability and guidance structures limit your work, and
your research? Data protection legislation, National Curriculum, Ofsted,
Every Child Matters, QCA guidance may affect you. What pressures are on
you, or the research context from other stakeholders – parents, business,
local community, the department you work in, the school or college you
work in?
Constraints in themselves aren’t ‘bad’ things. Constraints can also be
opportunities. For example, funding may have been made available for new
initiatives that may be creative, challenging, and exciting. They will also
come with their aims and accountability structures.
Agency and structure
How much can you influence practice or research given some of the
constraints we mentioned above? What freedom do you have to be a change
agent, or an agent who can interpret these constraints? For example, can you
emphasize one aspect of the curriculum more than another despite the
constraints of Sats, Ofsted, league tables, or performance-related pay?

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Exercise 3.2
Read this paragraph taken from the context of the dissertation (Case
study A).
Researcher’s role
Within the strategy the government recognized the need for high
quality teachers to lead the strategies and support schools (DfES
2004a: 3). Therefore, when the strategy was launched, consult-
ants were recruited from schools to work within local authorities.
Consultants are match-funded by the national strategy and the
LA in which they work. The researcher is in the privileged
position of being the Secondary ICT Consultant …
This research is of particular interest as understanding what is
preventing pupils achieving high standards and working with
schools to improve teaching and learning will directly impact on
the success of the consultant in achieving their objectives within
the national strategy.
How might the writer’s role influence their research? Will their position
influence their attitude to ‘teaching’ and what it means? Might it
influence their attitude to ‘learning’, and what it means? Is there any
more contextual information that could usefully be included?
Key points
+ Those interested in your work will have confidence in what
you have written, and it will increase yours if you make it
plain what challenges and opportunities you face.
+ Micro and macro contexts are organizing concepts. They
help you to analyse these challenges and opportunities.
+ Don’t forget the influence you have on the research. As a
practitioner researcher you will try to be objective, but the
concept of reflexivity, whereby the researcher inevitably im-
pacts upon the research, suggests that this is not going to be
entirely successful, so you must describe your role in the
situation you are researching.
The rationale
What information should be included in your rationale? By this stage you
should have a clearer idea of what you would like to focus on and why. In

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this part of your research you make clear what your thinking has been. The
starting point is similar to the question which opened this chapter. Why do
this particular research? You have a unique understanding of the focus and
the micro and macro context. You should be able to write from a position of
authority. The rationale builds on your early reading, progressive focusing
and exploration of the micro and macro contexts. It explains your reasons
for the focus of your research. It should be underpinned by reading to justify
your choice of focus. The rationale should not be too long. It simply justifies
why you are exploring a particular focus. It gives a flavour of what you are
trying to do so that a reader understands at the outset that this is a serious
study with a non-trivial focus.
Starting to write up your work is something some researchers put off
until the latest possible date. You may have pages of rough notes, and plenty
of data. You think the writing up will be the last thing you do. This would be
a big mistake. Start writing your draft as soon as you can. Drafting and
re-drafting is an important process. This approach can help you overcome
what can be a psychological barrier. Begin by drawing up a list of questions a
reader might want answered in your Introduction. Think about the issues we
addressed in the focus and context sections.
You may well come up with better questions than we have. You may
have extra questions that are not evident in those we have provided. You
may consider some of our questions are not relevant to your research.
Remember, you are responsible for your research and you should be in the
best position to judge what is appropriate. Be open to advice, evaluations,
feedback, opinions, and other perspectives. Your responsibility is to listen,
critically engage, evaluate, and then adopt, adapt, or reject this advice.
The questions we have asked you to consider so far are designed to
encourage critical thinking. This criticality is essential to Masters Level work.
Being critical is not the same as being negative. Criticality involves recogniz-
ing that there are different perspectives on an issue, taking these different
perspectives into account and developing a measured evaluation of the issue.
Here are some issues you need to take into account when writing your
rationale.
What brought the issues/problems you are focusing on to

your attention?
It could be the dissonance created by what you read and the reality of your
situation. It is useful if there is some documentary evidence of this issue. It
could have arisen from a conversation with colleagues, or from data collected
from your class or institution. It could be a theme that you have noticed

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occurring from a diary, or log. It may be something you identified in a lesson

evaluation. It could be behaviour you observed on a number of occasions.
Why is it important to do this research?
Does this research concern itself with a non-trivial issue? Remember the
example we used earlier in this chapter, about low-level noise in the
classroom?
Who will care about it?
Is this research for the practitioner, or for other stakeholders? Is it of interest

to management, parents, learners, colleagues? Who will use it?
What is the micro context?
Describe the constraints within your institution. Constraints can be positive.

It is not a matter of looking for the ‘bad’ things. It is the framework within
which you operate, both formal and informal.
Who is doing the research?
Give some brief background on your professional responsibilities. This will

help your readers to understand any bias that may be evident. It may also
provide evidence as to your insight, and may offer more validity to your
findings. For example, if you make it clear you are a student teacher of
primary pupils looking at lesson planning for a Year 4 group, you can be
expected to speak with more authority, with more insight, into the lesson
planning process than a student teacher of secondary pupils looking at
lesson planning for a Year 4 group.
Why are you doing the research?
Is it to demonstrate how well you are planning lessons for your Year 4 class?
Is it because you want to find out how to improve your planning of a Year 4
class? The first reason may (but not necessarily) be more heavily influenced
by bias from the practitioner researcher – can you think why?

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What is the macro context?
How does your work fit in with national, and if appropriate, international
developments? Might your work say something about current developments,
movements or strategies? Can it say something about these in practice, in
your locality, be this geographical, organizational, occupational, temporal,
legal and/or cultural?
Is the answer already out there?
Have you made a reasonable attempt to review major sources written about
the issues you are to consider. Is there a gap in knowledge? Perhaps what you
have read is not about your micro and macro context and you can add to
knowledge by writing about your specific context. Or, maybe someone has
written about it but something from your progressive focusing leads you to
believe that you can say something non-trivial about the issue.
Extended project
Read the Research Questions on p. 155 of Case study A. Discuss with a

mentor or peer how well the research questions link to the aims.
Discuss how far the aims and questions demonstrate criticality.
Key points
+ It would be a mistake to think that your writing will develop

in a linear fashion. That is to say, you will be constantly
going backwards and forwards from data, to reading, to
focus, to context, to early findings, etc. and back again. This
is normal.
+ You may write your final draft of your rationale after you
have completed some pilot work or analysed some early data.
This is what is called an iterative process.
+ The sooner you progressively sharpen your focus, take ac-
count of the context and write a first draft of your rationale,
the better, as it gives your research impetus and a sense of
direction.

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References
Altrichter, H., Posch, P. and Somekh, B. (1993) Teachers Investigate Their Work.
London: Routledge.
Denscombe, M. (2003) The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Research

Projects. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Hargreaves, A. (1994) Changing Teachers, Changing Times. London: Cassell.

McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2006) All You Need to Know about Action
Research. London: Sage.
Somekh, B. (2006) Action Research: A Methodology for Change and Development.

Maidenhead: Open University Press.

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Part II
Research Skills at Masters Level

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– Typeset- in
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4 Methodology
The best and most pleasant life is the life of the intellect since the
intellect is in the fullest sense the man.
(Aristotle 384–322 BC)
Introduction
This chapter introduces you to the key aspects of the methodology chapter
within a Masters Level piece of work. According to Clough and Nutbrown:
A characteristic purpose of a methodology is to show not how such

and such appeared to be the best method available for the given
purposes of the study, but how and why this way of doing it was
unavoidable – was required by – the context and purpose of this
particular enquiry.
(2000: 17)
These writers stress that the purpose of a methodology chapter is to justify

particular research decisions. It should persuade the reader that the methods
chosen were fit for purpose, i.e. to answer the research questions identified in
the aims of the study. This section should draw on the methodology
literature to enable you to justify your chosen approach(es) and method(s).
There should be a clear distinction between methodology (justification of
approach(es) and method(s) and methods (specific procedures undertaken to
complete the research).
The aim of this section is to be transparent and honest. You need to
acknowledge the limitations and shortcomings of your chosen methods and
approaches and to be honest about any problems/issues that arose along the
way. Educational research rarely, if ever, runs smoothly. It is unlikely that
things will run according to plan. Changes may need to be made throughout

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62 METHODOLOGY
the process of the research. Time constraints (getting the work in on time)
may mean that changes are necessary if the deadline is to be met. Students
often realize that initial research proposals are too ambitious and the project
may need to be slimmed down halfway through the process. Sample sizes
may have been too large. Participants who initially agreed to take part in the
research may withdraw for a variety of reasons in the middle of the research.
These ‘hitches’ do not mean that the researcher has failed. The researcher
must simply acknowledge the problems along the journey, make adaptations
and continue with the research. Therefore, it is essential that the researcher
documents the whole process in a research diary and this can later be added
to the methods section of the methodology chapter.
However, let us first of all turn our attention to methodology. In this
section, the researcher will aim to justify why a particular approach to
research has been adopted. Approaches can be qualitative, quantitative or the
researcher could adopt a mixed-method approach. Once the approach has
been justified, the researcher can then present justification for choice of
specific research methods.
Quantitative/qualitative approaches
Researchers often define themselves as qualitative researchers or quantitative

researchers. Quantitative and qualitative approaches to research are often
referred to as research paradigms. According to Grieg et al.:
Qualitative research strives for depth of understanding in natural
settings. Unlike the positivist quantitative tradition it does not focus
on a world in which reality is fixed and measurable but one in
which the experiences and perspectives of individuals are socially
constructed.
(2007: 136)
Therefore, qualitative research places emphasis on the way in which indi-

viduals interpret their experiences (Holloway 1997). The data that are
generated from qualitative research are often rich in description and detail.
Silverman (2000) emphasizes that by definition qualitative research is
stronger on descriptive accounts than quantitative research.
Quantitative research, in contrast, focuses on quantities and often
involves the statistical analysis of large amounts of data. It is situated within
a scientific model of research where hypotheses, controls and variables are
common features of the research process. Therefore, quantitative research
focuses on the measurement of causal relationships between variables (Den-
zin and Lincoln 2000).

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METHODOLOGY 63
Both qualitative and quantitative approaches have been criticized in

the literature. Qualitative approaches are often seen as having less rigour
than quantitative approaches and data are often viewed as being weak,
inconclusive and anecdotal (Bryman 1988). The government also seem keen
that educational researchers adopt research methods which demonstrate
‘conclusively that if teachers change their practice from x to y there will be
significant and enduring improvement in teaching and learning’ (Hargreaves
1996: 5). This emphasis on cause and effect is situated within a quantitative
approach to research. Tooley is critical of small-scale research, which does
not produce generalizable data, as is often the case with small-scale studies:
If research is to provide us with a serious contribution to fundamen-

tal theory or knowledge, then it is in general desirable to be able to
generalise in some way beyond the actual sample used in the study.
(Tooley 1998: 14)
However, Richardson (1996) stresses that qualitative research is a specialist

field of enquiry with its own language and should not be classed as a soft
option for researchers. Critics of quantitative approaches have explored the
limitations of scientific approaches to research. It has been argued that the
positivistic paradigm assumes that human behaviour is repetitive and pre-
dictable, resulting in a reductionist view (Hampden-Turner 1970). Habermas
(1972) has also argued that positivism is unable to answer many important
and interesting questions about life. In addition, Roszak (1970) emphasized
the alienating effect of scientific research and the ‘relentless pursuit of
objectivity’ (cited in Cohen et al. 2000: 18).
Essentially the research paradigm and methods to be adopted must be
appropriate to answer the research question(s) which the researcher is trying
to address. Silverman stresses that ‘most research methods can be used in
either qualitative or quantitative studies’ (2000: 89), therefore it is too
simplistic to locate research methods within a particular paradigm of re-
search. As a university or similar student on Masters Level programme you
must justify the paradigm of research you have adopted and acknowledge its
limitations. Very often the researcher’s own values and beliefs about how
knowledge is constructed will influence the chosen paradigm. Qualitative
researchers, for example, tend to place value on an individual’s experiences,
thoughts and feelings, whilst quantitative researchers value what is measur-
able. In addition, you must also explore the strengths and limitations of the
chosen research methods by drawing on methodology literature. This is the
very essence of what constitutes a methodology.

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64 METHODOLOGY
Key points
+ Qualitative approaches to research are useful if you are

interested in the viewpoints and feelings of your participants.
However, qualitative studies tend to be small-scale and can be
subjective.
+ Quantitative approaches to research are useful if you are
interested in identifying patterns or trends across wider
samples. However, data tend to lack richness and depth,
which is often achieved in qualitative studies.
Ethical issues
Grieg et al. (2007: 169) argue that ‘ethics is one part of the research process
that should never be learned in practice’. It is therefore essential that
researchers have considered all the ethical implications of their research
project prior to carrying out any research. Educational researchers have the
added complexity of often using children as participants for their research. It
is therefore essential that all necessary steps are taken to protect children
from risk of harm. Names of children, staff and institutions should remain
anonymous in all instances. This is also important even in situations where
participants have declared that they do not object to their name being cited
in the research report. It is argued that participants may not always be able to
predict any risks that may arise as a result of publishing their names. The
responsibility therefore rests with the researcher to maintain anonymity at
all costs.
Student researchers must also be careful not to inadvertently reveal the
identities of their participants through writing in a particular way so that the
identity is obvious to the reader, even though actual names of participants
have not been used. For example, ‘The Year 1 teacher disagreed with some of
the school policies and feels that the school lacks clear direction and
leadership.’ It would be obvious to anyone in the school which teacher the
researcher was referring to and revealing identities in this way could
jeopardize people’s careers. Therefore, it is advised that researchers are more
cautious in their use of language when findings are being written up.
Consent
Researchers need to gain informed consent from their participants prior to
commencing the research. The principle of informed consent is based on the

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METHODOLOGY 65
premise that participants should be given full information about the aims
and purposes of the research prior to them agreeing to participate. Cohen et
al. (2000) argue that informed consent has four elements: competence;
voluntarism; full information; and comprehension. It is vital that individuals
are responsible and mature and able to make decisions on the basis of
information given (competence). An individual with a psychological impair-
ment would be an example of someone who is unable to fulfil this
requirement. The research participant should not be coerced into taking part.
They should do this voluntarily with full awareness of any risks involved
(voluntarism). All participants should be aware of the aims and purposes of
the research and have knowledge of how the data will be used (full
information). Finally, participants should fully understand the nature of the
research project and understand the situation they are putting themselves
into, before agreeing to take part (comprehension).
The concept of informed consent also applies to children as partici-
pants of research projects. Grieg et al. (2007) stress that it is important that
both the child and adults with parental responsibility are made aware of the
aims and implications of the research. They argue that consent should be
obtained from both parties (if it is appropriate for the child to give their
consent) and that children should know that they could choose whether to
participate and have the right to withdraw from the research at any time
without putting themselves at risk. In addition, the authors stress that
children have the right to know what will happen to the data which are
generated from the research.
Permission to gain access to institutions, schools and classrooms is
essential but Grieg et al. argue that informed consent should be considered
prior to gaining access. This is because the gatekeepers (those people who have
a responsibility to safeguard the participants, for example, the headteacher)
may ask researchers how they intend to gain permission from parents, carers
and children. Therefore the researcher will need to think through issues
related to informed consent prior to approaching the gatekeepers. The
gatekeepers may wish to check the research tools such as questionnaires or
interview schedules prior to them being used on participants. The gatekeep-
ers should advise on whether written consent is needed from participants
and parents, and universities and other HEIs will also have their own policies
on this. It is vital that researchers follow the ethical procedures laid down by
their own university as well as conforming to the ethical procedures
demanded by the gatekeepers of the research institution.
Confidentiality
Researchers also need to think through issues related to confidentiality. It is
important that promises of confidentiality are upheld. Kimmel (1988) notes

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66 METHODOLOGY
that assurances of confidentiality need to be clear and potential respondents

have an expectation that confidentiality will be protected. Interviews with
adults should generally be carried out in a private room and the discussion
should be confined to the limits of those four walls. Researchers need to
think about how collected data will be stored safely and whether ‘raw’ data
(tape recordings, field notes) will be destroyed at the end of the research.
However, educational research is often not so simple. For example, ethical
issues may arise during the research, especially in cases where participants
reveal information which the researcher is concerned about. Sometimes, in
situations like this, promises of confidentiality can only be tentative. Schools
may also insist that interviews with children are not carried out in private.
This is increasingly likely in the current context on safeguarding children.
Thus, a member of staff may need to be present during the data collection
process and this could skew the results. Some children may not talk as
openly in front of their teachers as they would do to a ‘researcher’ who is not
connected to the school and parents may not talk openly to teacher-
researchers carrying out research within their own institutions. Researchers
may already be employed in the school and so these issues may not arise but
teacher-researchers researching within their own institution need to be aware
that power relationships will be operating and that children may not feel
comfortable in being entirely honest with their teachers. Researchers carrying
out research in a different institution have the advantage that they can claim
to be a ‘researcher’ rather than a ‘teacher’. This might create more of an equal
relationship between the participant and the researcher.
These examples from Case study C show the issues of ethics have been
addressed within the methodology sections:
Whether a small- or large-scale project, it is important as both a
researcher and a professional that ethical issues are addressed.
Failure to do so would not only compromise research but could also
compromise the professional position of a practitioner. Burton and
Bartlett (2005) refer to The Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research
by the British Research Association (BERA 2003) and from these infer
that there are five key issues that teacher researchers should be
concerned with, namely consent; honesty and openness; access to
findings; researcher effects; and anonymity.
Exercise 4.1
Consider how you might ensure that each of the underlined areas was
properly addressed. Once you have noted these, check what this
researcher did by reading the text from Case study A:

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Hendricks (2006: 110) recognizes that ethical guidelines ‘protect

the rights of human subjects/participants’ and ‘ensure that partici-
pants are not harmed or deceived, that they have been informed
regarding what participation entails, that they have agreed to
participate, and that they have been assured that confidentiality of
their responses and their participation will be maintained’. As well
as the ethical issues surrounding the questionnaire discussed earlier
in the chapter there were other ethical considerations.
Exercise 4.2
What other ethical issues do you think were faced? How would you
overcome them? Refer to Part 3 of Case study C.
Key points
+ Check the HEI policy on ethical procedures and ensure that

you follow them carefully.
+ Identify who the gatekeepers are and gain the necessary
permission from them before you start your research.
+ Explain the aims and purposes of your research clearly to any
participants and explain what you will do with any data that
you collect during the course of the study. Emphasize to your
participants that their involvement remains voluntary at all
times and that they have the right to withdraw at any stage
during the research.
+ Ensure that you maintain anonymity and uphold promises of
confidentiality unless this puts others at risk of harm.
Action research
Many teacher-researchers will be operating within a short cycle of action

research. Grieg et al. (2007: 136) define action research as ‘a continuous
learning process in which new knowledge is both learned and also shared
with those who may benefit from it’. Action research focuses on reflecting on
practice and improving teaching and learning through developing interven-
tions, which seek to solve the inherent problems within institutions and

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68 METHODOLOGY
classrooms. Action research can also improve the quality of education for
individuals or groups of learners by modifying existing practices within
classrooms. Therefore action research seeks to transform practice. It draws on
both qualitative and quantitative methods but:
enshrouds many of the basic principles of qualitative research in

that it is carried out in natural, real world settings, is participatory,
constructs theory from practice, involves dynamic processes of
change as it progresses and aims for understanding of meaning and
experience.
(Ibid.: 136)
It is important that researchers justify their choice of method/s and acknowl-

edge the strengths and limitations of each method.
In Case study C, the general aims are stated as:
In this small-scale research project, the practitioner wanted to
improve her own practice through reflection and find a starting
point for collaborative enquiry … The practitioner hoped to further
her own professional development and begin a ‘reflective dialogue’
in the setting by discussing research findings with colleagues.
Exercise 4.3
Consider how the researcher might have therefore justified the use of
action research, then read Section 3.1 of Case study C.
Some of the research methods used in action research are summarized below.
Case studies
In Case study research the student must first of all define the ‘case’ to be
studied. A case could be one school, one classroom, one individual, one local
authority or one country. Therefore ‘case’ is not necessarily synonymous
with small-scale studies. A major criticism of Case study research is that of
generalizability, although Denscombe (1998) argues that cases can be gener-
alized if the example used in the Case study is similar to others of its type.
Case studies can draw upon a range of research methods such as observation,
interviews, focus groups and questionnaires.

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Observations
Observations can take many forms from structured to unstructured, be

participant or non-participant. Bell (2005) provides a very useful overview of
this method of research and she gives examples of observation schedules.
Researchers considering this method need to be aware that this method
requires considerable skill in being able to ‘spot significant events’ (Nisbet
1977: 15). This method of research is useful in that it enables researchers to
observe people in their natural context. However, this method is highly
subjective since observers will filter material obtained from an observation
and impose their own interpretations on what is being observed (Bell 2005).
Bell recommends joint observations as a way of reducing subjectivity and
bias in the research process.
Thus in the methodology section of Case study C:

Observations were used to gather data for this study. An open
observation approach was used, as using a structured observation
schedule would impose structure at an early stage and restrict the
data collected (Brown and Dowling 1998). A preferred method was
to make more general, ethnographic observations so that different
interpretations and foci would be possible, incidents could be
related and emerging trends explored (Hopkins 1998).
Interviews
Researchers who choose to use interviews as a research tool will need to

decide which type of interview to use. Interviews can be highly structured,
such as those used in market research, where there is no deviation from the
questions and the questions are asked in a fixed order. Semi-structured
interviews are popular and tend to be more flexible than structured inter-
views. According to Hitchcock and Hughes:
The semi-structured interview is a much more flexible version of the

structured interview … it allows depth to be achieved by providing
the opportunity on the part of the interviewer to probe and expand
the respondent’s responses.
(1995: 157)
Semi-structured interviews therefore offer the potential of providing rich

data and allow the respondents some control in determining the direction of
the research. This is because they are flexible and allow the researcher to

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70 METHODOLOGY
deviate from the interview schedule in order to follow up participants’

responses. The participant controls the agenda for unstructured interviews to
an even greater extent. However, interviews can be time-consuming and
analysis of responses is not always easy, plus they can be highly subjective
and may be biased (Bell 2005).
Questionnaires
Research students typically think of using questionnaires as a quick and

efficient method of obtaining large amounts of data. However, they should
approach the task of designing a questionnaire with caution. Good question-
naires are not easy to design; they can be costly and yield low return rates.
According to Grieg et al.:
Questionnaires are among the most common method used by

researchers – and the worst carried out. Bad questionnaires will
effectively torpedo the whole project, no matter how much labour is
expended … Many of these questionnaires seem to have been sent
out when, for all practical purposes, they were still at their first draft.
There is only one place for the first draft of any questionnaire – the
bin. If you ignore this advice, your project will probably end up
there instead.
(2007: 124)
Cohen et al. (2000) provide some invaluable guidance on developing

questionnaires which incorporate Likert scales (devised by R. Likert in 1932).
These ask respondents to indicate their response to a statement on a
numerical scale (for example: ‘School is fun’: 5 = strongly agree; 4 = agree; 3
= neither agree nor disagree; 2 = disagree; 1 = strongly disagree). However,
scales can vary between three, five and seven points (Bell 2005). Questions of
this nature make analysis easier but careful wording is needed to ensure that
statements are not ambiguous. Ranking scales can also be used where
respondents are asked to rank a set of statements into order of importance.
Questions can be open-ended such as ‘What are your views on …?’ to more
closed types such as Boolean questions (where there are two responses and
the choice of one automatically precludes the other, such as male/female or
yes/no responses). A good questionnaire will probably include a range of
different types of questions.
It is crucial that questionnaires are piloted first with a critical friend
and it is always advisable for research students to let their supervisor look at
a copy of a draft questionnaire prior to sending it out. If postal question-

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METHODOLOGY 71
naires are being used, it is courteous to send a cover letter outlining the
purposes of the research and an explanation of how the data will be used. A
stamped addressed envelope is also necessary if you want a good return rate.
In some instances it may be possible for you to use questionnaires already
published but this obviously depends on the nature of the research project.
Bell (2005) provides a very useful overview of the pitfalls to avoid when
designing questionnaires, for example, avoiding double questions, leading
questions and hypothetical questions.
Focus groups
Cohen et al. (2000) define focus groups as:
a form of group interview, though not in the sense of a backwards

and forwards between interviewer and group. Rather, the reliance is
on the interaction within the group who discuss a topic supplied by
the researcher.
(2000: 288)
Focus groups have a number of distinct advantages over individual inter-

views. They are economical on time and allow a significant amount of data
to be collected from a large number of participants in a relatively short
period of time (Wilkinson 2004; Cohen et al. 2000). Wilkinson argues that
one of the advantages of using focus groups over individual interviews is that
they are more ‘naturalistic’ in the sense that they resemble ordinary conver-
sations. This is important because in these contexts people generally feel
more relaxed and are therefore more willing to express their views in front of
others. Stewart and Shamdasani have argued that focus group interactions
create a ‘synergistic effect’ (1990: 16). This refers to the process of partici-
pants reacting and building on the responses of other group members.
Wilkinson (2004) argues that this process helps to produce more elaborated
accounts than those which are often generated in individual interviews.
According to Madriz, ‘the interaction in focus groups emphasizes empathy
and commonality of experiences and fosters self-disclosure and self-
validation’ (1998: 116). Another advantage of focus groups over individual
interviews is the participants may not always agree with each other. Kitzinger
writes ‘they also misunderstand one another, question one another, try to
persuade each other of the justice of their point of view and sometimes they
vehemently disagree (1994: 170–1).
However, focus groups have been criticized in the literature. It has been
argued that focus groups can result in the marginalization of minority

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72 METHODOLOGY
opinions or opposing points of view (Gordon and Langmaid 1988). Some

writers have also criticized focus groups by arguing that group dominance by
strong personalities and pressurizing conformity are often features of these
sessions (McDonald 1993; Ulmenstein 1995).
Listening to the pupils’ voice
The Every Child Matters agenda (2003) and the Children Act (2004) place
great emphasis on the importance of listening to the voice of the child.
Collecting the views of learners can be very useful in action research in terms
of whether interventions have been successful. Pupil voice can also help to
cast light on key issues within educational establishments from their perspec-
tive. Pupils can be consulted through a range of research tools, including
focus groups, individual interviews, observations and questionnaires. Formal
interviews may be inappropriate and threatening for young children and
informal conversations may be better. The age and maturity of the children
will therefore influence the research method.
ICT-Based Research Methods
The use of ICT has made research easier. A wealth of information is now
available to you. It is possible to search for electronic journal articles and
electronic books from the comfort of the study at home. The university’s
electronic library will be a very useful starting point. University libraries
subscribe to various journals and publishers and it is possible to obtain
peer-reviewed texts free of charge. However, it is still recommended that you
visit the library and thumb through the literature on the shelves, as this is
quite a satisfying task in itself. You should aim for a balanced list of sources
in your list of references and there should not be an over-use of web-based
material (see Chapter 2).
Computer software is now available for analysing qualitative data.
However, you should remember that feeding data into a computer package
could result in not having a ‘feel’ for the data, even though this method may
save time. Generally, you should seek advice from tutors on whether they
recommend this approach to analysis.

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METHODOLOGY 73
Exercise 4.4
Look at the following extract from Case study C.
Research performed in the 1920s and 1930s (cited in Roethlis-

berger and Dickinson, 1939) into working conditions found that
subjects can perform differently due to the fact that they are part
of research, known as the Hawthorne effect.
+ How might the Hawthorne effect influence other types of

research, for example, questionnaire research, or research
using semi-structured interviews?
+ Think of a situation where you are in a leadership position
and you are carrying out research with participants who work
within your team. To what extent might your role as a leader
influence your research findings and how can the influence
of power on these findings be minimized?
Key points
+ Choose the methods which best address the aims of your

research.
+ Justify your chosen methods in the methodology chapter but
also acknowledge their limitations.
Piloting your data collection instruments
It is important that you trial your research tools prior to using them. Careful
piloting can reveal issues such as leading questions and confusing questions
in questionnaires and interview schedules. Piloting can also help you to
predict what reaction your respondents might give to particular questions.
Exercise 4.5
In Case study A, the researcher states:

Piloting the research methods has several functions including
improving the likelihood that the data collected will be reliable,

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74 METHODOLOGY
valid and collect the information expected (Cohen et al. 2000),

therefore each research method was piloted.
How did the researcher ensure that her research instruments were
piloted on different audiences? How did she ensure that the audiences
who participated in the pilot were similar to the real samples used in
the actual study? (You may need to refer to p. 160.)
Data collection
You need to give careful consideration as to how you collect qualitative data.
Interviews can be tape-recorded and later transcribed, although this is a very
time-consuming process and respondents may object to being recorded.
Instead you may choose to make notes whilst they are carrying out the
interview, although this can impede the quality of the interaction between
the researcher and the participants and could also result in loss of data. In
short, there is no perfect mechanism for collecting data. Research diaries and
logs are useful methods of collecting data, particularly for noting critical
incidents.
Data analysis
You also need to think about how you intend to analyse the data when you
are designing research instruments (e.g. questionnaires, interview schedules).
Research tools should be designed to make data analysis as simple as possible.
Miles and Huberman (1984) point out that qualitative data come in the form
of words rather than numbers. Tape recordings can be transcribed and
transcripts can then be coded into emerging themes. The analysis chapter
can then be organized into these themes and the findings can be discussed in
relation to literature.
Typically, you will find the analysis chapter the hardest to write.
Students sometimes present their data question by question (in the case of
questionnaire research) and this makes for very tedious reading. Instead, it is
better to present a reduced form of the data where interesting patterns,
regularities or irregularities have been identified. This will produce a much
richer discussion. Findings need to be discussed but related to literature.
Therefore it is not enough simply to state that ‘87 per cent of boys hated
reading’. This needs to be discussed in relation to research studies and wider

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METHODOLOGY 75
literature on the topic. You can relate findings to earlier sources of literature
previously cited in your literature review, for example, the findings might
concur or contrast with the studies and viewpoints that have already been
documented. Sometimes findings may throw up something interesting,
which has not been acknowledged in the literature review. Therefore, in
these instances it will be necessary for the research student to look at other
literature to see if similar findings have been documented. The best pieces of
research will produce findings that are original, i.e. findings that have not
been documented in literature, although this will be rare.
Research diary
A research diary is a useful way of demonstrating the research process to a

supervisor, of recording any problems, which were encountered during the
research, or any changes which needed to be made. An example of a research
diary is shown in Figure 4.1:
Month Action to be taken Work to be completed

February + Meet with supervisor + By end of February
2006 to discuss the aims of complete introduction
the research and the to dissertation.
content of the
literature review.
+ Start background
reading.
+ Contact Case study
school and obtain
permission to carry out
the research.
March 2006 + Meet with supervisor to + By end of March
discuss the proposed complete the Literature
methods of data Review.
collection and ethical
issues.
+ Email interview
schedules to supervisor
for comment. Amend
if necessary.

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76 METHODOLOGY
April 2006 + At the beginning of + By mid April complete

April start reading the Methodology
literature on chapter.
methodology.
+ Pilot the focus group
schedule.
+ Spend 5 days in
Case study school.
Carry out observations
in Case study school
and complete
interviews with key
informants.
May 2006 + Listen to the interview Start results/analysis
data. Make notes from chapter:
the tape recordings. + Write up key findings
from interview data.
+ Write up key findings
from observations in
Case study school.
June 2006 + Meet with supervisor to End June:
discuss analysis of data. + Complete results/
analysis chapter
July 2006 + Meet with supervisor to + Write conclusions to the
discuss conclusions. study.
+ Final proof reading. + Submit finished
+ Binding. dissertation.
Figure 4.1 A research diary
Extended project
Form a discussion group with other students on your course. Take your
research proposal to the meetings and allow other members of the
group to question you about aspects of your study, with a particular
focus on the methodology. Allow group members to help you think
through your methods. Take your research instruments to the meetings
and pilot them on the rest of the group.
Key points
+ Think carefully about how you will collect your data. Tape
recordings provide an accurate record of discussions but they

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METHODOLOGY 77
are time-consuming to transcribe. Field notes are more time

efficient but there is potential for data loss.
+ Always ask your participants for permission to tape-record
their conversations.
+ Design your research instruments to make data analysis
easier.
References
Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-Time Researchers in
Education, Health and Social Science, 4th edn. Maidenhead: Open University
Press.
Bryman, A. (1988) Quantity and Quality in Social Research. London: Unwin

Hyman.
Clough, P. and Nutbrown, C. (2002) A Student’s Guide to Methodology. London:

Sage.
Cohen, L. Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2000) Research Methods in Education,

5th edn. London: Routledge Falmer.
Denscombe, M. (1998) The Good Research Guide for Small-Scale Social Research
Projects. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Denzin, N. and Lincoln, Y. (eds) (2000) Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2nd

edn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gordon, W. and Langmaid, R. (1988) Qualitative Market Research. Aldershot:

Gower.
Grieg, A., Taylor, J. and Mackay, T. (2007) Doing Research with Children, 2nd
edn. London: Sage.
Habermas, J. (1972) Knowledge and Human Interests, trans. J. Shapiro. London:

Heinemann.
Hampden-Turner, C. (1970) Radical Man. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.
Hargreaves, D. (1996), Teaching as a research-based profession: possibilities

and prospects, Teacher Training Agency Annual Lecture, London.
Hitchcock, G. and Hughes, D. (1995) Research and the Teacher: A Qualitative

Introduction to School-Based Research. London: Routledge.
Holloway, I. (1997) Basic Concepts for Qualitative Research. Oxford: Blackwell.

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78 METHODOLOGY
Kimmel, A.J. (1988) Ethics and Values in Applied Social Research. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
Kitzinger, J. (1994) The methodology of focus groups: The importance of

interaction between research participants, Sociology of Health and Illness, 16:
103–121.
Madriz (1998), in P. Clough and C. Nutbrown (2002) A Student’s Guide to

Methodology. London: Sage.
McDonald, W.J., (1993) Focus group research dynamics and reporting: an
examination of research objectives and moderator influences, Journal of the
Academy of Marketing Science, 12, 161–8.
Miles, M. and Huberman, A. (1984) Qualitative Data Analysis. London: Sage.

Nisbet, J.D. (1977) Small-scale research: guidelines and suggestions for
development, Scottish Educational Studies, 9: 13–17.
Roszak, T. (1970) The Making of a Counter Culture. London: Faber and Faber.
Richardson, J. (ed.) (1996) Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for
Psychology and the Social Sciences. Leicester: BPS Books.
Silverman, D. (2000) Doing Qualitative Research: A Practical Handbook. Lon-
don: Sage.
Stewart and Shamdasani (1990), in D. Silverman (ed.) (2004) Qualitative
Research: Theory, Method and Practice. London: Sage.
Tooley, J. (1998) Educational Research – A Critique: A Survey of Published
Educational Research. London: Ofsted.
Ulmenstein, C. von. (1995) Beyond demographics: qualitative breakthroughs
in South Africa, in K. Ruyter (1996) Focus versus nominal group interviews: A
comparative analysis, Marketing, Intelligence and Planning, 14(6): 44–50.
Wilkinson, S. (2004) Focus group research, in D. Silverman (ed.) Qualitative
Research: Theory, Method and Practice. London: Sage.

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5 Methods of evaluation
One always dies unsure of one’s own value and that of one’s works.
Virgil himself, as he lay dying, wanted the Aeneid burning.
(Gustave Flaubert, Letter to Louise Colet, 1852)
Introduction
This chapter defines evaluation and explores formative and summative

approaches to it. It considers the role of the researcher in ensuring validity,
reliability and research objectivity. It defines triangulation and outlines why
data and evidence must be treated with caution. It then seeks to analyse the
ways in which both practitioner and learner voices can be used to help you
to evaluate.
What is an evaluation?
An evaluation attempts to assess, or measure the value of something. Notice

the word ‘value’. The value given to something is determined by what the
teacher-researcher values, or often what the organization funding or promot-
ing the evaluation values. To consider if something is ‘value for money’, for
example suggests that any outcomes from an educational activity can be
measured in terms of the money value generated from a money input. Some
might consider such a measure of educational value to be inappropriate,
while others might consider it essential. So, we need to ask, who is doing the
evaluation, why they are doing it, and finally, how? First, we will consider
who is doing the evaluation.
An evaluation of a lesson, or a programme, or unit of work is
underpinned by a need. The point to consider is whose need? If it is the need
of the practitioner, then clearly the needs of the learner and their values may
be largely ignored. Is this appropriate for an educational evaluation? Often,

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80 METHODS OF EVALUATION
you will take into account the values of the learners who are the focus for
your research. If the focus of the research is that of other practitioners, then
their values must be taken into account if an appropriate method of
evaluation is to be used.
If certification is an important value to those who are the focus of the
evaluation, then some form of ‘outcome’ measurement will be required. In
this case a quantitative method might be appropriate. If a more intrinsic
value, such as pleasure or curiosity in learning is considered important, then
a more qualitative approach must be taken. An evaluation is not an impartial
measurement of the worth of something. It is laden with values, values that
are often hidden. The good researcher will make these values clear at the
beginning of an evaluation.
Summative or formative?
If a summative approach to evaluation is taken, this may be at the end of a

research project. This would often be a claim to some new insight into the
nature of knowledge or methodology. This is a big claim to make. It is likely
that you will be involved in a small-scale piece of work, maybe focusing on
your own practice. In this instance is it more appropriate to take a formative
approach to evaluation. You will write about provisional findings or implica-
tions rather than conclusions. You should suggest ways in which research
could be conducted in the future, either by you, or somebody else, in order
to improve the quality of the research you have done or to explore other
issues that you now find at the end of your work are important.
Second, we need to ask why we need to evaluate. This will help us to
determine how we evaluate. The tool of evaluation must be fit for the
purpose it was designed for. For example, if we want to know why certain
learners will not engage with a piece of work, then a practitioner’s lesson
evaluation that relies upon observed behaviour of a group of learners is
unlikely to offer valid insight into why this is happening. If we want to know
if learners are engaging with a piece of work, then this form of observation
may provide a starting point, or offer one perspective. They may appear to be
engaging. But we would need to dig deeper by using another evaluation tool,
maybe documentary evidence, such as a learner’s work, or an interview that
explores an observed critical incident. We shall be looking at some of these
evaluation tools when we consider triangulation.
The evidence we present must support the claims that we are making
for it. This takes us to the idea of validity. For example, how do we know that
learners are engaging with the concepts we are teaching? What is the link
between what we claim and the evidence that we have? Does observation of
behaviour really tell us much about engagement with concepts? In some

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METHODS OF EVALUATION 81
instances it could offer some insight, in other instances we might simply be

observing ‘busyness’. What sort of observation would be valid? What would
we need to be looking for?
If we argue that our claims are valid, then colleagues and others who
are interested must be able to see the link between the evidence and our
claim. If you are presenting evidence from small-scale research, then there is
always a suggestion of bias, or that you have distorted the results in some
way. Your research can never be completely objective. Rather than denying
this it is wise to acknowledge the possibility and take reasonable steps to
reduce your influence. In this chapter, for example, the use of language like
‘outcome’ or ‘pleasure in learning’ in themselves indicates a ‘bias’, or less
pejoratively, a ‘perspective’ on learning. Similarly, you need to recognize that
your own values influence the choice of evaluation method, and the
significance you read into the results. Steps can be taken to reduce the
impact of such a perspective (inviting others to suggest methods of evalua-
tion and to join you in the analysis) but you cannot take the researcher
completely out of the research. Something you could do is to openly express
your interest in this issue at the beginning of your piece of research, so
readers can make their own mind up about the significance of the research. If
the reader understands your perspective, then he sees if the inferences that
you make are valid.
Inference
If you want your learners to engage in the concepts you are teaching, then
you need to ensure that your reader understands how you have reached your
conclusion. Sometimes, a practitioner will bring insight that a non-
practitioner would not have. So, to return to our example of observation, two
teachers observing a discussion group would identify the language used by a
group of learners in a class discussion as evidence of critical engagement with
the desired concepts. A non-practitioner may simply see a group of people
talking ‘round a subject’ and may consider some of the discussion trivial, or
miss the point entirely. Inference is valid if those who share your cultural
perspective, in this case, the perspective of a practitioner, can see the same
things in the data.
Key points
+ In Masters Level work it is advisable to use formative evalua-

tion. Use your evaluation as feedback that is used to inform
future practice or research.

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+ Knowledge is often provisional. This means that it is unlikely

that you can prove that something works. It is simply the
case that no one has yet disproved what you have found, or,
that they haven’t yet found a better way, but they will
eventually, or maybe you will, when you try out some of the
ideas that you have explored in your Masters Level work.
Validity and reliability
Qualitative research can be charged with a lack of rigour and bias (Charmaz
2001). The reason for this is that meaning and interpretation require
inference that is not shared by all. This is another reason why an evaluation
needs to clearly state the ‘who, why and how’ of the evaluation. Answering
these questions indicates the cultural perspective you are drawing upon for
inference. Those who share your perspective, or understand it, can judge if
your inferences are valid, and those who do not share your cultural
perspective can at least see how you have arrived at your evaluation.
Whilst Charmaz (2001) asserts that validity, truth and generalizability
are ‘outmoded concepts’, it is not argued here that validity and reliability
should be removed from the methodology. However, educational research
methods require the building of trust and empathy – sometimes called
rapport – between the informant and the researcher. This undermines the
claim of the educational researcher that there is reliability of method, that is,
that another researcher can take your research tool and obtain the same data.
The social situation of teaching and learning is dynamic and dependent
upon relationships. The researcher cannot remove all elements of human
reaction, and indeed this is unwise as it may lead to defensiveness and a
response that produces ‘thin’ data – data that offer limited insight into the
issues being explored. There has to be a compromise between reliability and
validity in order to generate meaningful, insightful data.
Exercise 5.1
Is the inference evident in this extract from Case study C valid?
Harry did not seem to become as distressed as often or as severely

during the study as the practitioner had observed on previous
occasions, Harry can often be more distressed after the school
holidays when returning to nursery. Perhaps a long-term study
would truly reflect the effectiveness of the schedule. A criticism of
this study may be that it is difficult to define ‘distress’ and one

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observer’s opinion may differ markedly from another, making

this study difficult to repeat.
Rapport
Rapport provides better quality data and improves your claims to validity.
However, it undermines reliability as you are unlikely to have the same
rapport with a range of practitioners and learners, and it is also unlikely that
another researcher can develop the same rapport. This makes it difficult to
replicate your data collection method. A balance therefore needs to be struck
between validity and reliability. A semi-structured interview or observation
schedule – a schedule with key headings – is the compromise that many
educational researchers use. This schedule is then used to frame observations
or interviews with a number of informants. This structure should allow for
similar data to be generated with a range of informants, and a range of
researchers.
Triangulation
Triangulation is a way of checking your data against that obtained from

another evaluation tool. If the same issues are found in different methods of
data collection, this will increase the validity of your claims. It is also a
chance to investigate an issue more deeply (see Chapter 3 on progressive
focusing).
Some of the issues you need to take account of when using different
evaluation tools to collect data are considered here. Some of the points made
under headings, such as those for interviewing, might well apply to other
methods. There is a fine balance between rapport and validity, and bias and
unreliability. In your evaluation methods you need to be aware of these
issues, try and get the balance right and take as many precautions as is
reasonable to address issues of bias and unreliability. Triangulation will help,
but integrity and an audit trail will also contribute. In other words, you must
make it clear where the supporting evidence for your claims come from:
which interview, lesson plan or observation? Good quality data, faithfully
recorded and attributed to the findings in your evaluation will go a long way
to repel any attacks upon the validity and reliability of your research.
The practitioner’s voice
One important source of data is the practitioner’s voice because of its

potential to reveal what happens in the heart of the learning situation. But,
there are a number of problems associated with the practitioner’s voice.

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Sikes (2000) argues that researchers should be wary of claiming to have

found the ‘truth’ in ‘the voice’ as expressed through interview. She offers a
number of reasons for this: the informant may misunderstand the question;
may poorly articulate their views; may embellish them in the interests of
coherence; or simply lie. She argues that simply being ‘correct’ in the method
of data collection in itself can never guarantee ‘valid data’ because it can lead
to the ‘consequent neglect of the dynamics of human life and the implica-
tions of social relationships’. This means that things change rapidly, as do
perceptions, and that role-playing in relationships can distort the response
you may get. For example, imagine being interviewed at break time in the
staff room by a deputy head investigating teachers’ attitudes to assessment.
Compare how you are likely to respond with being asked what you think of
assessment in a local pub or another relaxed social situation by a friend who
happens to be a parent of a child at another school to your own. What sort of
language are you likely to use, what would you emphasize and what would
you not say?
Sikes also recommends that researchers should be ‘explicitly cautious
and provisional in their writing’. There is a danger that researchers, in
evaluating their work, want to tell a ‘good’ story, with a beginning, a middle,
and a (successful) end. Life isn’t always like this, and neither is a sensitive
evaluation. Life is full of contradictions and tensions. Individuals are no
different. Exploring these apparent contradictions and tensions are fertile
ground for an insightful researcher. Your findings should explore the issues
that such contradictions and tensions reveal.
This recognition of the complexities revealed by contradictions can
often prevent us from offering a neat and tidy conclusion. Remember, it is
better to talk of provisional findings or implications. If you are collecting
data from two or more groups or individuals, you could express these as
‘perspectives’, that of the practitioner and the learner, for example.
It is important that you evaluate issues, rather than individuals or
groups. If this attempt to de-personalize is not taken, then when you attempt
to validate your findings, through feedback to respondents, you may find a
negative and defensive response. This is an opportunity, rather than a threat.
If, indeed teachers are defensive about practice, then this is one of the issues
surrounding teacher values that needs to be explored. The question really is
not how to avoid this response, but how to explore it if it were to arise.
Indeed, research into values is intrusive, and exploring underlying values
that may not be considered socially fashionable is a similar issue. How to
reveal underlying values that teachers are reluctant to express? Halliday
(2002) argues that it is important for the researcher to engage in a ‘shared
way of life’ with the informant and to involve them in the research in order

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to interpret data in a meaningful way. This means that the research design
must be inclusive of those who are researched (your informants), without
privileging the practitioner’s account.
The learner’s voice
Learners can see research as a power game between the dominator and the
dominated. This game may be illustrated by the following, genuine, experi-
ence. After interviewing some pupils in a secondary school, one of the
informants greeted the researcher at a bus stop with a cheery wave and asked
the researcher if he was a teacher. The researcher said ‘No’. The pupil asked
the researcher what he thought of the school, with the addendum, ‘You
don’t have to pretend now, we are not in school.’ During the interviews in
school, the pupils had offered very positive feedback on their lessons, the
teachers and the school. They were aware of their roles as pupils – ‘the
captured mind’ (Schostak 1984) – and offered ‘thin’ data. On the bus, the
pupil talked about how the school was ‘rubbish’, his desire to go into the
army and his need for a good reference from his teachers.
This example illustrates how the power relationship affects data collec-
tion. However, it is also important that learners are not always perceived as
powerless – Pervin and Turner (1998) provide an account of the bullying of
teachers by pupils in an inner London school – it can be important for the
researcher to consider the nature of our assumptions (see Chapter 3) about
power relationships and their impact upon the data collected and the ways
in which we use inference to analyse this data. Participation in the interview
and awareness of the broader cultural environment of the classroom and
school are crucial for this rapport, empathy and understanding. Ideally, the
researcher would transcribe all the interviews. Meaning, nuance, and text are
lost when transcription is completed by a third person, however, the
practicalities of the situation may demand that re-playing of any tapes, with
a critical friend for at least part of it, and the typing up of selected responses
are more practical approaches in a small piece of research. Remember,
informants may simply offer the easiest answer, or the answer they think the
interviewer wants them to give, sometimes called the ‘Hawthorne effect’ (see
Chapter 4).
Group interviews
These should begin with turn taking, but as informants became more
comfortable, they should be allowed to interject, and the interview becomes
less formal. In small groups of four or five it is possible for one individual to

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dominate. The characteristics of group interviews (see focus groups) make

them unsuitable tools for exploring the perspectives of individual inform-
ants.
Gender, ethics and sensitivity
Fontana and Frey (2001) make reference to a number of feminist perspectives

on interviewing, including the perspective that sees interviewing as a
traditionally masculine paradigm, ignoring sensitivity and emotionality.
Sensitivity and emotionality can be powerful indicators of underlying issues.
It is important to remember that research should not damage, or cause
distress to participants.
Focus groups
Focus groups have normally between six and nine respondents. This is not a
group brought together to say their individual pieces. It is about group
dynamics and the development of understanding. The process of under-
standing is as important as the outcomes. It is a good idea if you can have a
critical friend to observe how the group works with you, as you may be busy
conducting the group. Focus groups are used to discuss issues and themes
that have arisen from other methods of data collection. They can provide
rich data and encourage wide levels of participation but there may be issues
about how you select a group, difficulties of identifying where the informa-
tion is coming from if it is not recorded, and the inflation or distortion of
issues as one individual in the group tries to impress the others. Similarly,
some may feel that the lack of confidentiality would inhibit them.
Analysing voice
Three key ways in which you can analyse the practitioner and learner voices
to help you to evaluate are:
+ Coding of data: The reading and re-reading of interview data or text

are important. It allows the grouping of issues and the assignment
of names, or codes to these issues. Once a number of instances of
these codes are found, the text is re-read to see if there are any
other instances of these codes. In this way all the text is given a
code, so that the work is then saturated, and there is no more to be
found.

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+ Thematic analysis: This is an impressionistic, almost intuitive read-

ing of a text or number of texts in which broad themes emerge.
Themes are broader than a code and their identification is usually
the first step in analysis. These themes can be used as markers for
future data collection. They may be used, for example, as a starting
point for dilemma analysis.
+ Dilemma analysis: Dilemma analysis (Winter 1982) looks for ten-
sions within a social situation (such as in a classroom). Critical
incidents, and the idea issues that are funny, boring, and so on (see
Chapter 6) are a good way of spotting what might be a dilemma in
the text. Once this point of tension has been spotted, it is usual for
the reader to work backwards and forwards from this point looking
for explanations of, or expansions on this point of tension. A
theme that might have been identified might be a desire for
excitement in science. Looking again at the data, one of the
tensions or dilemmas surrounding this theme can be identified and
described as:
on the one hand – pupils want excitement in their learning,

they want to take part in real experiments where the outcome
is uncertain …
on the other hand – teachers are concerned with behaviour

management and preparing pupils for their assessment …
Using dilemmas in this way is one approach to exploring what can

be seen to be ‘thin’ data if the analysis does not go beyond the
identification of themes. It analyses underlying tensions and val-
ues that may go unnoticed when informants play out their roles of
practitioner and learner.
As with the practitioner’s voice, we should not ‘privilege’ the learner’s

account above others. Their account requires triangulation to increase the
level of validity. Themes, codes, or dilemmas exposed by the practitioner and
learner need to be found, or explored using another data method, or another
site. This means that an issue raised by one group of learners that is also
raised by anther group of learners at another institution will have more
validity. If we are careful in how we value their contribution, the inclusion of
data from a learner and a practitioner perspective can reveal important
issues.
Exercise 5.2
Read the following extract from Case study C and explain how you
would address the issue of reliability in this research:

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The reliability of a study refers to the consistency of the methods

involved. Reliable methods would find similar results if the study
were repeated. It could be argued that a small sample size limits
the reliability and generalization of findings. However, because
this study is about finding an effective intervention strategy for
Harry as an individual, reliability not generalizability was a
concern. The reliability of this study could have been improved
by performing a pilot study.
Data collection methods
Findings that emerge from the practitioner and learner voice can be further
explored using some of the data collection methods described below.
Documentary evidence
Documentary evidence is used here to refer to naturally occurring documents

generated as a result of your role as a practitioner – for example, learner
work, lesson plans, schemes of work, reports – as opposed to publications
generated by other parties, such as websites, newspapers, policy documents.
These externally produced documents can be used as background to your
work, but portfolios, action research assignments and dissertations, are more
concerned with evidence you have generated, or have a direct involvement
with. Externally produced documents may be compared with your data, but
are more likely to be included in an appendix. A major criticism is that the
selection of appropriate documents (and there has to be selection) is a
subjective process. One way to address this is to use a critical friend who
would select relevant documentation, and you can then compare and
contrast your selections, coming eventually to agreement on what should be
included and what should not.
Images
In itself, an image does not provide strong evidence. But it can provide more
insight into the situation for the reader. It may provide some corroborating
evidence. Before including images, the ethical and data collection issues
associated with this need to be addressed. The curriculum package used a

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number of images to show, for example, types of Renaissance instruments.

How useful or vital do you think that these were?
Records
You may keep records of learner progress, schemes of work, lesson plans,
tutorial records , marked work, and so on in your daily practice. These can be
used to identify issues worthy of further enquiry. If targeted specifically at
the issues being researched, they can be used for evaluation. Permission to
use these needs to be gained, and this may affect the selection of data,
leading to bias.
Letters, emails, testimonials
Permission needs to be gained for their use in research, and they need again
to be focused if they are to provide strong evidence for evaluation.
Diaries, journals, logs, wikis and blogs
These can be used by the researcher to identify working practices and issues
to be researched. The might identify patterns, and as importantly, disruption
to patterns or ways of behaving as a practitioner. There are issues of
confidentiality to be addressed, and as with all data collection, fitness for
purpose – if the data collection tool was designed for the purpose of
exploring the issue, it is stronger evidence and more suitable for evaluation
than if the evidence is incidental to the purpose of the diary, journal, log,
wiki or blog. The authenticity of some of these can be open to question. The
reliability of this data needs to be carefully considered in your evaluation.
Observations
Your observations can be a good source of data, and can be naturally

occurring. However, unless the observations are targeted at a specific in-
stance, theme, issue, outcome or process, they can only really be used to
identify issues that you want to follow up. You may observe as a participant
in the learning situation or as a non-participant. The observation may have
been designed for another purpose, and so may not be reliable. You may wish
to observe a group of learners. If you have an observation schedule, aimed at
particular characteristics, then this can be more reliable, as can an examina-
tion of critical incidents (see Chapter 6). An observed incident can form the

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basis for discussion in post-observation interviews with the practitioners and

learners. These incidents may be indicative of contradictions, tensions, or
dilemmas discussed earlier in this section. A colleague may observe you and
this peer observation can be used to good effect in the evaluation of the
implementation stage of action research.
Questionnaires
Designing and developing questionnaires can be difficult, it is important to

spend time and focus exactly on what information you need. It is generally
better to keep questionnaires anonymous if informants are worried the
information they give can be identified as theirs by the dominant partner in
a power relationship, such as may be the case with a learner and their
assessor or referee. They can be useful for quickly identifying issues that can
be followed up using other data collection methods, such as observation,
interviews, focus groups or documentary evidence. If used in this way with
small groups, it is useful if the questionnaires are not anonymous so that
such issues can be further explained by the informant. The effectiveness of
this depends upon the rapport the researcher has with the informants.
Synthesis
This is a very important aspect of Masters Level work. It is a skill that is

demonstrated throughout a Master’s assignment, but particularly when
reporting on findings, or conclusions. Synthesis involves drawing upon
different aspects of your research data and the literature you have read to
make meaningful, coherent and insightful observations related to your
research aims. Synthesis with the literature does not always mean agreeing
with it.
Exercise 5.3 will illustrate this and will demonstrate the synthesis of
different types of data, in addition to raising a number of other issues we
have touched upon in triangulation.
Exercise 5.3
Read the following extract from Section 4.4 of Case study C:

Interestingly, during the first observation Harry was observed
teasing other children by hiding objects or running away on four
occasions. This would suggest that Harry does recognize the
mental states of others, contrary to theory of mind (Baron-Cohen

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1995). It also supports the ideas that Harry is very much inter-
ested in socializing with others, as discussed in Section 4.1.
Prior to the interview, the practitioner was concerned with
how Harry’s family use the pictures at home. An unexpected
finding was that the details of the pictures seemed just as
important to Harry’s mum as how she used them. Harry’s mum
talked about some of the symbols being ‘too general’, and spends
a lot of time on the internet.
The findings are consistent with Dawson and Osterling
(1997) who suggest that successful techniques are those which
include visual clues, structure and child choice. It seems that a
combination of two approaches, TEACCH and PECS was met with
some success, including increasing time on task and reducing
distress. Tutt (Tutt et al. 2006) warns against combining ap-
proaches just because no one intervention has shown that it is
highly successful, but most writers agree that there is no ‘one size
fits all’ (Hanft and Feinberg 1997; Schreibman 2000; Wall 2004).
Harry’s mum talked about other interventions she had tried in
the past but had not been effective, such as Makaton, and
suggested that ‘trial and error’ can be the only way to find out
what works, as ‘only a parent can know what will work for their
child’.
1 What critical incident is used to highlight Harry’s recognition

of the mental states of others?
2 Which two data collection methods are synthesized with the
literature to point out the difference with Baron-Cohen
(1995)?
3 Which two different views referred to in the literature present
a dilemma? How does the writer of the assignment address
this dilemma?
4 Is the assignment ‘privileging’ the account of Harry’s mum?
Is the validity of ‘trial and error’ undermined by this?
Extended project
Read Appendix 3 in Case study C.
1 How many codes did the writer of the assignment identify?

2 What other codes could you find?
3 If there was a theme or themes evident, what was it?

4 Rapport would be important for developing an understand-

ing of what constituted a critical incident. How could you
develop rapport in this situation?
5 How would it be practical for another researcher to develop
rapport?
Key points
+ Recognize bias, the tendency to tell a good story, both by

informants and researcher.
+ Fight against the simple account of success in your evalua-
tion. Life is complicated and full of tensions.
+ The authentic evaluation will write clearly about these com-
plications and tensions and is more likely to identify a
number of factors that influence a situation rather than talk
of a simple cause and its direct effect.
References
Charmaz, K. (2001) Grounded theory: objectivist and constructivist methods,
in N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2nd
edn. London: Sage, pp. 509–35.
Fontana, A. and Frey, J.H. (2001) The interview: from structured questions to
negotiated text, in N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of
Qualitative Research, 2nd edn. London: Sage, pp. 645–72.
Halliday, J. (2002) Researching values in education, British Educational Re-

search Journal, 28(1): 49–62.
Pervin, K. and Turner, A. (1998) A study of bullying of teachers by pupils in

an Inner London school, Pastoral Care, 16(4): 4–10.
Schostak, J.F. and Logan, T. (eds) (1984) Pupil Experience. London: Croom
Helm.
Sikes, P. (2000) ‘Truth and lies’ revisited, British Educational Research Journal,
26(2): 257–70.
Somekh, B. and Lewin, C. (2005) Research Methods in the Social Sciences.

London: Sage.
Tripp, D. (1993) Critical Incidents in Teaching. London: Routledge.

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Winter, R. (1982) ‘Dilemma analysis’: a contribution to methodology for

action research. Cambridge Journal of Education, 12(3): 161–74.

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6 Developing a critical eye
Pedagogy, considered as a science … has to contend with a special

difficulty … All its major concepts lie within the circle of common
talk and likewise in the well-worn rut of what everyone thinks he
knows.
(Herbart, 1776–1841)
Introduction
You will become familiar with your lecturers emphasizing the importance of
being critical in your academic writing. Indeed, at Masters Level the ability to
write in a critical and reflective way is the key to success. Evidence of critical
thinking will form an essential part of the marking criteria against which
your work will be evaluated. You will be expected to demonstrate evidence of
criticality in your review of the literature and also within the analysis of the
data. Therefore, literature will be cited throughout the work, not just in the
chapter entitled literature review.
However, the notion of criticality is often cloaked in mystery. Academic
work needs to demonstrate criticality; it needs to be reflective and analytical. It
is not sufficient for lecturers to simply introduce you to this type of
vocabulary. M Level students, like many learners, need to work from the
concrete. They need examples and models of critical academic writing as a
basis for their own work. You need to see for yourselves what critical writing
looks like. Without models of criticality your work will often remain at the
descriptive level. However, at Masters Level, successful work goes far beyond
this. The aim of this chapter is to provide you with some concrete examples
of criticality so that you can see what it looks like, using extracts from
students’ work at Masters Level to highlight examples of good practice.
What is criticality in academic writing?

According to Brause (2000: 3), ‘writing a … paper entails not only writing per
se, but necessitates extensive reading and learning’. It will be almost

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DEVELOPING A CRITICAL EYE 95
impossible to be critical without extensive reading around the area of study.

As a student working at this level you need to engage with the concept of
criticality in order to demonstrate that you have developed mastery of the
area of study about which you are writing. Therefore, it is not sufficient at
this level to describe the area of study to the reader. Indeed, you must assume
that readers and assessors want more as they have some degree of knowledge
about the area of work. The ability to be critical in academic work is about
the author demonstrating that they have developed an authoritative voice
on the subject. In this sense the writer must show that s/he has reflected on
the viewpoints in the literature and evaluated them. In essence, this will
involve demonstrating an ability to challenge viewpoints and question
commonly held assumptions. You will need to prove that you have read
widely around the topic to the extent that you are able to compare
contrasting viewpoints in relation to key debates within the topic. These
contrasting viewpoints will need to be evaluated and synthesized. In addi-
tion to this, it is vital that, as an education student, you are able to critically
reflect on your own practice and contexts.
At Masters Level, you need to explore conflicting aspects of govern-
ment policies and relate the topic or area of study to wider theoretical
frameworks and theories. These theories need to be questioned and chal-
lenged if appropriate because it is unlikely that any theory or theoretical
framework will have been accepted uncritically. For example, the work of
Foucault (1972) provides Masters Level students with a useful theoretical
framework through which current government educational policy can be
evaluated. His work can be applied to various aspects of educational policy,
particularly in relation to the current emphasis on the standards-driven
agenda and the associated testing and inspection regimes prevalent within
the sector. However, Foucault’s work has been subject to scrutiny, it has been
questioned and challenged. Academic writing at Masters Level focuses on
introducing the reader to the key criticisms and limitations of these theories
and then arguing the extent to which a theory or theoretical framework is
useful as a theoretical model.
Masters Level students are not expected simply to regurgitate knowl-
edge. They are expected to demonstrate mastery of their own professional
practice by situating it within wider theoretical frameworks.
Evidencing mastery
The word ‘master’ is often associated with notions of greatness and leader-
ship. Therefore, students working at this level need to show that they are
able to speak with authority about their chosen research field. The work
involved in developing the skills associated with writing critically should not

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96 DEVELOPING A CRITICAL EYE
be underestimated. University students (and lecturers) do not find it easy.

Academic work will show varying degrees of criticality from the start of the
programme through to completion. Masters Level programmes usually cul-
minate in the submission of an extended piece of academic writing, such as a
dissertation. It is crucial that this work evidences a substantial level of critical
and reflective thinking in order for students to complete the course success-
fully. In other words, you will need to demonstrate to the reader that you
have developed sufficient understanding of the area of study to develop your
own authoritative voice. The ability to demonstrate mastery of the topic is
therefore crucial to success.
Evidence of ‘mastery’ of the topic will be achieved by being critical. The
author will have read a very wide range of literature and explored the
contrasting arguments in relation to the key debates. He/She will have
developed enough knowledge of the topic, to the extent that they can
challenge viewpoints in the literature with contrasting viewpoints. The author
will have demonstrated the ability to synthesize these contrasting viewpoints
by making a case to support the validity of one argument over another and will
have demonstrated an ability to relate the topic to wider theories and
theoretical frameworks and to question the assumptions made by these.
However, it is important to emphasize that critical thinking is not just
about criticizing viewpoints in the literature, criticizing government policies
or criticizing practice, although this is part of it! Television and theatre critics
encourage us to view criticality in a negative sense. ‘Criticality’ originates
from the Greek krisis, which means ‘a sifting’. Therefore part of your job will
be to sift through the text and identify the aspects which are good or poor.
Thinking in a critical and reflective manner is also about acknowledging the
strengths of viewpoints in the literature and the strengths of theories and
theoretical frameworks. Therefore, the aim should be to identify not just
contrasting opinions in the literature but also concurring opinions and
viewpoints.
Balance
Your aim should be to produce a balanced discussion, which examines both

sides of the arguments in relation to the key debates. For example, a paper on
inclusive education could explore the arguments for and against segregated
special education. The writer would read widely in the literature and find
viewpoints from academics in support of segregated education for children
with Special Educational Needs. In addition, the writer would find view-
points in the literature from academics who disagree with the notion of
segregated education. To explore the contrasting viewpoints in the literature
the writer might find a colour-coding system useful with arguments for

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segregated education highlighted in one colour and arguments against

highlighted in another. This will be done across several books/journal
articles. This process will help the writer to compare viewpoints from across
the literature. The writer would present both sides of the debate through
citing the contrasting viewpoints. Finally, the writer would synthesize these
contrasting viewpoints by arguing a case for/against segregated education. A
good starting point, therefore, is to identify the key debates within the
topic/field that is being studied.
Key points
+ None of the skills identified here are easy, nor do they
necessarily come naturally.
+ Reflect on the viewpoints that you cite from the literature.
Are they logical or valid? Can you challenge them?
+ Explore the criticisms of key theories and theoretical frame-
works.
+ Always aim to present a balanced viewpoint by exploring
opposing arguments.
Types of criticality
Presenting contrasting points of view
The aim here is for you to identify contrasting viewpoints in the literature. In
order to do this effectively it will be necessary for you to read widely first.
Books and journal articles are always good starting points as these sources
have usually been peer-reviewed or refereed. (For caveats regarding literature,
see Chapter 2.) Newspaper articles from reputable newspapers (such as the
Guardian or the Times Education Supplement) will also prove to be valuable.
Increasingly, university students are using web-based sources, although
over-use of web-based material is not advisable due to the fact that it often
has not been subject to academic scrutiny. Electronic journals, newspaper
articles and electronic books will be available via the university’s electronic
database. However, there is nothing more satisfying than actually visiting the
library and searching the shelves in person! Chapter 2 details possible sources
and their advantages and disadvantages.
How much do you need to read?
It will be necessary to draw the line somewhere in terms of how much

material to peruse. There is always another book or another journal article

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that could have been read! Whilst reading the literature it will be necessary
to identify key themes and debates for which a colour coding system, as
described above, will be helpful. Sometimes multiple coding is necessary; for
example, if you are researching sources of teacher stress several themes may
be identified such as workload, work–life balance, pressure to get children to
reach standards, inspection, etc. These themes will appear across several
sources of literature and each should be identified using highlighter pens or
coloured Post-It notes (in books). You will then be able to identify similar
and contrasting viewpoints in relation to each theme across the literature.
Exercise 6.1
Read the following extract from Case study A:
Feinstein and Symons (1999: 306) contend that ‘variables such as

class size and teacher experience are usually found to have little
effect on attainment’. This, however, does not appear to reflect
the view of Ofsted (1997: 9) who state that ‘there are clear links
between unsatisfactory teaching and low levels of attainment’
and Wright et al. (1997: 63) who state that ‘the most important
factor affecting students learning is the teacher’. Important is the
statement by Wright et al. (1997: 63) that ‘students in classrooms
of very effective teachers, following relatively ineffective teachers
make excellent academic gains but not enough to offset previous
evidence of less than expected gains’.
The author has clearly presented two different points of view, thus
demonstrating criticality. This is a particularly good example because
she has supported the contrasting viewpoint (in this case, Ofsted) with
a concurring viewpoint (Wright et al.). This strengthens the critique
because she has added weight to the contrasting view.
Challenging a viewpoint: developing an

authoritative voice
Below is a somewhat humorous summary of an uncritical review of the

literature. The writers describe an uncritical review as:
The furniture sale catalogue, in which everything merits a one-

paragraph entry no matter how skilfully it has been conducted:

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Bloggs (1975) found this, Smith (1976) found that, Jones (1977)
found the other, Bloggs, Smith and Jones (1978) found happiness
in heaven.
(Haywood and Wragg 1982: 2)
Clearly there is a need to go beyond mere description of viewpoints in the

literature. At Masters Level you need to be able to demonstrate that you are
able to engage with the viewpoints and offer some reflection upon them.
This will involve the ability to question assumptions and assertions and to
challenge viewpoints in the literature. Challenging viewpoints is a skill
which students often find difficult. They may feel they lack the authority to
do this. After all, students are not academics, they have not had their work
published and they are not well known. However, education students often
bring to their studies a substantial degree of practical experience. They may
have worked with learners of a wide range of ages and abilities; they have
had experience of working in professional contexts and they will have
engaged in professional dialogue with colleagues. These rich interactions will
have enabled them to formulate their views and opinions about aspects of
education and it is possible to draw upon this experience to question
assumptions and viewpoints in the literature. In addition, through engaging
with a wide range of literature, students become more knowledgeable about
the aspect of education they are studying and this gives them the confidence
to question assumptions in the literature and to challenge viewpoints.
Exercise 6.2
Read the extract from Case study B carefully. Identify two places where
the writer has developed an authoritative voice by questioning/
challenging viewpoints in the literature.
Building on tasks and linking explanations to prior knowledge are
two further points that Kerry (1998: 108, 117) believes should be
considered thoroughly when explaining. The DfES Pedagogy and
Practice unit on Explaining also highlights this point:
When explaining relationships between factors we need to

consider how one factor affects another …
(DfES 2004: 3)
However, Petty emphasizes that the development of existing and

new knowledge can only be advantageous in explanation when

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the learning is repeated and emphasized in a variety of ways

(Petty 2004: 164). Furthermore, Petty adds that it is the pupils’
innate capability to only absorb certain amounts of information
at any time that can cause problems in explanation, thus rein-
forcing the need for repetition. When teachers try to explain too
much, they can often be met by the ‘enemy … the limited size of
the student’s short-term memory’ (Petty ibid.):
Don’t be afraid to simplify to the point where you are

distorting the truth somewhat. You can always mention the
exceptions and oddities later, once the basic idea is under-
stood.
(Petty 2004: 162)
Simplification can be advantageous to the teacher, enabling

knowledge needed for the lesson to be covered quickly; however,
it is important to decide which specific areas during the explana-
tion will be ‘distorted’ so as not to delete important music-
specific technical language which can aid and develop pupils’
learning and understanding.
Pace needs to be considered during explanation to ensure
that all pupils are listening and understanding detail. Lengthy
explanations can be problematic; keeping pupils focused and
engaged for lengthy periods of time can often be difficult,
especially when pupils are aware that practical work will be
following the explanation. This is one area that Kerry (1998)
neglects to cover.
Through the process of critically reflecting on viewpoints in the

literature, the writer is able to allow her own voice to come through
clearly. This is an important skill in academic writing at Masters Level.
It is crucial that you are able to define your own stance in relation to
the debate throughout the work, whilst at the same time acknowledg-
ing contrasting viewpoints.
Critiquing policy
Education is a political football. It seems as if a week does not pass without

some mention of education in political circles. Successful Masters Level
students are able to critically reflect on government educational policies by

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identifying aspects of conflicting policies and exploring limitations associ-

ated with specific policies. Read the following quotes regarding policy:
Inclusion is a normative concept. It’s colonisation, under the banner

of academic opportunity and high standards for all, serves to
normalise the values of individual responsibility for individual
achievement. The policy of inclusion is aimed not at promoting
equity whilst recognising and supporting the richness of social
diversity, but at establishing narrow cultural parameters of normality
to which all must have the opportunity to conform.
(Armstrong 2005: 147)

Should we be asking, inclusion into what? When we see narrowing
forms of academic curriculum reified through national testing,
league tables and pernicious inspection regimes reinforced through
media campaigns of public vilification of ‘failing schools’, and the
institutionalisation of marginality through Pupil Referral Units it is
hard to imagine the place for an inclusive school culture.
(Slee 2001: 118)
These writers are clearly critical of the government’s policy of inclusive

education. Therefore, it is possible to draw on viewpoints in the literature to
develop a critical discussion of aspects of educational policy.
Exercise 6.3
Read the following example from Case study A:
The whole issue of underachievement is high on the political

agenda at present. Demie (2001) recognizes that both local and
national government’s school improvement initiatives are under-
pinned by the expectation that schools and local authorities will
monitor pupil performance, identify groups who underachieve
and develop strategies to support them. The current government
has invested heavily in ‘education, education, education’ and is
looking for a return on this investment. There is an expectation
that no pupil or group of pupils will slip through the net and
‘underachieve’.
+ Consider whether Williams has examined critically the politi-

cal drive to raise standards in schools.

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+ Read Chapter 2 of her work. Decide whether Williams subse-

quently developed a critical discussion after this extract.
+ Consider how Williams could have developed a critical dis-
cussion of the government’s standards-driven agenda.
Critiquing theories/theoretical frameworks
During the reading process you must identify the relevant theories or
theoretical frameworks which you will apply to your work. Within the field
of education there are numerous frameworks or theories to draw upon (for
example, learning theory; Maslow; Social Capital theory; Foucault, to name
but a few). The aim is not to cover all the theories but to select the one or
possibly two which are the most relevant to the area of study. The theories or
frameworks will emerge from disciplines such as psychology, sociology and
philosophy, all of which have relevance to education. The aim is for the
university student to apply the theory of framework to his or her own area of
study, then to explore the criticisms or limitations of it.
Exercise 6.4
Read the following extract from Case study C:

Baron-Cohen (1995) suggests that people with autism have a lack
of ‘theory of mind’, or ‘mind-blindness’ which means that they
cannot recognize the mental states of others. Frith (1989) suggests
that those with autism lack central coherence, which means that
they have difficulties in recognizing a whole concept rather than
just the details. Most people naturally place information into a
context and see the ‘bigger picture’. Another model proposes that
people with autism have difficulties in ‘executive functioning’.
Executive functioning allows us to transfer our attention from
one area to another smoothly and use our thoughts to solve
problems (Norman and Shallice 1980).
(Eaglen 2007)
+ In this extract Eaglen has introduced the reader to a range of

theories to explain possible causes of autism. Do you think
Eaglen has critically reflected on these theories?
+ Read Section 2.1 of Case study C. Did Eaglen subject the
theories to critical scrutiny?

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Applying a theory or theoretical framework
Theories have little use unless they can be applied to practical contexts. You
should aim to show your reader that you understand the relevance of
theories or theoretical frameworks by demonstrating how they link to
everyday practice. The action research study (Case study C) brings in a
theoretical base from management theory to support the research stance:
For anyone to learn and achieve, a number of basic needs have to be
met first. Maslow (1943) suggested that before people can operate on
a higher level, they must have their physiological and safety needs
met. It then follows that before Harry can begin to access the
curriculum, he must first feel secure.
Key points
+ Challenge viewpoints in the literature.

+ Compare contrasting viewpoints in the literature.
+ Identify the broader theories or theoretical frameworks which
you can apply to your work and explore the limitations of
these.
+ Explore conflicting educational policies.
+ Try to ensure that at least one of the above types of criticality
is evident in each section of your essay.
Being critical at the data analysis stage
Students at Masters Level often find the analysis section of their study the
most challenging section to complete. In this section you will present your
data and discuss them in relation to the appropriate literature. How you
choose to present this section depends on the methods you have chosen to
collect data, for example, interviews, questionnaires, statistical data. A
thematic approach often works well where students organize their findings
into categories. You can follow the same technique with data as with the
literature, i.e. identify the emerging themes or areas and code data accord-
ingly.
As with literature, so with data: not all the data can be documented and
not all of it will be interesting. You will need to select the relevant data to
document under each theme or category. Then relate the actual data (be it
quotations from interviews, graphs or charts) to literature. This is where
students often have problems. It is likely that at this stage you may simply

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want to get the work finished and will be rushing to complete it. Often the
last thing you want to do at this point is to return to the literature or carry
out even more reading. However, in order to demonstrate that the work is
scholarly, it is necessary to relate findings to literature.
How can students be critical at this stage of their research? Interesting
data often add something new to the literature (i.e. fill a gap) or contradict it.
Exploring these contradictions is a good way of demonstrating criticality.
In Case study A, findings are related to literature in a number of places:
This statistical evidence does indicate that the background of the

child does impact upon the level they achieve at the end of Key
Stage 3. In subjects who are tested there is a greater difference with
Mathematics showing the most significant difference between pupils
from deprived backgrounds and those from relatively well off
communities. This supports the findings of similar studies such as
Cooper et al. (2003) who found that social deprivation is a key factor
in educational underachievement.
Figure 4.3 shows the average level achieved in ICT for pupils who are
entitled to free school meals against those who do not qualify. It
shows that there is a difference between the two groups with the
pupils who receive free school meals attaining the lower average
level. This supports the work of Smith (2003: 580) who found that
‘with regard to academic variables, pupils who receive free school
meals do less well than their peers in aggregate terms at every level’.
These findings support Gorard (2000) who believed that pupils who
perform well earlier in their schooling continue to do so but
contradicts the work of Schagen (2006: 121) who argued that the
relationship between prior attainment and performance is ‘not
linear’.
In this last example the author has findings which conflict with the
literature. This would then form the basis of an excellent critical discussion.
The author can then explain why the results are as they are and then use this
as a basis for questioning or challenging the literature.
Extended project
Form a critical discussion group with other students on your course.

Try to meet on a regular basis. Take articles and other texts to the
meetings and have a critical discussion about the content. This will be
invaluable with texts that you are using for your assignments.

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Key points
+ Relate your findings to literature.

+ Use your data to challenge or support viewpoints in the
literature.
+ Evaluate the extent to which your data is original, i.e. has it
produced new findings that have not been discovered before,
or does it simply add to existing bodies of knowledge?
References
Armstrong, D. (2005) Reinventing ‘inclusion’: New Labour and the cultural
politics of special education, Oxford Review of Education, 31(1): 135–51.
Brause, R. (2000) Writing Your Doctoral Dissertation. Florence, KY: Taylor and
Francis.
Foucault, M. (1972) The Archaeology of Knowledge. London: Tavistock.
Haywood, P. and Wragg, E.D. (1982) Evaluating the Literature, Rediguide 2,
University of Nottingham, School of Education.
Slee, R. (2001) Inclusion in practice: does practice make perfect?, Educational
Review, 53(2): 113–23.

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Part III
Written Outcomes at Masters Level

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– Typeset- in
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7 Drawing conclusions
He who esteems trifles for themselves is a trifler; he who esteems

them for the conclusions to be drawn from them, or the advantage
to which they can be put, is a philosopher.
(Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1803–1873)
Introduction
In this chapter, your work is drawn to a close. The Conclusion section for
education assignments is described and explained as a mechanism to pull all
the different elements of the assignment together, integrating the various
issues that have been presented throughout and making inferences from the
research findings. It can be thought of as fulfilling three separate but
connected functions:
+ providing an overview through summarizing the research findings;

+ evaluating the impact on classroom practice, making recommenda-
tions based on the outcomes of the study;
+ reflecting on the impact on personal and professional development
and at the same time exploring avenues for further investigation.
These three areas are discussed in more detail with examples drawn from the
case studies.
Showing off skills
The Conclusion section is your opportunity to show off several of the skills
and techniques that characterize good Masters Level work. You can use it for
Gestalt, for synthesis, for evaluation and for reflection. Gestalt is the
‘overview’ – the whole picture – it often helps to stand back from a piece in

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110 DRAWING CONCLUSIONS
order to gain a sense of perspective and direction and the ‘whole’ will be
much more than the sum of its parts. Synthesis means showing the links
between the various parts of the assignment, again to present an overview.
Evaluation and reflection are closely linked together, one looking back over
what you have achieved, the other looking forward as to who might benefit
and what further work might accomplish.
The focus for this section of an assignment might be described as
answering the question ‘So what?’ It’s about saying what the results mean
and determining why the study is important and who might find it useful. A
good conclusion does much more than repeat findings from the rest of the
assignment; it synthesizes the reading and is illustrated with examples from
observations, evaluations and findings from research. It shows how they all
fit together and more importantly outlines the significance of the findings
and discusses the implications of the study for future practice.
McNiff (1996: 142) suggests the following questions to help you to
formulate the concluding section of an action research-based assignment:
+ How has your own understanding progressed?

+ What is the relevance of the work to your own institution?
+ How does it link with other research?
+ Does it contribute to theory?
+ What future developments for theory, practice and research may
come of the work?
Masters Level study in teaching is about professional and personal develop-

ment and involves the development of and changes to professional at-
tributes, knowledge, understanding and skills. The study that you undertake
will be based on an aspect of your current role or training and therefore it is
appropriate in the Conclusion to consider the impact of your findings on
both yourself as a professional and on other practitioners. Your reflection will
consider how this might lead to further development. In addition, the study
will inevitably have limitations as it stands and writing the Conclusion
section will lead you to consider what else might be done to enhance
practice further, or to understand the issue in more depth.
The Conclusion should be a logical ending to the work, based on the
arguments that have been presented throughout the assignment. Bell re-
minds us that ‘only conclusions that can be justifiably drawn from the
findings should be made’ (2005: 238). It should add to the overall quality
and impact of the writing, as it is the last thing that the assessor will read and
should, if done well, give the assignment a sense of completeness.

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DRAWING CONCLUSIONS 111
Identifying main outcomes and summarizing

research findings
Bell suggests that it is best to start the Conclusion section with ‘a restatement
of the problem, before discussing how the result affects existing knowledge
of a subject’ (Ibid.: 237). Appropriate writing stems to enable you to do this
might be: ‘This assignment has investigated …’; ‘this assignment has given
an account of …’; ‘this assignment has argued that …’. The following
example goes further than this in that it summarizes the focus of the
assignment and also sets the study in the wider context invoking an earlier,
more thorough statement about why the particular focus is important at this
time. Importantly, it contributes to the overview, allowing the reader to ‘see’
both the motivation behind the study and the context in which it was
carried out.
There is a wealth of information available on the factors contribut-

ing to underperformance. The government is driving the agenda
encouraging schools to identify pupils who underperform and
develop strategies to raise their attainment. This study primarily
looked at just a few of the many aspects associated with under-
achievement including socio-economic factors, ethnicity, prior at-
tainment and the influence of the teacher. The following is a précis
of the findings with conclusions that the researcher was able to
glean from the analysis undertaken. These findings are based on a
small-scale study and particular to one local authority, but have
far-reaching implications for work undertaken both in schools and
by LA consultants under the raising standards agenda.
(Case study A)
After this brief introduction, the Conclusion should go on to summarize the

key findings in relation to the focus of the assignment. If the assignment is
based on research, you should refer back to the aims or the research
questions here and summarize the key findings in relation to each one. For
example, in Case study C the aims were focused on determining the
effectiveness of an intervention strategy to help Harry to stay on task and
reduce his repetitive behaviour. Here the writer makes very clear what the
data from the research shows in this respect.
The findings were consistent with the literature and showed that the
use of a tailored approach was more effective than no intervention
(Schreibman 2000). The use of a schedule increased Harry’s use of
language and also supported Harry at home in making choices at

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mealtimes. The strategy could be further developed to allow Harry

more flexibility to be able to join children spontaneously without
having to choose the card first.
The research showed that the use of a schedule helps Harry to
stay on task and reduces repetitive behaviour. Although Harry’s
mum does not use the schedule at home to help Harry to stay on
task, she does use it with success to help Harry to move on from one
activity to another, as it was useful for at nursery.
(Case study C)
In an assignment that is based on a curriculum package, you could summa-

rize the key points arising from your evaluation of the teaching and learning
relating to the chosen focus.
It is clear from the above evaluation that there are many successes
from teaching this unit of work with a focus on modelling and
explaining. The starter listening activities provided consistency to
each lesson. Explanations aided development and teacher modelling
helped pupils relate to the task and actually see what they were
being asked to do, as well as learning how to do it. Pupil modelling
was used as an extension of this and helped to keep the class
engaged; willing and wanting to take part.
(Case study B)
In this example the writer has summarized what was successful about the
teaching package. In particular, she has considered the chosen focus for the
assignment which in this case was teacher exposition. This example could
have been enhanced further by referring specifically to samples of the
evidence for the assertions made and also by referring back to appropriate
literature. This is one of the key features of Gestalt, the ability to link
appropriate theory to practice.
In an evidence-based practice assignment, the opening could also
summarize the impact of the intervention strategy on learning and achieve-
ment. Our Case study presents an analysis of examination results showing
the impact of the introduction of a new course on pupils’ achievement.
The conclusions you are making here should emerge from your
evaluation section or presentation of findings, and so it is important to avoid
making unsubstantiated statements. You should not overstate the findings of
your research or over-generalize as you try to summarizse them. Murray
(2006) suggests that you can avoid using the ‘over-generalising present tense’
by prefacing a statement with ‘This suggests that …’. She also suggests that

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adding the word ‘perhaps’ at the beginning of a sentence also radically alters
the strength of the claim you are making. It is vital that the claims you make
are firmly based on the evidence presented earlier in the study.
Exercise 7.1
In this exercise you will look at one of your own assignments that you
are developing. Read through your assignment and highlight the main
findings that arise from your study. Identify the evidence that supports
these findings. Now consider the original focus for the study or, if
appropriate, the aims of the research, and make a series of statements
that you can firmly support with evidence. Consider the overall ‘feel’ of
the assignment – what message do you think it is carrying? Try to state
this in a single statement or sentence. This could be something simple
like ‘I believe that I have shown that targeted intervention can improve
learning’ or ‘I have investigated several ways of giving pupil feedback
and can conclude that in such-and-such circumstances, this way is
more effective.’ This task should help you to summarize the findings
and ensure that you have appropriate evidence to support the claims
you will make.
Key points
+ This part of the conclusion should summarize the focus of

the assignment, as well as provide a brief contextual state-
ment outlining why the study is important.
+ It should summarize the key findings in relation to the aims
of the research or the focus of the assignment.
+ All the claims made should be firmly grounded in evidence
that has been generated during the study.
Discussing impact on practice and making

recommendations
Most education assignments will require you to evaluate or consider the

implications of your study on classroom practice and make recommenda-
tions based on your findings. Questions that you may try to answer could be:
How has the assignment led to an improved understanding of teaching and

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learning? What changes will I make to teaching and learning strategies as a

result of the study? Campbell suggests that this section includes: ‘Suggestions
or reflections on what you could do differently next time, how you could
further improve your intervention programme, or the costs and benefits of
getting involved in teacher research’ (2004: 176). These questions are
particularly pertinent when writing the Conclusion for an assignment based
on the teaching of a curriculum package where you will consider how the
package could be improved and suggest ways in which it could be taught
differently next time. You may even develop the resources further where this
is asked for in the assignment. These considerations link clearly to your
lesson evaluations and the evaluation section of the assignment. For exam-
ple:
As Joyce et al. (1997) state, ‘the broader the range of teaching
approaches … the more likely we are to reach our goal of educating
all students’ (p. 25). Taking this into consideration, the best way to
improve this package would be to consciously incorporate as many
teaching strategies as possible, providing an amalgamation of ap-
proaches to benefit all pupils. To develop the package further it
would be beneficial for pupils to actually see the instruments they
are composing for, although this was not possible during this unit.
Pupils’ learning could also be developed by going to a live concert of
Renaissance music; through my discussions with pupils during
lessons it has become clear that almost all have never been to a live
classical instrumental concert, an event that I believe could benefit
pupils’ musical appraisal, composing and listening skills dramati-
cally. I could have developed this area further in the classroom by
playing my instruments (violin and flute) in the Renaissance style
and would try and integrate this if teaching the unit again.
(Case study B)
For practitioners in post, this part of the Conclusion should also focus on the
wider implications of your study. This might include making recommenda-
tions that involve staff and resources outside your own classroom. For
example in Case study C:
Informal observations and discussions with another teacher have
shown that ‘substitute’ pictures (for example, using the symbol for
playdough to show a cooking activity) do not work and can be more
harmful than using no picture at all. It has been suggested to the
special needs coordinator that the nursery could invest in a compu-
ter package that provides us with a greater number of pictures or
symbols and that one person in nursery could be responsible for
printing and laminating them.

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The following example from Case study A makes recommendations for

policy changes on a much wider level:
The overriding factor identified in this study is that pupils’ prior

attainment at Key Stage 2 is directly linked to their performance at
Key Stage 3. It is therefore vital that primary schools provide the best
opportunities for pupils by delivering high quality teaching and
learning to ensure that pupils achieve their potential. For pupils that
do not make the expected progress in primary there is a real need for
secondary schools to implement strategies to improve pupils’ levels
well before the end of KS3. This needs to take the form of targeted
personalized intervention. This should mean that pupils are identi-
fied on entry to secondary school using KS2 SAT’s data and informa-
tion provided by the primary schools. These pupils should then be
involved in a programme of high quality intervention that enhances
the teaching they receive in order that they can make more progress
in KS3 and achieve the national average. This in turn would lead to
improvements at GCSE.
The government have invested heavily in the personalization
agenda recognizing that ‘decisive progress in educational standards
occurs where every child matters; careful attention is paid to their
individual learning styles, motivations, and needs’ and ‘there is
rigorous use of pupil target setting linked to high quality assessment’
Miliband (2004: 2), but at present this appears to be having very
little impact on pupils in the LA’s schools. While progress is being
made in some schools, it is not fast enough to benefit pupils in
school now, who will be the parents of children in the LA schools in
the future, continuing the cycle of deprivation. Therefore, consult-
ant support should target these areas and support schools to imple-
ment effective intervention strategies.
Exercise 7.2
Again looking at your own assignment, list the recommendations you

are making leading from your study. This will help you to organize
your thoughts for this part of the Conclusion section. Note, that with
assignments of this nature, that are necessarily limited in scope, there
will almost always be some sort of caveat – a ‘but’ or a ‘however’ or an
area or circumstance that you have been unable to investigate. Don’t
forget to state these limitations when making your recommendations.
This shows skills of synthesis and reflection.

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Dissemination and contextualization
These are two further considerations that need to be included in this part of
the Conclusion section.
First, an important question that arises from making recommendations
is how you will disseminate your findings. For your research to have an
impact outside your own classroom, you need to create opportunities to
share your work with colleagues. This could be done through informal
discussion with those working closely with you, or in more formal depart-
mental meetings, or strategically at a senior management level. Many
assignments expect you to write about how you will do this. As your
recommendations are implemented more widely, this may form the basis of
further research.
Second, during this section of the Conclusion, it is important to
contextualize your work by referring to the theories discussed in your
literature review. This is an opportunity to show synthesis between theory
and practice and also to answer the ‘So what?’ question by showing how
your study has added to the field of study.
For example, in Case study A:
In terms of making recommendations as a result of this study the

problem documented by Gorard and Smith (2004: 219) that ‘it is
possible to identify entire groups of students with a tendency to
underachieve’ rings true. However, they continue that ‘the category
which binds then together is merely a ‘‘pseudo-explanation’’ for
their lower achievement’ and that even if they could identify the
cause of the lower achievement then it is not always possible to
change it. For example, in the LA it is clear from this study that the
area in which a pupil lives impacts on their life chances but it is not
possible for schools, local authorities or the researcher to relocate
pupils to wealthier areas. However, from the findings there are
opportunities to look closely at the factors impacting on KS3 ICT
and try to offer ways forward for schools and the LA.
Exercise 7.3
Identify reading from your assignment which underpins your findings

and contrast this with reading which possibly suggests a different view.
What do your own findings add to the debate?

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Key points
+ The Conclusion will consider the impact of the study on your

classroom practice.
+ You may make recommendations for changes in policy un-
derpinned by evidence generated during the assignment.
+ An important aspect of this is how your findings and recom-
mendations will be disseminated and developed further at a
departmental and/or institutional level.
+ You should place your study in context by suggesting how
your findings relate to previous work in the focus area.
Avenues for further investigation and impact on

professional development
During the Conclusion it is also important to consider the limitations of your

study. Think about qualifications that may need to be made to your
argument. For example, are there factors that have an impact on the validity
or reliability of the findings of the research? You may propose a course of
action or raise questions that warrant further study.
The use of a schedule did reduce the number of times Harry was
distressed at nursery although it was concluded that as Harry was
distressed less than normal anyway, a longer research period would
be required to truly determine the effectiveness. Harry’s mum
reported that she relied very much on the schedule at home to avoid
distress and to help calm Harry when he was upset. However, she
also spoke of times when the intervention did not work.
(Case study C)
If working within an Action Research methodology, you may suggest the

next cycle of research. For example:
While the data collated has provided statistical data to support or

disregard the factors which impact on attainment, it has not
investigated the core issues in detail. For further research, a clear
starting point would be to look at the issue of prior attainment at
KS2 and investigate what could be done to improve the results of

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pupils at eleven. Another area that requires further research is the

impact of the low numbers of pupils from different ethnic groups in
the authority.
The action research Case study goes as far as providing an action plan
showing how the study will be continued beyond the confines of the
assessed piece of work. Murray argues that a mini-proposal for future work
such as this, makes for a strong ending to an assignment: ‘it shows that you
have sufficient expert knowledge to (a) select an appropriate priority and (b)
think it through’ (2006: 245).
You should then consider how the study has impacted on your
personal and professional development. This might be in relation to aspects
of your professional development targets or in relation to priorities inherent
in your current job role. These might be also related to departmental or
school improvement priorities:
In the light of its experience with DiDA, School X chose the BTEC
First Certificate as the ICT course for delivery to all year 10 students
from September 2006.
(Case study D)
In the following examples the writers discuss impact on their professional

knowledge, skills and understanding:
Personally, this study has led to a greater understanding of the wider

picture of the authority and the issues it faces. It has given the
researcher the confidence to discuss the issues in a wider forum and
provided the statistical evidence to quantify personal beliefs about
underachievement.
(Case study A)
This piece of action research has helped the practitioner and her
colleagues to think more critically about their provision. Back-
ground research has developed a theoretical understanding of au-
tism which have been shared with other staff to develop an
understanding of the needs of children with autism. An effective
intervention for Harry has been established and regular discussions
with Harry’s mum continue to help us to develop our provision.
(Case study C)
The consideration of impact on your professional development is particularly

important for trainee practitioners. How has your study supported your
journey in meeting the standards for qualified teacher status? Which of the

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standards do you consider have been particularly strongly underpinned by

the study? What do you need to do now to move onto the next phase of
development?
For example:
My teaching has improved considerably throughout this package

and this can be seen when looking at the teacher tutor observations.
Because I have had to consider my chosen teaching strategy in
depth, my planning has been more consistent and I have learnt how
to synthesize lessons, developing on pupils’ assessed knowledge.
Specifically, my explaining methods have become clearer and more
focused and I have observed the benefits of teacher and pupil
modelling. I am developing these strategies further now in the other
modules that I teach.
(Case study B)
Exercise 7.4
Think about the starting point of your investigation. What did you
think you were going to gain from the investigation? What tangible
personal and professional benefits have resulted from undertaking your
assignment?
Key points
+ During the Conclusion section it is important to consider the

limitations of your study.
+ This may lead to a discussion about how the investigation
may be further developed.
+ Describe what you have learned from undertaking the study
and how this has impacted on your personal and professional
development.
The closing paragraph
Finishing the assignment is perhaps the most difficult part of all to write.
There are no simple answers to this. The final paragraph really depends on
the assignment question. For example, in assignments that ask you to

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discuss, evaluate or give reasons for, it might be appropriate to state your

opinion based on all the evidence that you have presented throughout the
assignment. In a research-based assignment, it is more appropriate to finish
with a deduction, based on logical conclusions that can be drawn from the
evidence presented earlier in the assignment. For trainee practitioners,
outlining how the assignment has impacted on your professional develop-
ment as described above, is probably enough without any further writing.
On a point of style, it is probably best to avoid over-sentimental
statements that tend to provide a trite end to an assignment: ‘I hope that
other teachers take this on board, as raising the aspirations of pupils is what
education is all about.’
Also avoid pointless truisms which might ruin an otherwise convincing
argument which is based on evidence: ‘As for future developments in this
field, only time will tell …’
Remember that, as stated at the start of this chapter, the Conclusion
will be the last thing read by the assessor so it needs to leave a good
impression. Make sure that you look at the specific criteria against which it
will be marked, and that you have fulfilled the necessary requirements. A
good, strong Conclusion will look forward whilst reflecting on what you
have learned. A good way to finish is with a thoughtful but strong quotation.
As Schofield says, a good piece of research
can be used not only to study what is and what may be but also to
explore possible visions of what could be. By studying what could be,
I mean locating situations that we know or expect to be ideal or
exceptional on some a priori basis and then studying them to see
what is actually going on there.
(1990: 217).
References
Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project: A Guide for First-Time Researchers in
Education, Health and Social Science. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Campbell, A. (2004) Practitioner Research and Professional Development in

Education. London: Paul Chapman Publishing.
McNiff, J. (2006) You and Your Research Project. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Murray, R. (2006) How to Write a Thesis. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Schofield, J. W. (1990) Increasing the generalizability of qualitative research,

in E. Eisner and A. Peshkin (eds) Qualitative Enquiry in Education. New York:
Teachers College Press.

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8 Presenting work, focusing

on a portfolio
The pretension is nothing; the performance everything. A good

apple is better than an insipid peach.
(Leigh Hunt, The Story of Rimini, 1832)
Introduction
Many assignments at M Level across institutions are based on the develop-

ment of a portfolio with a ‘critical review’. This chapter outlines how you can
provide ‘good quality’ evidence for your portfolio, emphasizing the need for
you to show your engagement with the issues, demonstrate your learning
and celebrate your achievements through dissemination.
Strategies for evaluating your portfolio are explored, including the
notion of critical incidents and the benefits of using a critical friend to
support you with validating your evidence. Ways of synthesizing the differ-
ent elements of this type of assignment are also discussed.
The presentation of a portfolio is an important consideration at
assessment, so guidance on this will be presented. Tasks will focus on ways of
generating evidence and linking reading and theory to practice. This chapter
will conclude with a suggested writing frame for approaching the evaluation
within a portfolio-based assessment, with examples from an actual assess-
ment.
What is a portfolio?
The development of a portfolio is a method of assessment at many levels in

education, from GCSE onwards. The Chambers Dictionary defines a portfolio
as ‘a case or pair of boards for loose papers, drawings, etc.; a collection of

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122 PRESENTING WORK
such papers’. It is, therefore, not surprising that educational practitioners on

M Level courses in education find it difficult to determine the exact nature of
a portfolio. Despite this lack of clarity, it is a popular form of assessment at M
Level, probably because it is a move away from the traditional 5000–6000-
word essay, associated with 30 M Level credits.
In the case of M Level assessment, a portfolio is, of course, more than a
collection of documents relevant to the professional role of the student, it is
used as a powerful learning tool to evaluate the process of learning. Chetcuti
et al. (2006: 98) agree that it is not just a collection of documents; they refer
to it as cultivating the process of learning. This captures the essence of a
portfolio which should include evidence of practitioner achievement, thus
promoting learning through critical reflection on the processes associated
with the collation and evaluation of the portfolio. Tummons (2005: 68)
suggests that the portfolio ‘will encourage self-assessment and reflection: by
analysing and reviewing the material, the student can revisit their experi-
ences’. The portfolio is designed to help the educational practitioner develop
a critical voice through drawing together insights from various elements of
evidence through integrating theory and practice.
Key points
+ A portfolio is not just a collection of documents.

+ You must demonstrate through the materials an awareness of
the implications of theory for practice and the drawing of
inferences from practice for theory.
Evidence in portfolio
When writing at M Level (see Chapter 2), meeting the learning outcomes of
the module is crucial to success. Figure 8.1 presents typical learning out-
comes for a portfolio module.
Learning Outcomes
Knowledge and Understanding
1 Critically understands and analyses evidence from practice to
identify opportunities for improvement.
2 Evaluates strategies for improving own practice within the
institution.
3 Analyses ways to identify impact on learning and improved
practice.

PRESENTING WORK 123
4 Critically understands published research relevant to the

identified issue.
Abilities
1 Consults learners, colleagues and managers to clarify
understanding of the learning environment.
2 Develops improved communication skills in consulting and
collaborating with research practitioners.
3 Constructs a portfolio which selects, identifies, explains and
critically reviews appropriate evidence.
4 Develops strategic action planning skills and understanding of
the practitioners.
Figure 8.1 Typical learning outcomes for a portfolio module
Figure 8.1 indicates that your portfolio should include evidence of learning
and also reflective writing. The development of perceptive reflection, sup-
ported by very clearly structured arguments, is required to meet the learning
outcomes of the module. Therefore, deciding on the focal point of the
portfolio requires careful thought. It should be something that you consider
of professional and personal importance, such as the development of a new
initiative, within which you can identify a particular element to evaluate.
Ideally, the portfolio should chart the progress of the initiative, so for that
reason it should commence at the beginning, not be an after-thought.
Through the development of the portfolio you should apply learning
to evaluate and inform professional practice. This could include reviews of
reading, case studies, analyses of work situations and critical incidents. You
should clearly indicate the purpose of each piece of evidence, for example,
which module learning outcomes they meet and how. This can be done by
writing a rationale for the material presented with cross-referencing to the
separate pieces of evidence. Do not include evidence for the sake of bulking
out the portfolio. Each piece of evidence should be carefully thought about
and reflected upon. Some examples of the types of evidence you could
present are outlined below.
School or departmental policies relating to the issue
These should have had some direct input from the practitioner. They may
have been part of a team which has developed and written the policy
document. If this is the case, then the exact nature of the input should be
written in the rationale.

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124 PRESENTING WORK
Examples:
+ include relevant parts of the policy document (no need to include

it all, particularly if it is large);
+ statement indicating the input of each contributor;
+ minutes of meetings where your input is evident.
Minutes from meetings, consultation with colleagues
When collating evidence for a portfolio it would be useful to make sure that
minutes are taken at meetings, whether formal or informal, to use as
evidence. If no minutes have been taken and you wish to use the meeting as
evidence, then notes must be typed up and signed by at least one person who
was present at the meeting.
Examples:
+ minutes/notes of departmental meetings;

+ minutes of staff meetings;
+ notes from an informal meeting between colleagues;
+ journal entries;
+ critical incidents.
Evidence from schemes of work, lesson plans and evaluations
If you are, for example, developing a new course, then schemes of work,
lesson plans and evaluations of lessons are valuable evidence. It would be
useful to include materials which have been prepared to support the lesson.
These would generally be ones you had prepared yourself but it is also
acceptable to put lesson plans in from colleagues who are teaching the same
course, as long as they are acknowledged and their value to the evaluation is
explained. The lesson evaluations could discuss both the learning of your
students and your own learning.
Examples:
+ schemes of work;
+ lesson plans;
+ analysis of lesson evaluation;
+ examples of learner assessed work;
+ relevant lesson materials;
+ critical incidents;

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PRESENTING WORK 125
+ case study.
Notes from lesson observations and case studies
These must be lesson observations directly related to your lessons and

germane to the area of focus of the portfolio. Again, if it is development of a
new course, then it would be beneficial to ask one or two colleagues to come
and observe the lessons and write up an evaluation. If your learners are doing
a project, this could be written up as a case study. The emphasis should, of
course, be on the learning which has taken place.
Examples:
+ formal lesson observation;

+ journal entries;
+ relevant lesson materials;
+ case study;
+ review of reading;
+ critical incidents.
Evidence showing dissemination to colleagues, pupils, parents
Dissemination is a very valuable tool for sharing the learning which has been
identified during the development of the portfolio. This could be presenta-
tions you have prepared, as well as examples of the work produced. Letters
you have written to students, parents or colleagues inviting them to attend
the dissemination would be useful evidence. Other ways of dissemination
could be at staff meetings, departmental meetings and informal discussions
with colleagues.
Examples:
+ presentation slides;
+ handout materials;
+ minutes of meetings;
+ notes from dissemination event with signature of one attendee;
+ witness statement.

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126 PRESENTING WORK
Notes from training and professional development activities

relating to the issue
If you are using notes, jot down some points if you get chance during the
event. It is essential to write them up as soon as you can after the event. It is
important that you verify any data, so do make sure that you use a critical
friend to discuss the issues raised in the notes.
Examples:
+ details of professional development undertaken;

+ notes from event with signature of one attendee, such as a critical
friend;
+ journal entries;
+ review of reading;
+ critical incidents;
+ witness statement.
Any other evidence that shows your engagement with

the issue
Any further evidence that you feel shows your journey in developing the
portfolio is relevant as long as you can justify its inclusion.
Examples:
+ details of any professional development undertaken during the

period;
+ evidence of involvement with professionals from other fields e.g.
social workers;
+ comments from any moderation of learner-assessed work;
+ grades from any learner assessed work;
+ witness statements.
Discussing your portfolio and the evaluation with colleagues will help you
learn more from the experience than just your own reflections. Chapter 2,
‘Reading at M Level: Learning to use literature’ has a section on ‘critical
reflection’ which you should find useful.
You should focus on a significant aspect of your learning journey
through the evaluation of the portfolio materials. Remember that it repre-
sents an aspect the development of your role which you have considered to
be a valuable professional experience.

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PRESENTING WORK 127
Key points
+ It is important that your documents are not put together

haphazardly but are thoughtfully constructed.
+ Be organized, start your portfolio file as soon as you com-
mence your assessment. This way, you can put your evidence
straight into the file and classify it as you go along.
+ Do make lists of potential evidence so you can identify any
steps you need to take to gather the evidence.
Exercise 8.1
Choose three types of evidence and write notes on the strengths and
weaknesses of each one.
Developing a focus for evaluation
You must choose a focus for the evaluation of the materials in the portfolio.
Chapter 3 provides a good starting point. You are not required to write a
generalized evaluation which skims the whole topic but must choose a focus
to help you engage with learning. What is expected is that you will
demonstrate that you have knowledge of the underlying concepts and
principles associated with your chosen focus.
Usually, the documentation will provide you with the opportunity to
make a choice of area on which to focus. Focus is important, for instance, if
the portfolio was on the development of a new course, it could provide the
opportunity to evaluate such aspects as: ‘Learning and Teaching Strategies’,
‘Assessment for Learning’ and ‘Use of Learning Materials’ among others. The
main criterion must be choosing a focus which you are going to find
professionally and personally challenging and interesting. However, if your
choice provides the opportunity for you to provide some benefit to your
organization, so much the better. For example, if your organization is
reviewing its provision for special needs, or its assessment procedures, then
you might be able to support this work with your own small-scale evaluation.
You must be able to demonstrate breadth of understanding on your
chosen focus. This will be accomplished through reading widely to theoreti-
cally underpin your evaluation. By making wide reference to what others

128 PRESENTING WORK
have written, by referencing the views and practice of relevant colleagues

and learners, as well as institutional policy, you will demonstrate that you
fully understand the significant issues. It is important that your portfolio is
grounded in a theoretical framework. Chapter 2 provides guidance for
developing your literature review, and Chapter 4 for choosing methodology.
Key points
The following are guidelines for choosing a focus for a portfolio

module:
+ It must be something you are interested in.

+ Access to the right material at M Level is important.
+ It should be student-centred and be related to raising
achievement and whole school development.
+ Do not choose something that you are not involved with. For
example, if you are not working on ‘assessment for learning’,
however interesting you find it, you will not be able to get
the right quality materials for the portfolio.
+ The topic must enhance your own personal and professional
development. You should feel a sense of achievement on
completion of the assessment.
Methods of evaluation
It is important that you do your reading and organize your data collection at
the beginning of the assessment. The submission date could seem a long way
away but you must complete your evaluation with the realities and problems
of the chosen area of focus. This is not easy to do ‘after the event’. You can
only write up and refine your evaluation when you have the relevant
data/evidence to draw on if your evaluation is to be authentic and appropri-
ate to your professional development.
There are many methods you can choose from to evaluate the focus of
your portfolio. Remember, it is not the detail of the portfolio which is
significant, it is the feelings, responses and attitudes which were formed from
these experiences which provide the basis for the evaluation. It is important
that you reflect on your reading and experiences for some time before
writing your evaluation; this should help you think about how your reading
has impacted on your practice.

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PRESENTING WORK 129
Whatever evaluation method you choose, it must be theoretically

grounded. Chapter 4 ‘Methodology’ and Chapter 5 ‘Methods of evaluation’
are good sources for choosing your methodology. Further guidance more
specific to portfolio evaluation is outlined below:
Action research
In order to provide a critical framework in which to evaluate the portfolio

you could undertake a small piece of action research. Action research is
defined by McNiff and Whitehead (2006: 7) as ‘a form of enquiry that
enables practitioners everywhere to investigate and evaluate their work’.
They assert that it is a vehicle for improving one’s own learning. The action
research could be quite a small project, for example, if you were ‘evaluating
learning and teaching’ materials, you could produce a questionnaire to ask
your students’ views of the materials, conduct a focus group interview with
students to elicit their opinions or undertake a semi-structured interview
with a colleague. This will provide much richer and more objective data for
the evaluation than your own opinions.
Critical incidents
One way of evaluating your portfolio is to concentrate on ‘critical incidents’.

These are defined by Tripp (1993: 35) as:
Indicative of underlying trends, motives and structures … because

they provide a means of enabling teachers to be more aware of the
nature of their professional values and associated problematics, to
question their own practice, and to concretise their generally ab-
stract notions of values such as social justice.
Tripp suggests that critical incidents can be identified through certain

adjectives such as, silly, interesting and witty. This certainly moves away
from the belief that ‘critical incidents’ should be quite serious events. It is
very much up to the individual to define their own critical incidents in the
light of what is a very personal experience. What one practitioner may regard
as a critical incident may not be considered noteworthy by another.
Bell explores ‘critical-incidents and problem-portfolio logs’ (2005:
178–9). She cites Oxtoby (1979: 239–40) who describes this technique as an
endeavour to ascertain the more ‘noteworthy’ aspects of job behaviour and is
based on the supposition that jobs are composed of critical and non-critical
tasks.

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130 PRESENTING WORK
One important point that Oxtoby mentions is that this method of

evaluation does not lend itself to ‘objective quantification’. It is this point
which makes the portfolio difficult to evaluate objectively. This is because
the practitioner is evaluating a collection of materials that they have been
actively engaged with. To try to present more valid evidence you could ask
someone who you respect to act as ‘critical friend’. McNiff and Whitehead
(2006) describe this as a professional colleague, parents, client, student, or
just someone who will give a valuable opinion.
Journal
Keeping a journal record of your perceptions of how the focus of your

portfolio has progressed is an acceptable method of evaluating the materials.
This should focus on relevance, progression, engagement and differentiation
but could also include some personal reflection on critical incidents. Your
learners could also be asked to keep a journal of the sessions as this is a way
of triangulating the data collected. However, Knight (2002: 118) reminds us
that self-reports are not always reliable, so any evidence from this source
should be triangulated with other methods. Again, the critical friend can be
vital.
Observation records
If you have been observed undertaking part of the tasks for the portfolio, it is
a good source of evaluation evidence. This could be a lesson observation and
it is important that the observer uses a ‘formal observation form’ to make
sure it is a structured observation. Brown and Dowling (1998: 50) outline the
Flanders’ Interaction Analysis Categories which are useful for the classifica-
tion of verbal interaction in the classroom. The observer could be a ‘critical
friend’, ‘colleague’ or ‘member of your senior management team’. It is
important that you brief them carefully before the observation to ensure that
they focus on relevant issues and are fully conversant with the observation
schedule.
Video/DVD/CD
The use of video as evidence is a helpful way of providing evidence within

the performing arts. You could use this to analyse the performance at a later
stage. Following the conventions for observation gives it more credibility in
terms of the reliability of the evidence. The use of a critical friend, again,

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PRESENTING WORK 131
would help to validate your views. However, remember that it is very

time-consuming for a person assessing the portfolio to view or listen to
lengthy video and audio material, so ideally it should be used for your own
observations. Do discuss this with your tutors before embarking on this
method of evaluation. There are critical issues when filming children and
young people so make sure you are aware of these and adhere to recomenda-
tions.
Exercise 8.2
Select three methods of evaluation and write a list of advantages and

disadvantages of using the method.
Key points
+ Organize your data collection at the beginning of the assess-

ment.
+ Theoretically underpin your evaluation methodology.
+ Triangulate your evaluation by using more than one method
of data collection.
+ Make use of a critical friend.
Accreditation
Many HEIs are prepared to offer accreditation for such qualifications which
involve portfolio development as the National Professional Qualification for
Headship (NPQH) and Leading from the Middle (LftM), particularly those
that are members of the Universities Council for Education of Teachers
(UCET). A national tariff has been agreed and for NPQH, for example,
practitioners can get 60 credits and for a LftM, 30 credits. However, these
qualifications are not at M Level, therefore, to gain the credit, it is necessary
to undertake an evaluation of the work undertaken for the qualification.
Presentation
The portfolio should be presented in a professional file, either A4 or

lever-arch, with the use of divider cards to separate the different elements. An
example of this is:

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132 PRESENTING WORK
Title page
Contents page
Introduction
Background
The organization
The practitioner’s role
Reasons for choosing the focus
Literature review
Evaluation
Conclusion and proposed future action
Glossary
References
Evidence with Contents page
You must remember not to name any individual or institution within the
portfolio. This also applies to the evidence where you must scrutinize
documentation to ensure that you delete any names. A good cross-
referencing section is necessary so that the documents referred to in the
evaluation can be found quickly and easily. A report style numbering system
is often a good way to cross-reference.
The written aspects of the portfolio should follow the basic rules for
professional presentation at M Level which are:
+ The practitioner’s work must be professionally word processed and

carefully checked for spelling, grammatical and syntax errors. Do
be careful to be consistent in your presentation.
+ It is customary to use Times New Roman or Ariel font, size 12.
+ Do a glossary page, explaining all the acronyms and abbreviations
you have used.
+ The first paragraph of the Introduction to your study should
outline how you are going to structure your portfolio, justifying
reasons for aspects of work included.
+ Do number all your pages and use double spacing throughout,
except for indented quotes which should be in single spacing.
Please note it is considered appropriate here to use italics for quotes
with no quotation marks required. All quotes must be paged
within your text.
+ The quality of your argument within the evaluation may be aided
by the use of main and side headings. This will also aid the fluency
and coherence of the material you present. The use of bold,
underlining and italics can differentiate between main and side
headings, so be consistent in your choice. Similarly, sub-sections
may be numbered e.g. 1.1, 1.2, etc. as a guide to cross-referencing.

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+ Avoid too much listing of information in the evaluation, instead

analyse key issues briefly. Listing is acceptable as far as the contents
of your portfolio are concerned.
+ Presentation of data. The main body of your study should contain
summaries of any data you have collected within the evaluation,
such as the action research referred to above, rather than the actual
data itself. For the most part, examples of raw data such as field
notes, accounts of meetings and interviews, transcripts and the like
should be included with the portfolio evidence.
+ Use of Harvard referencing system throughout is essential. Follow
the guidance given by your tutors with regard to use of the Harvard
referencing system as this can vary slightly from institution to
institution.
Institutions do vary slightly in their presentational requirements so check

what is required with your tutors. External examiners who moderate M Level
and tutors who assess it do consider that professionally produced and
presented work is a vital part of the assessment.
Exercise 8.3
Ask to look at exemplars of good portfolios before you commence your
assignment. These will give you ideas of how to proceed confidently
with your own portfolio.
Suggested portfolio writing frame for

critical reflection
The writing frame and examples below have been developed for a typical M
Level portfolio assessment:
Construct a portfolio of evidence (Equiv. 2000–3000 words) of your
involvement and development of professional practice relating to a
departmental or whole-school issue which promotes enhanced
learning and school improvement.
Write a 3000 word critical reflection of your practice relating to the
portfolio of evidence.
The assessment examples come from a portfolio entitled ‘Has the introduc-
tion of a discrete subject to all Year 10 students contributed to school X’s
contextual value added figures?’ The practitioner has given permission for
this to be used in this chapter.

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134 PRESENTING WORK
The whole of the critical review could be divided into the sections
indicated below. Extracts from the portfolio are given at each stage to enable
you to understand the requirements.
Introduction (500 words)
Outline the rationale for choosing the particular theme for the focus of the
portfolio and assignment:
DiDA is a paperless e-qualification from Edexcel that focuses on the

practical application of technology at KS4. Their website accessed
8.3.2007 states that it is “designed to ‘stimulate students’ creativity
and develop real-world, practical skills that will motivate learning
across a wide range of subjects”.
The school had to make a choice between 4, 2 or 1 GCSE
equivalent as DiDA was seen to be replacing ICT GNVQ. Learners
could, therefore, study DiDA in Year 9, most likely at Level 1, then
study 2 units at Level 2 in Year 10 and one unit in Year 11.
As a teacher new to secondary schools it was a big responsibility.
The question was – would DiDA be a suitable ICT qualification for
our students? Would it engage and motivate as the awarding body
predicted and would the outcome contribute to school improve-
ment in terms of its Value Added score?
Briefly and anonymously describe the contexts in terms of the departmental
and school settings in which you have developed your practice in relation to
the chosen focus:
The writer’s role at school X is a teacher of ICT at KS 3 & 4 with

responsibility for leading the DiDA course. She had previously been
employed as a lecturer at the local Further Education (FE) college. As
a result of this position she was offered a place on the local council’s
Graduate Teacher Programme (GTP) and subsequently achieved
Qualified Teacher Status (QTS).
Examine the key features of the portfolio and the critical factors affecting its
completion:
The achievement and attainment of pupils in all schools are pub-

lished each year by the Department for Education and Skills (DfES).
The league tables are key indicators of school performance and not
only provide information to parents and the general public but they
also ensure that schools are accountable for their results.
For the purpose of this portfolio assessment the focus will be on
KS4 tables which contain the results for GCSEs and equivalent

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PRESENTING WORK 135
qualifications. The tables do not, however, provide results or value

added for every subject taken at KS4.
Exercise 8.4
Consider which other aspects of the DiDA course the practitioner could
have chosen to focus on. Do you think she made the right choice of
focus?
Literature review (1000 words)
An investigation of the key texts related to the focus of the assignment:

In this instance the student has focused on ‘Value Added measures’
comparing different data analysis tools which enable schools to
examine context, attainment and value added data.
Include references to academic literature, regulatory and official documents
and professional literature:
Literature which has been referred to includes text books, journal
articles, web references, BBC News website, DfES website materials,
Edexcel documentation.
Engage in analysis and critical reflection.
The analysis and critical reflection is based on the positive and
negative aspects of value added scores and how they are calculated.
Exercise 8.5
Which other areas of literature could the practitioner have focused on?
Do you agree with her choice of focus?
Evaluation (1000 words)
Outline the starting point for your development with the chosen focus:
The starting point for the evaluation in this instance was whether
the DiDA course was enabling the ICT department to add value to
the students ‘contextual value added’ attainment and whether it

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136 PRESENTING WORK
would engage and motivate them. It also focused on whether the

achievement rates contributed to school improvement targets.
Outline how you have developed classroom practices relating to the chosen
focus:
After a few weeks assimilating ICT skills the students were intro-
duced to the DiDA syllabus using worksheets developed by the
writer with the aid of two DiDA text books.
Outline any critical incidents leading to the development of practice:
A critical incident referred to was the school deciding to switch to

Level 1 qualification in May and finding out from the Edexcel
website that they had to start the project from the beginning which
was unpopular with students and lost two months work. Eventually
they were allowed to use a truncated assessment grid to mark Level 2
work where students were failing to perform at this level.
Outline how the classroom strategies you have employed have led to the
development of your understanding and professional conduct relating to the
chosen issue:
The students have been encouraged to word independently and take

responsibility for their own work. This works well with interested
and motivated students but those less able, or motivated, require
further tasks and support to keep them on track for completing
within the timeframe.
Exercise 8.6
Do you think the evaluation strategies were appropriate?

What other methods of evaluation of the DiDA course could the
practitioner have used with the portfolio?
Conclusion (500 words)
Discuss and critically reflect on what has been learned during the process of
producing the portfolio.
The evaluation has highlighted the importance of students doing at

least 8 GCSEs because any fewer would have a negative impact on a

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PRESENTING WORK 137
school’s VA rating. Schools may also be stricter about GCSE options

so that pupils only take subjects in which they can achieve good
results.
Explain how this will lead to future professional action and further study:
After a thorough evaluation of the DiDA course, the school was able
to provide evidence that the BTEC First Certificate was the most
appropriate ICT course to suit the needs of the learners for delivery
during the next academic year. However, the BTEC is only available
at level 2, and DiDA is the only ICT qualification at level 1,
therefore, it will still be available for some students. What has been
learnt from the evaluation will enable the process to be improved.
Extended project
List other areas of future professional action the practitioner could have
chosen to investigate. List the areas of future professional action you
might choose to investigate. Sort them into order of priority and then
consider why you have put them in that order.
Conclusion
At the commencement of this chapter it was stated that a portfolio ‘is a

popular form of assessment at M Level, probably because it is a move away
from the traditional 5000–6000 word essay’. Perhaps on reading and reflect-
ing on this chapter you will realize that it is perhaps not the easy option that
it might appear to be at first. It requires good organizational skills to collate
the materials and present them in a professional format; it requires good
time management skills to organize the timing of the evaluation of the
materials and any related follow-ups; it requires clear identification of issues
and problems together with appropriate evaluation methodology; it requires
reflection on the application of conceptual ideas and theory to professional
practice; it requires the critical evaluation of theory/research in the context
of professional practice.
To sum up, a portfolio is not an easy option; however, it does provide
an interesting and valuable way to evaluate new initiatives within a theoreti-
cal framework. It provides evidence of a substantial range of skills and critical
reflection which will contribute to the enhancement of your practice.

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138 PRESENTING WORK
References
Bell, J. (2005) Doing Your Research Project, 4th edn. Maidenhead: Open
University Press.
Brown, A. and Dowling, P. (1998) Doing Research/Reading Research: A Mode of

Interrogation for Education. London: The Falmer Press.
Chetcuti, D., Murphy, P. and Grima, G. (2006) The formative and summative
uses of a Professional Development Portfolio: a Maltese case study, Assessment
in Education, 13(1): 97–112.
Davies, G.R. (2007) Has the Introduction of DiDA as a Discrete Subject to All Year
10 Students Contributed to School X’s Contextual Value Added Figure? The
University of Huddersfield, 30 M Level Credit Assessment.
Klenowkski, V. (2000) Portfolios: promoting teaching, Assessment in Educa-

tion, 7(2): 215–36.
Knight, P.T. (2002) Small-Scale Research. London: Sage.

McNiff, J. and Whitehead, J. (2006) All You Need to Know about Action
Research. London: Sage.
Oxtoby, R. (1979) Problems facing heads of department, Journal of Further and
Higher Education, 3(1): 46–59.
Simon, M. and Forgette-Giroux, R. (2000) Impact of a content selection
framework on portfolio assessment at the classroom level, Assessment in
Education, 7(1): 83–101.
Tripp, D. (1993) Critical Incidents in Teaching. London: Routledge.

Tummons, J. (2005) Assessing Learning in Further Education. Exeter: Learning
Matters Ltd.

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9 Creative approaches
to assessment
Observe everything. Communicate well. Draw, draw, draw.
(Frank Thomas, Disney animator,

when asked to give advice to young animators)
Introduction
This chapter explores some of the more creative approaches to M Level

assessment. You may find yourself with the opportunity of tackling Masters
Level work in a number of different ways. Many courses in education are
now introducing more innovative kinds of assessment than the traditional
Masters Level written assignment or dissertation that often asks participants
to write up a small piece of classroom research. We have included and
referred to two examples of alternative assignment tasks. Our curriculum
package case study involves the development and teaching of a unit of work;
the evidence-based practice Case study is a critical reflection on a portfolio of
evidence. In this chapter we will explore other types of assignment tasks that
may be called for at M Level. We will consider different approaches to the
presentation of a classroom study, a poster presentation and delivering a
seminar paper. We will then consider how you might answer questions about
your study in a discussion after a presentation and how you might approach
an oral assessment.
The poster presentation
A poster presentation is essentially a visual way of presenting your findings

arising from a classroom-based study or investigation which will help you to
engage others in a conversation about your work. There is usually an

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140 CREATIVE APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT
‘opportunity for direct discussion or an exchange of ideas with the presenter’

(Akister et al. 2000: 229). This may take the form of a formal oral presenta-
tion which may be part of the assessment, opportunities for questions and
answers, peer group discussions or of a less formal one-to-one discussion as
you talk through the poster with the assessor. Sometimes the assessment
process is supported by the submission of a portfolio of evidence which has
been generated during the development of the poster. In this case, evidence
could include results of literature searches such as copies of relevant articles
and précis notes, observational evidence and research data, notes from
discussions with participants in the research; lesson plans and evaluations,
and any other evidence which is appropriate to the theme of the presenta-
tion. National and international conferences often provide space for poster
sessions, aimed at those participants who may not yet be ready to give a full
paper. You should attend one of these if you get the opportunity, in order to
see the many and varied forms in which posters can be presented.
Developing the poster sharpens your ability to select material appropri-
ately, to think critically and to synthesize theory and practice (Bracher et al.
1998). On the poster itself, text is kept to a minimum as the point is to make
a strong visual impact as it summarizes and provides information about your
study. Visual impact can be created with graphs, bar charts, pie charts,
photographs and even clipart to attract attention. You have an opportunity
to be as creative as you like here, but the emphasis should be on the clarity
with which the design illustrates your message to the reader.
Layout
As a poster, all the elements should be visible from a metre away, so that
people can stand and read it comfortably. Keep text at 24pt and headings at
36pt. It is usually better to present the information in columns rather than
from left to right, so that in a crowded room readers don’t have to fight to
get to the beginning of the poster once they have finished reading the first
horizontal line. The poster will look more appealing if it is symmetrical in
terms of text and images on either a horizontal, vertical or diagonal axis. In
terms of colour, a light coloured background with dark text is much easier to
read than light text on dark backgrounds. The poster will be less visually
chaotic if only two or three colours are used rather than a spectrum.
It is appropriate to provide organizational cues such as a numbering
system to guide the reader through the different elements of the poster and
you can use white space and the usual reading gravity (left to right, top to
bottom) to help you to organize the information so that the poster is read in
the appropriate order. Carefully worded headings can also help by summariz-

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CREATIVE APPROACHES TO ASSESSMENT 141
ing your work, enabling the reader to gain a sense of your study just from
reading these alone. Use one font throughout the poster.
Content
The content of the poster should fall into sections which may be linked to
the sections in a more traditional written assignment such as those described
throughout this book. It is important that you remember that the poster is
just a different way of displaying the culmination of your work, not a way to
avoid carrying out the detailed analysis, synthesis and evaluation necessary
at this level.
The title of a poster will draw people to it and so it deserves careful
consideration. One approach might be to think carefully about the message
you are trying to convey to the reader and make the strongest claim that you
can support with research evidence. An example that could be used for Case
study A might be: ‘Prior attainment at KS2 affects achievement in ICT at
KS3’. The aim of this study was to determine factors which could potentially
contribute to underachievement in ICT at KS3. This might be an appropriate
title because prior attainment at KS2 was found to be the overriding factor
based on the data for which it was possible to develop intervention strategies
and the writer makes recommendations based on this claim.
However, this type of title is perhaps more suitable for a poster that is
based on a scientific enquiry; in education, it is often difficult to make such
bold claims. A title that conveys the purpose and context of the study is
equally appropriate. For example: ‘An exploratory study into the factors
which contribute to pupils not achieving in line with national expectations
at KS3 in ICT in one local authority’. The heading should also include your
name or, if working in a group, all the people contributing to the study as
well as your affiliation, for example, your university and course.
The first section of the poster should outline the context of the study
and the rationale; it should also identify the main aims and objectives. The
context statement should be brief but enable the reader to understand the
confines and parameters of the study. The aims of the research should be
elucidated and this section should make clear statements about why the
study is important. You should refer to literature which has been key to the
research and state how your study adds to current debate. Remember though
that text should be kept to the minimum so only the most important
theoretical underpinning should be referred to here.
The next part should outline the methodology of your investigation,
what you did and how you did it. Explain clearly your chosen methods
of data collection such as observations, questionnaires, interviews, focus
groups, lesson evaluations, attainment data, etc., and the sequence of

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activities used in the study. Details of the sample, for example, the number of
respondents, the method by which they have been chosen and how they
represent ‘the total’ population might also be appropriate here.
The results section should outline the findings of your study. It is
probably helpful to imagine you are writing the first part of the Conclusion
section of an assignment here (see Chapter 7). What are the key findings in
relation to the aims of the study? This can be done through bullet points but
you can also use this as an opportunity to include some diagrams or
illustrations. For example, our dissertation Case study includes a number of
graphs in the analysis section which would serve to demonstrate the findings
with clarity in a poster. See the bar charts showing ICT levels against free
school meals and the ICT KS3 levels against KS2 average point scores.
The Conclusion section should outline your recommendations arising
from the study. For example, the main recommendations in our dissertation
Case study could be outlined as:
+ More teaching to improve pupil capability in ICT during KS2.

+ More ICT consultant support should be targeted at primary level.
+ Intervention strategies should be used to support pupils early in
KS3 who have been identified as low achievers at KS2.
This section should outline why the research is significant and go some way
to answering the ‘So what?’ question (see Chapter 7). How the study
contributes to understanding and the impact the study has on practice are
also important concepts to consider here.
Exercise 9.1
Summarize in no more than 100 words for each section the rationale
and the aims of the study, the methodology, the findings and the
recommendations that arise from your investigation. This task will help
you to decide on the most important points that you need to get across
to your audience. You will need to limit the wordage even further when
you are refining what will actually appear in your poster.
Creating visual impact
These are appropriate suggestions for slide presentations as well as poster

presentations. The most common package for these is Microsoft PowerPoint.
There are, however, other sophisticated packages that can be used, most
notably Apple’s ‘Keynote’ software.

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Try to be creative with bullet points. Changing the usual black bullet
icon to an appropriate symbol could add impact to what you are saying. For
example, change it to a currency sign when you are making points about
resource implications, use an arrow to indicate a recommendation or you
might try
a smiley face for positive outcomes

a sad face for negative ones.
Percentages can be more eye-catching when presented as a pie chart. The use
of colour is useful here to separate the different wedges, but remember that
you will need to use patterns if you are going to photocopy in black or white.
Think carefully about where you put the titles for the different sections, a
simple key might be the answer, but this needs to be clearly visible and
quickly interpreted, particularly in a poster. Keep the wedges to a maximum
of about five or six; you could experiment with using a floating wedge to
draw particular attention to one section of the chart.
Quick interpretation should be the mantra when creating any sort of
graphic display of numerical data. Many readers switch off if a graph isn’t
clear almost straight away. Eliminate as much visual distraction such as grid
lines, background colour and labelling as possible. Use colour and/or differ-
ent line types and shading to distinguish between different elements on the
graph and limit the amount of data you show in one chart, for example, no
more than four lines on a line graph or 6–7 bars on a bar chart. In a
histogram, always arrange the bars in order of magnitude, so that the bars
show a gradual increase or decrease, rather than giving the impression of
jumping around.
Presentation
During the presentation, the poster should be used as a visual aid to outline
the context and the aims of the research, the methodology, the findings and
the recommendations. You should be able to answer detailed questions about
the methodology, about other research in the field and how your study adds
to the body of knowledge about your chosen area. You will have much more
detail about your study than you can show on your poster and how much of
this you can share in an oral presentation depends on the nature of this part
of the assessment. One of the most important areas that you might expand
on is the theoretical underpinning that would normally be placed in a
literature review. This will serve to show your ability to synthesize theory and
practice. Assessors will be looking for evidence of critical thinking, ability to
develop a coherent argument and contribution to existing knowledge in the

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field of study. You will find it helpful to prepare a handout, perhaps an A4

version of your poster or one that enables you to add more detail to the
content of your poster.
Key points
+ The poster is a way of visually presenting your classroom-

based study.
+ It should succinctly outline the context of your study, the
aims and objectives, the methods used to collect data, the
findings and recommendations that arise from your research.
+ Consideration of the impact of the study is the most impor-
tant aspect, how the study contributes to understanding and
the impact the study has on practice are key to success.
+ Visual impact is fundamental; the poster should use as little
text as possible and utilize illustrations and diagrams wher-
ever possible.
+ The poster is used as a visual aid to oral presentation, where
more detail about the nature of the study and the theoretical
underpinning supporting your arguments can be given.
Seminar papers
Traditionally a seminar paper is given at a conference and consists of a

written paper that can be published as part of the conference report or papers
and a presentation to a fairly small group of delegates. As part of a course,
you may or may not need to hand in a written paper; the approach might be
the submission of a portfolio of supporting material. The time allowed for
you to present will be strictly controlled and may include questions or group
discussion afterwards. It is paramount that you understand the course
guidance regarding the specific requirements of your assessment.
Remember that as a student of education, you will have been in
classrooms and witnessed many ‘oral presentations’; as a teacher or teacher
training student, you will have ‘presented’ in front of a class. Therefore,
presenting your work orally may well be less daunting than for students of
many other disciplines. You should have a good understanding of how to
explain material in an interesting way. Think about all the things you know
about teaching children. How can you make your explanations more com-
pelling? How can you engage your audience rather than expect them to
listen passively? In reality, speaking to a peer group is much more daunting
than speaking to children. The power relationship is different and you may

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be uncomfortable about the prospect of talking to a group about a topic

about which they are also knowledgeable. Also the assessment aspect is a
factor that adds to the tension. Preparation is everything so rehearsal is
essential. You need to have planned what you will say and how you will say
it, practised the delivery, timed yourself speaking and thought of answers to
questions you may be asked.
Remember that the way that you deliver the seminar is going to be
assessed as well as the content. Assessors will be looking for a good structure,
successful time management, audience engagement, skilful use of audio and
visual resources, audibility and clarity, varied intonation, effective use of
pauses and silences and a sense of enthusiasm and personal interest.
Content
The basic elements of the presentation will probably include sections similar
to those in a written assignment and those described above for a poster. You
will need to outline for your audience the problem or issue chosen, the
context, the aims of the study, appropriate literature that underpins the
debate, methodology, findings, conclusions and your recommendations.
Assessors will be looking for a balance between description and analysis,
evidence of critical thinking and understanding, coherent arguments sup-
ported by relevant and interesting examples, understanding of relevant
literature, synthesis between theory and practice and an awareness of the
limitations, scope and contribution of the study to existing knowledge.
The principles of teacher exposition (Wragg and Brown 2001; Brown
and Hatton 2002) can be used to help you to develop a compelling oral
presentation. The opening needs to grab the audience’s attention. You may
be able to start with an initial stimulus that sets that audience thinking; you
might pose a question or ask them to think about their own experiences of a
situation. Wragg and Brown (2001) refer to these as a ‘tease’ or a ‘hook’.
It’s important then to emphasize the central message. There are a
number of reasons for this; first, there is always the possibility, probably a
strong one that you will run out of time towards the end of your presenta-
tion. If you leave the key information that you want your listeners to take
away with them until the end, you might never get there and the presenta-
tion is left with no real substance. Second, it is a way of signposting to the
audience what is really significant about your work and why your chosen
topic is so important.
You will need to identify several key features that will help your
audience to understand your work. These could be a central principle, a
generalization, examples or an analogy. These are spaced throughout your

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presentation in a logical sequence that builds understanding gradually.

Examples can be drawn from your data and might include:
+ illustrations such as graphs and charts that show the trends about
which you are talking;
+ quotations from participants in the study drawn from interview or
questionnaire data;
+ descriptions of events that have occurred during classroom obser-
vations or teaching;
+ evidence from pupils’ work
basically, anything that brings your discussion to life.

Throughout your presentation, use signposts to emphasize important
points. Phrases like ‘In summary …’, ‘What is really important to understand
is that …’, provide structure to your presentation and signal the most
important aspects of your study. It’s worth remembering that humour helps
to keep attention and make things easier to remember, used appropriately it
can help to distil tension and make your presentation more enjoyable for all
concerned.
Another consideration is what props you will need to illustrate your
explanation. You may have pupils’ work or other resources to help you to
explain certain aspects of your presentation. Seminar presentations tend to
use slide presentations now more than anything else, but using these badly
can make your presentation tedious.
Exercise 9.2
Answer the following questions to help you to start to organize your
seminar presentation:
+ What is your central message?

+ What will be the initial stimulus material to open the
presentation?
+ What examples can you use from your study to illustrate the
main points?
+ How will you signpost the most important features?
+ What props could you use?
+ Can you inject some humour into the proceedings?
+ How can you engage the audience throughout?
Slide presentations
If you are not an expert, find out from someone who is what the presenta-
tion software will actually do. Whilst you don’t want all the ‘bells and

whistles’ of animated text and multiple slide-change techniques, you do

want to create the maximum visual stimulus. Remember that slide presenta-
tion software can be used to show photographs, play music clips or show
short films (a video of part of a performance in our curriculum package Case
study, for example, could show exactly what children have learned). A
remote control is an absolute must to give you the freedom to change slides
without having to fumble for a computer keyboard or mouse. You should
also take the time to check that your presentation will play on the machines
provided in the venue. Different versions of software are not always compat-
ible and a sounder strategy is often to take your own laptop, through which
the presentation can be played.
Here are some simple guidelines for making slide presentations that
will help you to use this tool effectively during your seminar presentation.
The most important rule is to limit the number of slides and the
amount of information on them. Use images, graphs and charts rather than
displaying text to illustrate the points that you are making whenever
possible. Avoid writing paragraphs, use important words instead. This will
help you to avoid the cardinal sin of reading from the slides – they should act
as prompts and visual hints rather than as an autocue. The font should be no
less than 24pt for readability, if you find yourself apologizing because a
screen is too difficult to read, than it’s best to avoid using it. If the
information is vital, give it on a handout instead. Sanserif fonts are much
easier to read than serifs on a screen from a distance. Sentences that use all
uppercase letters are also more difficult to read than those in lowercase with
appropriate use of capital letters. It is also best to limit punctuation on slides,
for example, there is no need to put full stops with bullet points.
Use contrasting colours to make your presentation visually stimulating.
Aim for consistency of approach as too many colours can be distracting.
Using a design template can help you to achieve consistency, but choose the
background carefully. Use a contrasting colour to emphasize a particular
word rather than an underline, as underlining often denotes a hyperlink.
Learn how to insert internal links as these help you to manage and present
information. For example, in a presentation of our action research case study,
the writer might speak about the use of pictures in the PECS approach, ‘click
through’ to an example picture, and then ‘click back’ to the original slide.
External hyperlinks can also be useful, providing the place where you are
carrying out the presentation has internet access.
Avoid using sounds and flashy transitions as these can be very distract-
ing; pinwheels, content flying in from all directions and text that takes an
age to dissolve in can distract from your message and be really frustrating to
someone who is trying to take notes as you speak. Artwork should be
consistent in style throughout the presentation and used sparingly. All these

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features can make your presentation much more interesting but you should
use them only when they really add to the point you are making.
Making a slide progressive can really aid understanding, particularly
with information which is presented graphically. For example, starting a
graph with the x an y axis allowing you to explain what the graph shows
before adding the bars or lines can help you to make your point simply and
more effectively.
The point we want to emphasize here is that the presentation should
be a visual tool to help you to make your points more effectively, it should
not be the most important part of your seminar presentation.
Questions
After a poster or seminar presentation, it is normal to allow time for

questions and answers. You can prime your audience for these by stating at
the beginning of your presentation that the audience will be able to ask
questions at the end. This is not quite as daunting as it sounds; remember
that you will probably be delivering the presentation to a peer group, who
will all have to go through the same assessment, so they are unlikely to ask
you difficult questions that give you a hard time. The questions suggested
below for oral assessments might anticipate some of those that will be asked
from the floor. If there is a silence after you have asked for questions, you
could set the ball rolling by saying ‘One of the questions that could be asked
is …’ having thought of one and prepared the answer beforehand, or if it is
appropriate you could ask a question of the audience, this could be some-
thing like ‘Has anyone else had a similar experience of …?’
Key points
+ A seminar paper is a formal opportunity to share your

classroom-based study with others.
+ The content will be similar to that in a written assignment or
a poster presentation; the aims and objectives of the study,
contextual information, methodology, findings, conclusions
and recommendations.
+ Explaining strategies can be used to help you to organize and
deliver the presentation.
+ PowerPoint, when used well, can be a useful visual tool to
help you make your presentation more effective.

Oral assessment
The purpose of an oral assessment is to establish your general knowledge of

the field of study including a good understanding of the literature and
theoretical underpinning that are pertinent to the topic, what you have
learned from undertaking the topic and how the study has impacted on your
practice and professional development. In preparation for this you need to
know your study inside out, anticipate where the flaws might be and be fully
familiar with the most important literature that surrounds the topic.
Exercise 9.3
Write a summary of the main arguments from the literature associated

with your topic. You might find it helpful to summarize these under
headings of those which outline the nature of the issue you have
investigated; those that your evidence supports; those that offer a
different view, and the most recent thinking on your topic. Where does
your study lie within this field? How does it contribute to the body of
knowledge about this topic?
The sorts of questions you will be asked will depend on your study, for
example, the assessors might ask for clarification about data collection
methods, or specific questions related to your findings. More general ques-
tions might include: Can you summarize your key findings? What was the
motivation for your study? What are the strongest and weakest elements of
your investigation? What have you learned from undertaking this study?
What has been the impact on your classroom practice? Can this study in a
particular context be generalized to other contexts? What is the next stage in
your professional development? How will you disseminate your work? Some
of the questions will depend on the stage in your career development,
whether you are an experienced practitioner, or in training. You can prepare
for these types of questions beforehand. Are there any others arising from
your study that you can anticipate?
Key points
+ The purpose of oral assessment is to establish your general

knowledge of the issues, literature and theoretical underpin-
ning associated with your area of study.

+ You need to have a good understanding of how your study

contributes to understanding of the topic, and be able to talk
about your investigation, knowing its strengths and weak-
nesses.
+ Impact is likely to be central to any questions asked and
therefore you should prepare answers for this type of
question.
Summary
This chapter has offered guidance as to how you might approach alternative
methods of assessment at Masters Level. As with all assessments, it is crucial
to understand the requirements that are specific to your course as well as the
learning outcomes and marking criteria on which your work will be judged.
Extended project
Using one of the Case studies, develop a poster that outlines the study’s
aims, the methodology, the findings and the recommendations in
creative, visual and compelling way.
References
Akister, J., Bannon, A. and Mullender-Lock, H. (2000) Poster presentations in
social work education assessment: a case study, Innovations in Education and
Training International, 37(3): 229–33.
Bracher, L., Cantrell, J. and Wilkie, K. (1998) The process of poster presenta-
tion: a valuable learning experience, Medical Teacher, 20(6): 552–7.
Brown, G. and Hatton, N. (2002) Explanations and explaining, in T. Kerry,

Explaining and Questioning. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
Wragg, E.C. and Brown, G.A. (2001) Explaining in the Secondary School.
London: RoutledgeFalmer.

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/production/mcgraw−hill/booksxml/denby/x−case−a
Part IV
Case Studies
Kerrypress Ltd – Typeset in XML A Division: x-case-a F Sequential 1

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Case study A
Dissertation
A study into the factors which contribute to pupils not achieving in line with
national average at Key Stage 3 in Information and Communication Technol-
ogy in one local authority
Debbie Williams

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Chapter 1
Introduction and context
This study sets out to investigate why pupils in the local authority (LA) do
not perform in line with national average at Key Stage 3 (KS3) in Information
and Communication Technology (ICT).
Historically pupils in the local authority have achieved results below
the national average for as long as the data has been collected. Table 1 shows
the reported figures for KS3 in 2006 and illustrates that the LA are still
significantly below the national average. ICT is not reported in Table 1 but is
accepted to be 64 per cent level 5+ in 2006. At the time of writing the official
national figure for ICT teacher assessment (TA) is still unavailable but the
secondary strategy expects it to be around 72 per cent.
Table 1.1 KS3 2006 LA and national results
Mathematics Science English

L5+ L6+ L5+ L6+ L5+ L6+
% of pupils
achieving in 69 47 65 33 62 21
LA
% of pupils
achieving in 77 57 72 41 73 34
England
Source: DfES (2006a)
Reported Key Stage 3 tests and teacher assessment take place at the end of
Year 9 when a pupil is 14 years old. The level a pupil achieves often impacts
on the path and opportunities for study at Key Stage 4 (KS4) and it is also
widely acknowledged by academics and the government that the better a
pupil performs at KS3, the better life chances they have at KS4. The
Department for Education and Skills (DfES) believe that ‘statistical evidence
shows progress at KS3 is crucial to pupils’ future life chances and choices’ and
that ‘reaching national expectations (L5 and above) by the end of KS3,
especially in English, more than doubles pupils’ chances of acquiring 5 A*– C
grades at GCSE – the passport to further and higher education’ (DfES 2004b).
ICT is an important subject and is identified by the government as vital
to the future of the economy. In 2000, the British Educational Communica-
tions and Technology Agency (BECTA) stated that ‘computers offer enormous

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154 CASE STUDY A
advantages to our society’ and that ‘ICT is playing an increasingly large role
in all areas of life – the home, the workplace and leisure pursuits – so
children need to be prepared to accept the challenge of a rapidly developing
and changing technological world’ (BECTA 2000). Through ICT lessons in
schools aim to equip pupils with the skills and capability they need for the
future while recognizing that the future of ICT is unknown and develop-
ments in hardware and software are a constant challenge for schools to adapt
to in a changing world.
Rationale
This study aims to explore the factors which influence the levels achieved by
pupils in KS3, particularly in ICT, but also in the other core subjects of
English, Maths and Science. This could then inform the development of
strategies to counteract the factors and increase the number of pupils
reaching national expectations, leading to an improvement in pupils’ life
chances in future cohorts in the LA. Without exploring the reasons for the
low levels in the authority it is not possible to make the massive gains
required to bring the LA in line with current national levels or expectations.
Context
The three main areas for consideration in this section are: the government
school improvement agenda delivered through the national strategy, the role
of the researcher in relation to this study and the characteristics of the local
authority in which the study is undertaken.
The national strategy
In order to raise standards in secondary schools the DfES on behalf of the

government piloted a new national strategy for core subjects in September
2000, this included English, Mathematics, Science and ICT. After a successful
pilot year the national programme was unveiled in September 2001 for
English and Mathematics, then soon afterwards Science. The Information
and Communication Technology strand was piloted during 2001 and
launched in 2002.
Researchers’ role
Within the strategy the government recognized the need for high quality
teachers to lead the strategies and support schools (DfES 2004a: 3). Therefore,

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CASE STUDY A 155
when the strategy was launched, consultants were recruited from schools to
work within local authorities. Consultants are match-funded by the national
strategy and the LA in which they work. The researcher is in the privileged
position of being the Secondary ICT Consultant with the remit to raise
standards in ICT by improving teaching and learning across both Key Stage 3
and Key Stage 4 (KS4).
[Details of geographical position and some historical data about the area is
recorded, along with details regarding the secondary schools in the author-
ity.]
Summary of Key Literature
[The scrutiny of current literature in this study concentrate on two main

areas; what underachievement is and what factors contribute to undera-
chievement.]
The broad purpose of this study was to look at why pupils in the local
authority do not perform in line with national average in ICT at Key Stage 3.
The aims of the research are set out in chronological order, with each being
of equal importance as the next and leading to a position where the
researcher will be able to discuss the implications of the research which could
have the potential to impact directly on the LA and pupil performance in
future years:
+ To investigate the factors which have the potential to cause pupils

to underperform in secondary schools.
+ To identify the factors which could potentially be contributing to
the underperformance of pupils in ICT at Key Stage 3 in the local
authority.
+ To ascertain the factors which could have impacted upon the
pupils KS3 ICT teacher assessment level in 2006.
Research questions
The questions the research set out to address for each aim were:
1. To investigate the factors which have the potential to cause pupils

to underperform in secondary schools
+ What is underperformance?
+ What factors which contribute to underperformance?

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156 CASE STUDY A
2. To identify the factors which could potentially be contributing to

the underperformance of pupils in ICT at Key Stage 3 in the local
authority
+ What are the characteristics of the local authority?
+ Which characteristics could be impacting on the perform-
ance of pupils at KS3 in the local authority?
+ What factors do teachers believe are impacting on pupil’s
attainment in KS3 ICT?
+ What factors do pupils believe are impacting on their
3. To ascertain the factors which have impacted upon the pupils KS3
ICT teacher assessment level in 2006
+ Does the ACORN category of a pupil’s home impact on
their attainment at KS3 in Information and Communica-
tion Technology?
+ Does being entitled to free school meals have an impact
on a pupil’s attainment at KS3 in ICT?
+ Does the prior attainment of a pupil in the LA impact on
their attainment at KS3 in ICT?
+ Does the ethnicity of a pupil in the LA impact on their
+ Does the number of teachers and the non-specialist teach-
ers a pupil is taught by in Key Stage 3 impact on their
attainment in ICT?
Summary
[The chapter is summarized here.]

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Chapter 2
Review of the literature
[A comprehensive review of underachievement literature is made, divided

into definitions of underachivement and factors that contribute to undera-
chievement. The writer cites a wide range of authorities, including Plewis
(1991), Sammons et al. (1994), Weiner et al. (1997), Browne and Mitsos
(1998), Broadfoot (1999), Gorard (2000), Kutnick (2000), Demie (2001),
Tansel (2002), Bell (2003), Tymms (2003), Smith (2003), Jones and Myhill
(2004), Gorard and Smith (2004).]
Community characteristics
[A comprehensive review of literature pertaining to community, and how

certain characteristics impact on student attainment, is included. References
include Dolton et al. (1999), Rahman et al. (2001), Johnson (2002), Cooper et
al. (2003), Smith (2003), Blair (2004), Van de Grift and Houtveen (2006).]
Ethnicity
[A comprehensive review of literature pertaining to ethnicity is included,

citing Rampton (1981), Swann (1985), Demie et al. (1997), Kendall (1995,
1998), Demie (2001).]
The teacher’s role
[A comprehensive review of literature pertaining to the teacher’s role is

included citing Wright et al. (1997), Feinstein and Symons (1999), and a
number of Ofsted reports.]
The role of adults in the home
[A comprehensive review of literature pertaining to the role of adults is

included, citing Douglas (1964), Plowden (1967), Hanushek (1986), Haver-
man and Wolfe (1995), Coleman et al. (1996), Robertson and Symons (2003),
Cooper et al. (2003).]

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158 CASE STUDY A
Prior attainment at Key Stage 2
[A comprehensive review of literature pertaining to prior attainment includes

Gorard (2000), Gorard and Smith (2004), Schagen (2006).]
Summary
Disparity in attainment at Key Stage 3 is real and many writers provide

documentary evidence to back up their claims that it is linked to their
particular area of study. Through all the reading undertaken it does appear
that a number of distinguished writers consistently return to three key
factors, that of a pupil’s socio-economic background, their ethnicity and
their prior attainment. As a result, these factors have been explored in detail
within the literature review and will be the focus of attention for the research
aspect of this study.

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Chapter 3
Methodology
In undertaking this study a number of research methods were adopted. This

methodology will explain in detail the approach taken and justify the
strategies used during the research process.
[Here aims and their link to the chosen methodology are explained.]
Action research
Kemmus and McTaggart (1988: 5) define action research as ‘a form of

collective self-reflective inquiry undertaken by participants in social situa-
tions in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own social or
educational practices’. This definition encompasses all the ideals of action
research in that it aims to impact upon the person undertaking it through
focusing on an issue which is important to them in their role. As the term
suggests, action research links practice and research. It is often the case that
teachers are very reflective practitioners but by undertaking action research it
allows a more in-depth study of practice. Zuber-Skermtt (1996: 85) informs
us that action research is a ‘critical collaborative inquiry by reflective
practitioners being accountable and making results of their practice public’.
Action research was appropriate in this study as it allowed the re-
searcher to gain information and analyse it in a way that no other type of
study could. It also provided the vehicle to investigate a key issue for the LA
in a systematic and methodical manner. By undertaking action research it
was possible to make use of pupil voice to gain a real insight into the pupils’
experience of ICT lessons and their family background to help understand
issues for pupils as well as providing a mechanism for collecting the
perception of teachers regarding underachievement. It also legitimized
spending significant time on an in-depth analysis of pupil data and combin-
ing information from a number of separate data sets.
The intention was that the results of this study would be made
available to teachers within the LA and hopefully foster dialogue between
interested parties to influence change. In the words of McNiff (2002), ‘If you
can improve what you are doing (at least improve your understanding of
what you are doing), there is a good chance you will influence the situation
you are working in.’

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160 CASE STUDY A
Research methods
For this study there were two separate types of research methods required.
The first research involved manipulating secondary documentary evidence in
the form of attainment data and information already held in the LA. The
second research methods involved collecting primary data from the pupils
and teachers.
Research schedule
The relatively short space of time to undertake this study meant that the
research schedule was tight. [A table outlining the schedule is included.]
Pilot study
Piloting the research methods has several functions including improving the
likelihood that the data collected will be reliable, valid and collect the
information expected (Cohen et al. 2000), therefore each research method
was piloted.
The initial questionnaire was shared with colleagues before being
created, using the online survey. It was then trialled by the researcher and a
critical friend to ensure that it worked correctly and provided the expected
responses. Following this, the researcher went into one school and observed
fourteen mixed ability, gender and ethnic pupils completing the question-
naire to ensure that it was suitable for the purpose. This was a useful pilot as
it involved pupils who had the same characteristics as the intended respond-
ents for the questionnaire and provided feedback to enable the researcher to
further explain the required responses for some of the questions before
making it available to all pupils.
The interview schedule was again shared with colleagues and improved
before being trialled on a teacher who was not employed in a school which
was part of the sample. This was deemed as appropriate as the teacher was
the same audience as the intended respondents and could provide feedback
before the interviews were conducted for real. It also confirmed that the
interview questions provided the stimulus for the expected discussions
regarding underachievement.
Sample
[The sample size and characteristics of the sample are here discussed in detail,
and literature is used to support the choice of sample and questions of
ethics.]

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CASE STUDY A 161
Multiple methods and triangulation
Hendricks (2006) argues that triangulation helps increase the credibility and
impacts on the validity of the study. Miles and Huberman (1994) and
Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) concur that triangulation is a way of
double-checking data and supporting its validity through collecting informa-
tion from elsewhere.
In this study, triangulation took place by collecting information from
documentary evidence, questionnaires and through semi-structured inter-
views. This is advocated by Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000: 12) who see
triangulation as ‘the use of two or more methods of data collection in the
study’. The study also used both qualitative and quantitative data collection
methods. In addition, observations outside the remit of this study and the
views of colleagues, teachers and pupils in the local authority were used to
triangulate findings.
Conduct of research
In order to complete the study the following steps were taken:
Step 1 Contacted schools to gain permission to use pupil data, inter-

view teachers and ask some pupils to complete questionnaire.
Step 2 Collated local authority data into Microsoft Excel and produced
graphs and pivot charts to ascertain whether there was a
relationship between attainment in KS3 ICT and factors such as
ACORN classification, prior attainment, ethnicity and FSM.
Step 3 Produced, discussed with critical friends then piloted question-
naire and semi-structured interview schedule and issued ques-
tionnaire to pupils for completion as an online survey.
Step 4 Imported questionnaire data in Microsoft Excel, performed
calculations and produced graphs to demonstrate relationships
between pupil’s attainment in ICT and a pupil’s family back-
ground, their parents’ education and the parental involvement
in the pupil’s education as well as the impact of non-specialist
teachers and a consistent teacher within an academic year.
Step 5 Undertook teacher interviews.
Step 6 Transcribed and reviewed teacher interviews with a focus on
teachers’ expectations of pupil attainment and what they per-
ceived could raise standards in ICT at Key Stage 3.
Step 7 Assimilated information from LA data, questionnaire and
teacher interviews to ensure triangulation and produce conclu-
sions.

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162 CASE STUDY A
Limitations of the research
[Caveats regarding the limitations are discussed, including size of sample,

along with benefits of, for example, using online questionnaires and making
transcripts of interviews.]

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Chapter 4
Analysis and discussion
This chapter attempts to discuss the main findings from the study and link it
to the work of other writers. It is intended to present the data and
observations in a succinct manner before looking at the implications in the
final chapter.
[Graphs and tables are presented and discussed.]
Community characteristics findings
The community characteristic findings come from the LA data and provide a
clear indication of the issues facing schools and the local authority as a
whole.
ACORN classification
Figure 4.1 shows that there is a difference between the average level achieved
in KS3 ICT by a child classified as living in a hard-pressed area when
compared with a child classified as living in a wealthy achiever area. This
supports the view of Smith (2003: 581) who states that ‘pupils from relatively
more economically disadvantaged homes were less successful in school’,
although the difference in ICT is only slight.
Analysed together, this statistical evidence does indicate that the
background of the child does impact upon the level they achieve at the end
of Key Stage 3. In subjects which are tested, there is a greater difference with
Mathematics showing the most significant difference between pupils from
deprived backgrounds and those from relatively well off communities. This
supports the findings of similar studies such as Cooper et al. (2003) who
found that social deprivation is a key factor in educational underachieve-
ment.
Free school meals
Figure 4.3 shows the average level achieved in ICT for pupils who are entitled
to free school meals against those who do not qualify. It shows that there is a

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164 CASE STUDY A
difference between the two groups with the pupils who receive free school
meals attaining the lower average level. This supports the work of Smith
(2003: 580) who found that ‘with regard to academic variables, pupils who
receive free school meals do less well than their peers in aggregate terms at
every level’. Both groups of pupils achieve level four but the decimal is again
significantly lower for the pupils entitled to free school meals.
Prior attainment at Key Stage 2
This clearly demonstrates that Key Stage 2 prior attainment does have an
impact on a child’s achievement at Key Stage 3. The government expectation
is that a child will achieve an APS of 27 at Key Stage 2 and level 5 at KS3. Of
the 500 pupils in the sample who achieved 27 or above, 80 per cent went on
to achieve level five or higher at Key Stage 3. This compares to 41 per cent
who achieved level five or higher in KS3 who did not meet national
expectations at KS2. These findings support Gorard (2000) who believed that
pupils who perform well earlier in their schooling continue to do so but
contradicts the work of Schagen (2006: 121) who argued that the relation-
ship between prior attainment and performance is ‘not linear’.
All this statistical analysis demonstrates that the prior attainment of a
pupil is one of the most significant of the factors which impact on Key Stage
3 ICT results explored in this study and supports the view of Gorard and
Smith (2004: 216) who, in their research found that ‘the overwhelming
majority of variance in school results is predicted by the nature (or prior
attainment) of the intake’.
Ethnicity findings
As expected, the number of ethnic minority pupils in the sample was low.
Rampton (1981) shows the composition of the sample and demonstrates that
statistically the number of ethnic minority pupils makes any analysis on
ethnicity performance meaningless. However, Demie (2001: 92) argued that
‘ethnic background factors affect educational outcomes and penalize schools
with a high number of pupils from ethnic minorities’, therefore it follows
that the local authority position in the league tables should inversely reflect
the fact that there is a small number of ethnic minority pupils in the LA and
show a higher outcomes than other authorities that have more ethnic
diversity.
Parental education findings
Rainey and Murova (2004: 2404) identified that ‘parents’ education greatly
influences the quality of education of their children’. If this is the case, then

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CASE STUDY A 165
this factor could be significant in the LA. Appendix 13 shows the highest
level of qualification achieved by adults aged 16–74 for the region and
national population. It is clear that there are more people in the area with no
formal qualifications than the national. In addition, the pupil questionnaire
revealed that only 14 per cent of all the adults living with the pupils had
attended university. This could be affecting the attainment of pupils through
influential adults in the home environment not being able to support pupils
with their studies or not appreciating the value of education and therefore
transmitting negative messages to the pupils.
Teachers’ role findings
In many of the schools in the LA non-specialist teachers are used in Year 7

and 8 to plug gaps with pupils in Year 9 getting specialist teaching. There
seems to be an acceptance among schools that pupils have enough effective
teaching as a result. This contradicts the evidence of Wright et al. (1997: 63)
which states that ‘students in classrooms of very effective teachers, following
relatively ineffective teachers make excellent academic gains but not enough
to offset previous evidence of less than expected gains’. The teacher inter-
views highlighted this problem. One teacher stated that ′pupils who are
taught by specialist teachers definitely do better′ and that ′having specialist
teachers in KS3 would improve levels′.
Pupils’ experiences of ICT lessons findings
The questionnaire found overwhelmingly at 82 per cent that pupils did enjoy
their ICT lessons at KS3 with pupils making comments such as ‘we learnt
valuable ICT skills’ and ‘it was interesting and new compared to what we had
to do in primary school’ endorsing the findings. Some 93 per cent of the
pupils who enjoyed ICT lessons also felt that what they learnt in the lessons
would be useful in the future, compared to 60 per cent of the pupils who did
not enjoy the lessons. This is important as enjoyment of the subject has a
bearing on results.
Summary
The findings from this research are similar to, and supported by the findings
of many previous studies such as Smith (2003), Cooper et al. (2003) and
Feinstein and Symons (1999). It is clear that from the analysis undertaken via
FSM and ACORN that the pupils’ social background impacts on their
attainment. It is also apparent that prior attainment is an indicator of how

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166 CASE STUDY A
well a pupil is likely to perform at KS3. The findings also highlighted issues
with using non-specialist teachers and the lack of continuity which is a
concern to both pupils and teachers. However, establishing the statistical
links between attainment and various factors is only the first step in
counteracting the trends. The conclusion will therefore aim to draw together
the finding and try to offer recommendations for the future.

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Chapter 5
Conclusions and implications
Conclusions from research
[This chapter systematically addresses the findings of the study to glean

conclusions and organizes them into a coherent paper, relating them back to
both literature and initial aims, under the headings of:
Community characteristics
Parents’ education
Implications arising from research
Community characteristics and parents’ role
Professional development
Personal development.]
Evaluation/Suggestions for further research
This study set out to investigate which factors contribute to pupils not
achieving in line with national average at Key Stage 3 in Information and
Communication Technology in the local authority and it has done this.
As hinted at throughout this study, this research is really only the first
stage in a journey to improve attainment for pupils at Key Stage 3 in the local
authority. While the data collated has provided statistical data to support or
disregard the factors which impact on attainment, it has not investigated the
core issues in detail. For further research, a clear starting point would be to
look at the issue of prior attainment at KS2 and investigate what could be
done to improve the results of pupils at eleven. Another area that requires
further research is the impact of the low numbers of ethnic pupils in the
authority and why it does not seem to benefit the overall KS3 return as a
result.
In addition, a study is needed to investigate why the factors impact on
results and what could be done to eradicate these reasons to improve
attainment. As explained at the outset, this study is only the first step on a
long journey but has provided a sound platform on which to build future
studies.

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168 CASE STUDY A
References
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List of Tables
Table 1.1 KS3 2006 LA and national results DfES (2006a)
Table 3.1 Research schedule
Table 4.1 Distribution of ACORN (UK and LA)
Table 4.2 Ethnic composition of sample, authority and England ONS (2001)
List of Figures
Figure 4.1 Graph showing average KS3 ICT level against ACORN category

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Figure 4.2 Graph showing difference between expected and actual number of
pupils if there were no relationship between the ICT level achieved and the
ACORN category
Figure 4.3 Graph showing average KS3 ICT level against FSM
Figure 4.4 Graph showing average KS3 ICT level against KS2 APS
Figure 4.5 Bubble graph showing the number of pupils at each ICT level for
all the APS’s at KS2
Figure 4.6 Graph showing difference between expected and actual number of
pupils if there were no relationship between the ICT level achieved and prior
attainment
Figure 4.7 Graph showing the perceived number of teachers pupils had teach
them in KS3 and the average number of specialist and non-specialist
List of Appendices
Appendix 1 Characteristics of LA schools LA Data Team (2006)
Appendix 2 Data included in the documentary research
Appendix 3 DfES (2003: 3) Primary School (Key Stage 2) Performance Tables
Appendix 4 Copy of online questionnaire
Appendix 5 Copy of interview schedule
Appendix 6 Transcripts of semi-structured interviews

Appendix 7 Characteristics of documentary data sample
Appendix 8 Characteristics of respondents to questionnaire
Appendix 9 Copy of letter sent to head teachers
Appendix 10 Average KS3 result by ACORN Classification
Appendix 11 Average KS3 Result by KS2 APS

Appendix 12 KS3 ICT TA Against Prior APS at KS2
Appendix 13 Highest NVQ or equivalent level held by individuals LSC

(2006: 9)

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/production/mcgraw−hill/booksxml/denby/y−case−b
Case study B
Music Curriculum Package
Teaching Strategy
Modelling and explaining Renaissance music in Year 7
Michelle Bentley
Introduction
This assignment was produced whilst on second teaching practice placement

at an 11–16 mixed community secondary school.
[School is described in detail and its recent Ofsted report used to underpin
description of the music department, the school and its pupils.]
The following curriculum package will be taught to a Year 7 class. The topic,
Renaissance Music, is currently taught as part of the department scheme of
work. The focus of this package will be on modelling and explaining and will
demonstrate the benefits that this specific teaching strategy has on teaching
and learning. A Year 7 class has been selected for this project as they are
relatively new to the school and the previous topic provides a good basis of
knowledge for learning about Renaissance music (for an overview of KS3
music, see Appendix 1).
[Further information detailing how the unit fits in terms of progression is

given.]
The topic will be assessed in line with the department’s assessment policy.
[Further details of this are included here.]
The specific class to be taught are [detailed description of class and its range
of abilities included.]
Kerrypress Ltd – Typeset in XML A Division: y-case-b F Sequential 1

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The group has been selected not only because of the stage the pupils are at in
their schooling but also because of the wide range of abilities noted from
their last module assessment grades (in Appendix 2) ranging from NC level
2a to 4b. This will enable me to assess the effectiveness of my modelling and
explaining with reference to all levels of ability, as well as facilitate differen-
tiation through outcome and task. Pupils will complete a variety of tasks
involving listening, appraising, composing and performing through group,
class and pair work, as well as individual study. A homework task will be set
to reaffirm class work.
Modelling and especially explaining were shown as areas of weakness
during my first placement teaching practice: this opportunity to devise a
curriculum package showing awareness and progression of a particular
teaching strategy provides an opportunity for me to develop this area of my
teaching. The Department for Education and Skills National Strategy (2006)
states that varied teaching strategies can ‘fire pupils’ imagination’ which can
‘make musical learning more interesting, exciting and effective’ (DfES 2006:
7), highlighting the importance of teacher awareness and practice of various
teaching strategies.
Literature review
Throughout my background reading in the areas of modelling and explain-

ing it has become apparent that recent research can be split into two broad
categories: discussions about the benefit, need and use of these strategies
alongside scientific explanations of how and why these particular strategies
are successful. For the purpose of this assignment I will be focusing on
literature which discusses the practicalities of modelling and explaining, as
well as the benefits and implementation in planning for and delivering these
strategies in a classroom context.
One of the main issues in teaching in secondary school music lessons
today is providing pupils of varying abilities with the knowledge and skills
they need to learn in the classroom. Differentiation by task and outcome
goes some way to solving this problem, however Joyce et al. (1997) argue
that a variety of teaching strategies is what is needed, and this is the only
way to include and develop the knowledge of all pupils with varying
abilities:
Whether at the class or school level, the broader the range of
teaching approaches and learning experiences arranged for our
children, the more likely we are to reach our goal of educating all
students.
(Joyce et al. 1997: 25)

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Furthermore, it is not only the specific strategies we employ in the classroom

as teachers, but the ways in which we choose to deliver them:
Teaching constitutes the strategies which are used to motivate and

sustain an environment to bring about learning, in other words,
creating the optimum conditions for learning.
(Philpott 2001: 20)
As Batho (2002) describes adequately, modelling and explaining go hand in

hand as one can aid the other:
The teaching process should generally follow a movement which

begins with teacher explication and demonstration to the whole
class …
(Batho 2002: 80)
Defining key terms can be seen as the primary reason for explaining. As
Zwozdiak-Myers and Capel (2005: 109) point out, many lessons have large
proportions of time dedicated to explaining, supporting the notion that clear
and concise explanations with specific key terms are a primary factor to elicit
engagement and learning in the classroom. However, knowledge of key terms
alone does not lead to good explanation:
students consider explaining to be perhaps the teacher’s single most

important skill … a teacher’s subject knowledge alone will not make
him or her into a good explainer.
(Petty 2004: 160)
This argument looks directly and most importantly at the pupils’ view of the
explanation; a teacher can have endless and detailed knowledge in a specific
area, but this can be rendered useless if the explanation itself is inadequate.
This is a main area for consideration in my planning.
Kerry (1998: 106) suggests that understanding can be aided through
explanation if the teacher relates the discussion to pupils’ real-life experi-
ences. Cohen et al. (1996) agree with this view:
A general rule is to endeavour to make explanations and examples as

concrete as possible.
(Cohen et al. 1996: 228)

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CASE STUDY B 177
Building on tasks and linking explanations to prior knowledge are two

further points that Kerry (1998: 108, 117) believes should be considered
thoroughly when explaining. The DfES Pedagogy and Practice unit on
Explaining also highlights this point:
When explaining relationships between factors we need to consider
how one factor affects another …
(DfES 2004: 3)
However Petty emphasizes that the development of existing and new

knowledge can only be advantageous in explanation when the learning is
repeated and emphasized in a variety of ways (Petty 2004: 164). Furthermore,
Petty adds that it is the pupils’ innate capability to only absorb certain
amounts of information at any time that can cause problems in explanation,
thus reinforcing the need for repetition. When teachers try to explain too
much, they can often be met by the ‘enemy … the limited size of the
student’s short-term memory’ (Petty ibid.):
Don’t be afraid to simplify to the point where you are distorting the
truth somewhat. You can always mention the exceptions and oddi-
ties later, once the basic idea is understood.
(Petty 2004: 162)
Simplification can be advantageous to the teacher, enabling knowledge

needed for the lesson to be covered quickly; however, it is important to
decide which specific areas during the explanation will be ‘distorted’ so as
not to delete important music-specific technical language which can aid and
develop pupils’ learning and understanding.
Pace needs to be considered during explanation to ensure that all
pupils are listening and understanding detail. Lengthy explanations can be
problematic; keeping pupils focused and engaged for lengthy periods of time
can often be difficult, especially when pupils are aware that practical work
will be following the explanation. This is one area that Kerry (1998) neglects
to cover. It is suggested that humour can be interjected at appropriate times
of explaining to ‘keep attention and make some things easier to remember’
(DfES 2004: 9). Signposting is a further method for keeping a lesson heavily
weighted in explanation; by alerting pupils to a significant piece of informa-
tion by using a prefix such as ‘This is really important, class’, attention can
be renewed:
a good explainer makes plain both the structure and the hierarchy of
importance in the context of an extended explanation.
(Petty 2004: 166)

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Making it clear to pupils that key information is being explained can be

accentuated further through vocal clarity (for example, changes in intona-
tion) and body language.
Modelling can rely strongly on body language and should be used as an
equally weighted tool alongside explaining, although when looking at the
volume of research and literature relating to explaining and modelling, the
latter is swamped. The DfES Training Materials document (2002) describes
modelling as:
a powerful teaching strategy that can be used to demonstrate a range
of skills and processes. It involves the teacher as ‘expert’ demonstrat-
ing how to do something whilst thinking through the process aloud.
(DfES 2002: 144)
Mills (2005) suggests that musical modelling is more effective in the music
classroom as opposed to modelling alone:
Teachers who are teaching music musically draw in students with
their differing enthusiasms and backgrounds, and leave each of
them at least slightly better for having been to a lesson. They teach
through music (not just about music).
(Mills 2005: 20)
Adams (2001) suggests that whole class, group and individual activities are
most effective when ‘the teacher participates fully as musician and music
model’ (Adams 2001: 57), further highlighting the DfES suggestion of the
teacher being seen as an ‘expert’.
There is an argument about modelling which suggests that teachers are
merely providing an opportunity for pupils to reproduce the presented task
or process without internalizing it. In defence, Swanwick argues that this is
not necessarily a negative facet:
Imitation is not mere copying, but includes sympathy, empathy,
identification with, concern for, seeing ourselves as something or
someone else. It is the activity in which we enlarge our repertoire of
action and thought … [Imitation] is certainly not hostile to creative
imagination.
(Swanwick 1988: 45)
Swanwick’s argument is clearly in favour of modelling in the classroom,

suggesting that it has underlying advantages such as developing teacher–pu-
pil relationships and creativity, which can only benefit the learning environ-
ment.

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CASE STUDY B 179
It is clear from the above discussion that explaining and modelling

flourish as a partnership. Kerry (1998) describes explaining as ‘a complicated
process’ and insists that ‘those who want to become good at it must analyse,
practice and acquire the skills involved’ (Kerry 1998: 120). Both modelling
and explaining must be thoroughly planned for and executed well to enable
a fruitful learning and working environment in the classroom.
Curriculum package
Unit of work
The unit builds on previous teaching and aims to support different learners,
promotes active engagement, facilitates progression and promotes the devel-
opment of key skills, themes and dimensions, with a specific focus on the
teaching strategy of modelling and explaining.
[The unit of work is outlined here.]
Lesson plans
The following section contains the six lesson plans of the focus unit of work:
Renaissance Music. It includes all relevant evaluations and two teacher tutor
observations. Learning objectives and learning outcomes (assessment indica-
tors) are clearly detailed on each plan.
[One lesson is included as an exemplar and in order to contextualize the
discussion which follows.]

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LESSON 1
Context
[As this is the first lesson of the unit the context that is described above is
outlined here.]
Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson pupils will:
+ Understand the dates of the Renaissance period and instruments
+ Develop listening skills by completing SET 1 questions in the starter
listening handbook
+ Learn about and use the Aeolian scale and compose a short melody using
this with a drone accompaniment on keyboards
NC POS : 1b, c, 2b, 3a, b, c, 4a, b, d, 5a, b, c, e
Assessment Indicators
By the end of the lesson:
All pupils will have: attempted the listening starter, participated in a class
discussion, made notes on Renaissance instruments and dates, composed a
short melody using the Aeolian scale.
Most pupils will have: Completed the listening starter, participated in a
class discussion, made notes on Renaissance instruments and dates, composed
a short melody using the Aeolian scale and added the drone.
Some more able pupils will have: Completed the listening starter,
participated actively in a class discussion, made detailed notes on Renaissance
instruments and dates, composed a melody using the Aeolian scale and
added the drone part in time.
Key Skills
[How the lesson contributes to key skills and dimensions is outlined here.]
Differentiation
+ Questions have been carefully formulated for the starter activity so that all
pupils can answer them. There is scope for more able pupils to develop
their answers further.
+ Pupils will be monitored throughout the composing activity to ensure all
are working to their capability – the end of last module test scores from
last term will be consulted to establish which pupils are more able and
those who struggled with composing previously.
+ All will be encouraged to participate in discussion.
Equipment/Resources
[Resources used are outlined here.]
LESSON ACTIVITIES

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CASE STUDY B 181
INTRODUCTION
Give out folders and take register (5 mins)
Briefly explain this module [detail is outlined here.]
Refer to lesson objectives on AV
Starter Activity (10 mins)

First we are going to hear a musical example of Renaissance music.
Read through questions on listening handbook and give examples of possible
answers.
Hear musical examples, fill out answers and mark – explain that these
handbooks are not about marks but about developing knowledge – write in any
notes that you have not got during discussion of answers.
Discussion
TIMELINE: ‘setting the scene’. (2 mins)

Relate to last module: 800–1400 medieval 1400–1600 Renaissance
INSTRUMENTS (3 mins)
Put instrument sheet up on AV and discuss – only do first page of two.
Explain which instruments differ from those in Medieval period – introduction
of viols … questioning what do you think viols are?
SCALE (5 mins)
We are going to look at a new scale … Aeolian scale.
Remember the Dorian scale … what note did it start on? D
Aeolian starts on A! Play the scale on piano, stating that it is all white notes
from a-a. Get pupil to come and play scale.
DRONE
Drone – what’s a drone? 2 note accompaniment. Teacher and pupil demo –
pupil playing drone, teacher playing scale over the top.
Instruction (10 mins)

By the end of today I want you all to be able to play a short melody using
the Aeolian scale.
In pairs, one at either end of the keyboard, I want you to compose a 2 BAR
melody, starting and ending on the note A using the Aeolian scale.

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Model TEACHER’S TUNE on board – get class to fill in notes using Aeolian
scale
Draw chart for ‘YOUR TUNE’ and copy into books – YOU SHOULD HAVE A
MELODY EACH!!!
EXTENSION – if you complete this, get your partner to play the drone while
you play your melody, then swap.
Pupil and teacher demo – get pupil to play drone while I play my melody.
REMINDER: Recap on note lengths from previous module – in books on

page 2 – remember 4 beats in a bar. (3 mins)
Get pupil to recap task to rest of class – ask class if pupil has missed anything
out.
DEVELOPMENT
Time to compose and practise melody. Once in pairs, announce time limit
(10 mins) and send pupils to practice rooms. Pupil to recap task to class.
Teacher reiterate task as pupils leave for practice rooms.
PUPIL WATCH – Keep pupils 15, 20 and 22 in room – teacher tutor has
mentioned that they struggle to stay on task in practice rooms.
Differentiate this task by monitoring progress and helping and

moving on individual pupils with the support of teacher tutor
CONCLUSION (10 mins)

REGROUP – Hear a few examples from pupils and discuss good points of
composition and areas for improvement next lesson. Encourage ‘good
audience’ and clapping after performances. AFL.
Plenary (5 mins)
Talk about what we have learnt today. Recap on drone, Aeolian scale,
instruments and timeline.
Pack away and sit down.
Briefly discuss next lesson – question and answer phrases to extend melody,
adding drone. (2 mins)
[Six sets of lesson plans, observations, evaluations and all the resources are
included.]

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CASE STUDY B 183
Evaluation
The Renaissance unit is placed well in the Year 7 modules of work (see
Appendix 1). It follows on from the Medieval module which progresses
through listening, composing and performing in the same way. Kerry (1998:
108, 117), as mentioned in the literature part of this package, lays heavy
emphasis on the importance of linking new information with prior knowl-
edge and this was done via explanation throughout this module. It proved
highly effective as pupils had already progressed through lessons following
this listening, composing and performing format and were comfortable with
this arrangement.
Looking specifically at explaining and modelling which was the focus
of this package, I have many points to evaluate. First, it is important to
consider the effectiveness of my modelling and explaining. It became
apparent during teaching the first Renaissance lesson that the timings I had
predicted for explaining information and tasks had been greatly underesti-
mated. This was noted by the teacher tutor (see Observation) where it was
mentioned that pace needed to be thought about in greater detail. During
the lesson itself, I followed Petty’s advice to ‘simplify to the point where you
are distorting the truth somewhat’ (Petty 2004: 162) by providing shortened
explanations of instruments and cutting out the explanation of the drone
completely. However, this was with the intention of shortening the explana-
tion to catch up on lost time rather than simplifying detail, and although the
learning could still take place, this could have been problematic. For lessons
3 and 4 explanations were condensed and signposts were used so that pupils
could gauge the importance of the information they were being given. As
Petty (2004) describes, providing a ‘hierarchy of importance’ shows a good
explanation (Petty 2004: 166) and stating that ‘This part is important, listen
carefully’ to the class is advantageous in gaining pupils’ attention.
I also found it very effective for pupils to get involved in explanations.
[Further evaluation of the use of this strategy follows.]
Throughout most of my classroom explanations I tried to use as much

modelling as possible: teacher and pupil. As discussed in the literature review
of this curriculum package, the DfES regard modelling as a high priority
teaching strategy and describe it as a ‘powerful’ method ‘that can be used to
demonstrate a range of skills and processes’ (DfES 2002: 144). During the
explanation parts of lessons I modelled the task and information to pupils.
For example, in lesson 1 I played the Aeolian scale to pupils on the electric
piano. I then asked a pupil to also come and play the scale, and as noted in
the lesson evaluation pupils were enthusiastic and many hands went up to
offer to come and model. This also helped to keep the explanation lively and
memorable. As Mills (2005) discusses, ‘teachers who are teaching music

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musically draw in students’ (Mills 2005: 20) and this was enormously
apparent in parts of the lessons in which I have used teacher followed by
pupil modelling. This conforms to Batho’s belief that teaching should
commence with ‘teacher explication and demonstration to the whole class’
(Batho 2002: 80). This design continued throughout every lesson providing
format and clarity for pupils.
[A discussion about the benefits of including pupils modelling follows.]

Assessment is the key to progression in the classroom and during this
module I have incorporated summative and formative assessment.
[The curriculum package is evaluated further by an extended discussion of
the pupils’ achievement throughout the unit. Examples of pupils work are
discussed.]
Conclusion
It is clear from the above evaluation that there are many successes from
teaching this unit of work with a focus on modelling and explaining. The
starter listening activities worked well and provided consistency to each
lesson. Explanations aided development and teacher modelling helped pu-
pils relate to the task and actually see what they were being asked to do, as
well as learning how to do it. Pupil modelling was used as an extension of
this and helped to keep the class engaged; willing and wanting to take part.
As Joyce et al. (1997) state, ‘the broader the range of teaching ap-
proaches … the more likely we are to reach our goal of educating all students’
(Joyce et al. 1997: 25). Taking this into consideration, the best way to
improve this package would be to consciously incorporate as many teaching
strategies as possible, providing an amalgamation of approaches to benefit all
pupils. To develop the package further it would be beneficial for pupils to
actually see the instruments they are composing for, although this was not
possible during this unit. Pupils’ learning could also be developed by going
to a live concert of Renaissance music; through my discussions with pupils
during lessons it has become clear that almost all have never been to a live
classical instrumental concert, an event that I believe could benefit pupils’
musical appraisal, composing and listening skills dramatically. I could have
developed this area further in the classroom by playing my instruments
(violin and flute) in the Renaissance style and would try and integrate this if
teaching the unit again. Further improvement could be gained by the use of
ICT in learning. [Some discussion about how ICT could be included in this
unit of work follows.]
My teaching has improved considerably throughout this package and
this can be seen when looking at the teacher tutor observations. Because I

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CASE STUDY B 185
have had to consider my chosen teaching strategy in depth, my planning has

been more consistent and I have learnt how to synthesize lessons, develop-
ing on pupils assessed knowledge. Specifically my explaining methods have
become clearer and more focused and I have observed the benefits of teacher
and pupil modelling. I am developing these strategies further now in the
other modules that I teach.
Appendices (The following were included.)
+ KS3 Schemes of Work at SP2 – Overview

+ Year 7 Renaissance class list and assessment grades
+ Renaissance starter listening handbook and CD
+ Renaissance instruments AV
+ Renaissance end of module listening test sheet and answers
+ Renaissance end of module listening test NC levels
+ Renaissance performance NC levels
+ End of Module Self Evaluation Sheet
References
Adams, P. (2001) Planning to teach musically, in C. Philpott (ed.) Learning to
Teach Music in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. Abing-
don: RoutledgeFalmer.
Batho, R. (2002) Teaching literacy across the curriculum, in V. Ellis (ed.)

Learning and Teaching in Secondary Schools. Exeter: Learning Matters Ltd.
Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (1996) A Guide to Teaching Practice.

London: Routledge.
DfES (2002) Module 6: Modelling, Training Materials for the Foundation Subjects.
London: DfES.
DfES (2004) Explaining Unit 8, Key Stage 3 National Strategy: Pedagogy and
Practice. London: DfES.
DfES (2006) Secondary National Strategy: Foundation Subjects: KS3 Music.

London: DfES.
Dix, P. (2007) Taking Care of Behaviour, Practical Skills for Teachers. Edinburgh:
Pearson Education Ltd.
Joyce, B., Calhoun, C. and Hopkins, D. (1997) Models of Learning: Tools for
Teaching. Buckingham: Open University Press.

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186 CASE STUDY B
Kerry, T. (1998) Questioning and Explaining in Classrooms. London: Hodder &

Stoughton.
Mills, J. (2005) Music in the School. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ofsted (2006) SP2 Inspection Report. London: Ofsted.
Petty, G. (2004) Teaching Today: A Practical Guide. Cheltenham: Nelson

Thornes Ltd.
Philpott, C. (2001a) Musical learning, in C. Philpott (ed.) Learning to Teach
Music in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. Abingdon:
RoutledgeFalmer.
Philpott, C. (2001b) Three curriculum issues, in C. Philpott (ed.) Learning to

Teach Music in the Secondary School: A Companion to School Experience. Abing-
don: RoutledgeFalmer.
Swanwick, K. (1988) Music, Mind and Education. Abingdon: Routledge.
Zwozdiak-Myers, P. and Capel, S. (2005) Communicating with pupils, in. S.
Capel, M. Leask and T. Turner (eds) Learning to Teach in the Secondary School: A
Companion to School Experience. Abingdon: Routledge.

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/production/mcgraw−hill/booksxml/denby/z−case−c
Case Study C
Action research report
A study into the effectiveness of a tailored intervention for a child with an

autistic spectrum disorder
Laura Eaglen
1.0 Introduction
Harry is a 4-year-old child in a mainstream nursery who has been formally

assessed and recognized as having an autistic spectrum disorder. Harry has
been attending the nursery full-time for eight months and enjoys coming to
nursery. Harry is fairly independent and has some language. A schedule
showing visual symbols is used to help to calm Harry when he is distressed.
Harry’s mum has to use a schedule at home much more often to explain
changes to routine. To date, the practitioner has felt that there was no need
to use the schedule all of the time, but it seems that as Harry gets older he is
becoming much more aware of changes to routine. The practitioner has also
begun to notice that Harry spends a lot of time ‘wandering’ between
activities and does not choose to play in some areas at all. Aware that she
wants to provide inclusive education for Harry, the practitioner feels that she
and the nursery staff need to encourage Harry to use all areas of the nursery.
1.1 Context
The practitioner undertaking the research is a teacher and team leader in a

large nursery class within a nursery school.
[Further details of the practitioner and her place of work, including its
last Ofsted Report, are included.]
Kerrypress Ltd – Typeset in XML A Division: z-case-c F Sequential 1

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1.2 Rationale
[Government legislation regarding children with Harry’s needs is explained.

The writer observes that Harry’s care has become fragmented and describes
the individuals and services that can be used to improve and provide
seamless care for Harry.]
1.3 Aims
The practitioner will use a combination of existing knowledge about Harry

and published research to define a strategy for working with Harry. The first
aim of the research is to explore whether a tailored approach is more
effective than no intervention, using interviews and observations with and
without the use of an intervention. The practitioner will then examine the
effects of the intervention on helping Harry to stay on task, and reducing the
number of times Harry shows distress using both interviews and observa-
tions. Using the results the practitioner aims to continue to develop the
strategy to suit Harry’s needs.
2.0 Literature Review
This section will look at the impact of autism on learning and the implica-
tions for learning. It will go on to relate this to inclusion. Finally, possible
interventions for Harry will be discussed.
2.1 The impact of autism on learning
Kanner (1943) first recommended the existence of autism, where he identi-

fied a number of characteristics shared by those people with autism. These
included:
+ lack of desire to communicate verbally;

+ echolalic verbal utterances;
+ fear in strange or unexpected situations;
+ repetitive behaviours demonstrated.
(taken from Wall 2004: 6)
Since Kanner, there has been an overwhelming amount of research into

every aspect of autism.

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Baron-Cohen (1995) suggests that people with autism have a lack of

‘theory of mind’, or ‘mind-blindness’ which means that they cannot recognize
the mental states of others. Frith (1989) suggests that those with autism lack
central coherence which means that they have difficulties in recognizing a
whole concept rather than just the details. Most people naturally place
information into a context and see the ‘bigger picture’. Another model
proposes that people with autism have difficulties in ‘executive functioning’.
Executive functioning allows us to transfer our attention from one area to
another smoothly and use our thoughts to solve problems (Norman and
Shallice 1980).
Current government guidance Autistic Spectrum Disorders: Good Practice
Guidelines (DfES 2002) suggests that children with autism share a ‘triad of
impairments’. Suggested by Wing (1996), this theory remains consistent with
theory of mind, central coherence and executive function models. It defines
impairments shared by those with autism as social communication, social
interaction and imagination.
There is some overlapping and consistency across the above theories
which are all well documented (Baron-Cohen 1995; Lord 1995). The difficul-
ties that they suggest are consistent with those seen in Harry prior to the
study and have huge implications for inclusion and access to the Foundation
Stage curriculum. Hanbury (2005) suggests the ‘rich, fast-flowing stream of
communication’ (p. 18) in the classroom places the autistic child in a
difficult and scary world. Socially, Harry can find it difficult to recognize
rules and expectations, and to interpret the feelings of others. A difficulty
using imagination means that Harry may find it difficult to talk about absent
objects, engage in pretend play and talk about future events.
2.2 Inclusion
[Policies and reports regarding inclusion are discussed, in particular the

Warnock Report (DES 1978), the Audit Commission (2002) and the White
Paper Removing Barriers to Achievement (DfES 2004). The reasons why early
years settings are already considered fairly inclusive are given and supported
by literature e.g. Nutbrown (1998).]
2.3 Interventions
For anyone to learn and achieve, a number of basic needs have to be met
first. Maslow (1943) suggested that before people can operate on a higher
level, they must have their physiological and safety needs met. It then
follows that before Harry can begin to access the curriculum, he must first
feel secure.

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190 CASE STUDY C
[Detailed discussion of intervention programmes follows.]
2.4 The approaches used within this study
[An approach using PECs and TEACCH methods is proposed and explained.
PECS is the Picture Exchange Communication System using a child’s visual
strengths. TEACCH is the Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related
Communication Handicapped Children and is a life approach based on the
strengths that the person with autism already has. Arguments regarding the
possible drawbacks of such an approach are supported by literature e.g.
Schreibman (2000); Tutt, Powell and Thornton (2006).]
The main aims of this study are:
+ To assess whether a tailored approach is more effective than no

intervention.
+ To help Harry to stay on task.
+ To reduce the number of times Harry becomes distressed.
3.0 Methodology and conduct of the research
This section will begin with a broad overview and justification of the type of
research that was used within this study. It will then go on to explain how
this study was conducted, choices that were made and why.
3.1 Principles and practice of action research
Brown and Dowling (1998) define action research as ‘a term which is applied
to projects in which practitioners seek to effect transformations in their own
practices’. It is true of any good practitioner that they stand back, question
and reflect on their own practice. Action research brings a systematic and
disciplined approach to this familiar exercise (Koshy 2005). Definitions of
action research by different writers often differ slightly but share common
vocabulary, namely ‘reflection’, ‘development’ and ‘improvement’.
Kurt Lewin (1948) is considered to be one of the founding figures of
action research. As part of a controversial group in Germany before the
Second World War, Lewin suggested that it was not possible to produce
quantitative results based on how subjects behaved in an experimental
situation, but that the interaction between experimenter and subject should
be part of the object of investigation from the beginning (Danziger 1990). In
America, Lewin went on to research social processes and was very much

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concerned with the cyclic process that we know as part of action research
today. The approach involves a series of steps, ‘each of which is composed of
a circle of planning, action and fact-finding about the result of the action’
(Lewin 1946, reproduced in Lewin 1948: 206).
Action research emerged in Britain in the 1970s, one influence being
the Humanities Curriculum Project (1967–72) and Lawrence Stenhouse who
promoted the idea of ‘teacher as researcher’ (McNiff 2002). More recently,
developments in England and Wales have reflected the recognition and value
placed upon action research, such as small research grants made available by
the Teacher Training Agency and the DfES (Koshy 2005). Action research is
now recognized as a tool for professional learning and professional develop-
ment (McNiff 2002). In this small-scale research project, the practitioner
wanted to improve her own practice through reflection and find a starting
point for collaborative enquiry. Convery (1998) suggests that for reflection to
truly influence practice, collaborative discussions must take place, as indi-
vidual reflection tackles immediate rather than underlying problems. The
practitioner hoped to further her own professional development and begin a
‘reflective dialogue’ in the setting by discussing research findings with
colleagues.
[The advantages of using action research are discussed in detail.]
3.2 Conduct of the research
[The main aim of the study is reiterated.]
3.2.1 Quantitative/qualitative research
[The relative merits of each are discussed, with reference to literature and
linked to Harry’s behaviour.]
One limitation of qualitative research and also action research is that
because it involves the researcher, findings may be considered a creation of
the researcher rather than fact (Denscombe 1998). It is for this reason that
researchers often use a combination of qualitative and quantitative ap-
proaches (Clough and Nutbrown 2002) in order to triangulate their research
findings, see Section 3.2.5.
3.2.2 Research instruments used
Observations were used to gather data for this study. An open observation
approach was used, as using a structured observation schedule would impose

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192 CASE STUDY C
structure at an early stage and restrict the data collected (Brown and Dowling
1998). A preferred method was to make more general, ethnographic observa-
tions so that different interpretations and foci would be possible, incidents
could be related and emerging trends explored (Hopkins 1998). The observa-
tions were carried out by the researcher herself. Brown and Dowling (1998)
caution researchers using this method as they rely on the researcher’s
interpretation of events. However, as a Foundation Stage teacher where
assessment relies on observations, it was considered that the practitioner was
sufficiently experienced in observing. This method had the advantage of
being flexible as the practitioner worked full-time with the sample child and
it would be possible to return to the field after analysis to do further
observations. Harry was observed for five days without a specific interven-
tion (Monday to Friday) and for five days with an intervention (Monday to
Friday). An example can be seen in Appendix 1.
[The way in which semi-structured and formal interviews with both
Harry and his Mum were conducted are here described, with supporting
literature, Brown and Dowling (1998); Hopkins (2002).]
3.2.3 Ethics
Whether a small- or large-scale project, it is important as both a researcher

and a professional that ethical issues are addressed. Failure to do so would
not only compromise research but could also compromise the professional
position of a practitioner. Burton and Bartlett (2005) refer to The Ethical
Guidelines for Educational Research by the British Research Association (BERA
2003) and from these infer that there are five key issues that teacher
researchers should be concerned with, namely consent; honesty and open-
ness; access to findings; researcher effects; and anonymity.
Consent was sought from the Headteacher of the centre as well as
Harry’s parents who received an outline of the nature of the research in
writing before they made the decision to consent. Staff within the base room
were briefed in a team meeting about both the nature of the study and how
to conduct the use of the schedule. Honesty and openness were promoted
through an informal daily discussion with the staff, it was thought that this
would also increase reliability as the practitioner could check that her
observations and findings matched those of others. Hopkins (2002) suggests
that colleagues involved in research should have the opportunity to disagree
or lodge a protest. Everyone involved had access to findings. These were
shared with Harry’s mum in the interview and all staff from the Centre in a
staff meeting. Researcher effects have been discussed above and anonymity was
assured to all of those involved including in writing to Harry’s parents.

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3.2.4 Sample size and method
[The limits of a small sample size are introduced.]
3.2.5 Validity
To gain validity, research must measure what it aims to measure … In this

study a method of triangulation was used to ensure validity. This involved
using contributions from three different points of view, the teacher, the
parent and the child.
3.2.6 Reliability
[A comment is made on reliability and the small sample size (Harry). It is

accepted that a pilot would have improved reliability.]
3.2.7 Researcher effect
Research performed in the 1920s and 1930s (cited in Roethlisberger and

Dickinson 1939) into working conditions found that subjects can perform
differently due to the fact that they are part of research, known as the
Hawthorne effect. As discussed in 3.2.2, observations are part of Foundation
Stage practice so research conditions were not too different from normal
practice. As an additional measure, the practitioner kept a distance from
Harry, just close enough to hear any speech used. The practitioner remained
fairly passive during the observations and did not interact with Harry unless
he initiated an interaction, apart from to use the schedule with Harry in the
second set of observations.
3.2.8 Research schedule
To ensure that the research took place in a methodical and organized fashion
and minimized disruption to normal teaching a schedule was followed.
[Research Schedule included.]

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3.3 Analysing the research data
The data was analysed using quantitative and qualitative research methods in
order to: ‘combine the power of words with the authority of numbers’
(O’Leary 2004: 18). Throughout the study the observations and interviews
were studied and an ‘open coding’ technique was used to analyse the data as
the research took place (Strauss and Corbin 1990), (see Appendix 3).
Categories were established to develop the analytic potential of the raw data
(Campbell 2004) and were then validated with a search for negative cases.
Informal discussions took place with other nursery staff to help the practi-
tioner to gain new information and to seek alternative explanations. Descrip-
tive statistics were calculated for the time Harry spent on tasks with and
without a schedule, and also for the number of times Harry got distressed,
with and without a schedule.
4.0 Analysis of Findings
[This section discusses the effectiveness of a tailored approach compared to

no intervention.]
4.1 The use of a tailored approach
[Both the observations and the interviews showed that a tailored approach
was more effective than no intervention. The effectiveness of such an
approach at home is described as is the positive effect it has had on Harry’s
willingness to communicate and the possible negative effect on Harry’s
socializing with other children. Literature (Kanner 1943; Baron-Cohen 1995;
Gabriels 2002; Wedell, 2005 is used in support.]
4.2 Time on task
It was discussed in Section 2.1 that people with autism may lack central
coherence (Frith 1989) which may mean that Harry has trouble in concen-
trating and is easily distracted by environmental stimuli. Prior to the study,
Harry could often ‘wander’ from one activity to another, or show repetitive
behaviours (Kanner 1943). Harry had his favourite areas and rarely visited his
less favourite activities. The use of a tailored approach helped Harry to spend
more time on task and to visit a wider range of areas.

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[Harry’s time on task is discussed, with statistics and support from

literature. Also discussed is the slightly different way in which interventions
are used at home (between events) than at nursery (between tasks) (Ozonoff
and Cathcart (1998).]
A limitation of this study was that it was difficult to determine when
Harry was ‘on task’. Often Harry was at an activity but by no means on task.
The ambiguity of ‘on task’ may mean that this study is unreliable and would
be difficult to repeat. Perhaps future studies could make a clear definition of
what ‘on task’ would require.
4.3 Reducing the number of times Harry

was distressed
[Here the way in which a schedule, both at home and nursery, was important
in avoiding Harry becoming distressed or helping to calm him is discussed.]
Harry did not seem to become as distressed as often or as severely
during the study as the practitioner had observed on previous occasions,
Harry can often be more distressed after the school holidays when returning
to nursery. Perhaps a long-term study would truly reflect the effectiveness of
the schedule. A criticism of this study may be that it is difficult to define
‘distress’ and one observer’s opinion may differ from another, making this
study difficult to repeat. As mentioned above, for observing when Harry was
‘on task’, perhaps a future study could define this early in the observations.
[The occasions when Harry’s Mum found that the schedule was not
effective are linked to a discussion of Harry’s routine.]
Perhaps routine for Harry is about negatives (such as having to get out
of bed or having to have your hair washed) being followed by positives (such
as having breakfast at nursery or watching a video), and when an expected
positive does not happen, he becomes distressed.
4.4 Other findings
Interestingly, during the first observations Harry was observed teasing other
children by hiding objects or running away with them on four occasions.
This would suggest that Harry does recognize the mental states of others,
contrary to theory of mind (Baron-Cohen 1995). It also supports the ideas
that Harry is very much interested in socializing with others, as discussed in
Section 4.1.
Prior to the interview, the practitioner was concerned with how Harry’s
family use the pictures at home. An unexpected finding was that the details
of the pictures seemed just as important to Harry’s mum as how she used

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them. Harry’s mum talked about some of the symbols being ‘too general’,
and spends a lot of time searching for the pictures they need on the internet.
4.5 Conclusion
The findings are consistent with Dawson and Osterling (1997) who suggest
that successful techniques are those which include visual clues, structure and
child choice. It seems that a combination of two approaches, TEACCH and
PECs met with some success, including increasing time on task and reducing
distress. Tutt (2006) warns against combining approaches just because no one
intervention has shown that it is highly successful, but most writers agree
that there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach (Hanft and Feinberg 1997;
Schreibman 2000; Wall 2004). Harry’s mum talked about other interventions
she had tried in the past but had not been effective such as Makaton, and
suggested that ‘trial and error’ can be the only way to find out what works, as
‘only a parent can know what will work for their child’.
5.0 Conclusions and dissemination
5.1 Aims of the research
The findings were consistent with the literature and showed that the use of a
tailored approach was more effective than no intervention (Schreibman
2000). The use of a schedule increased Harry’s use of language and also
supported Harry at home in making choices at mealtimes. The strategy could
be further developed to allow Harry more flexibility to be able to join
children spontaneously without having to choose the card first.
The research showed that the use of a schedule helps Harry to stay on
task and reduces repetitive behaviour. Although Harry’s mum does not use
the schedule at home to help Harry to stay on task, she does use it with
success to help Harry to move on from one activity to another, as it was
useful at nursery.
The use of a schedule did reduce the number of times Harry was
distressed at nursery although it was concluded that as Harry was distressed
less than normal anyway, a longer research period would be required to truly
determine the effectiveness. Harry’s mum reported that she relied very much
on the schedule at home to avoid distress and to help calm Harry when he
was upset. However, she also spoke of times when the intervention did not
work.

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5.2 Dissemination
Discussions about the use of a schedule for Harry with the staff directly
involved have taken place throughout the study and perhaps should have
been formally recorded to form a validation group (McNiff 2002). The
effectiveness of Harry’s schedule have led us to develop a whole class
schedule to support all children.
[Further dissemination is discussed.]
5.3 Implications of research
[A method of extending the picture approach to involve all staff is discussed.]

In Section 4.4, it was suggested that the details of the pictures
themselves were just as important in the use of the schedule at home as how
the schedule was used. This had not occurred to the practitioner prior to the
interview. Informal observations and discussions with another teacher have
shown that ‘substitute’ pictures (for example, using the symbol for play-
dough to show a cooking activity) do not work and can be more harmful
than using no picture at all. It has been suggested to the special needs
coordinator that the nursery could invest in a computer package that
provides us with a greater number of pictures or symbols and that one person
in nursery could be responsible for printing and laminating them.
5.4 Future research
To ensure progress follows from this action research an action plan has been
devised.
[Table 2, Action plan appended.]
5.5 Conclusion
This piece of action research has helped the practitioner and her colleagues
to think more critically about their provision. Background research has
developed a theoretical understanding of autism which have been shared
with other staff to develop an understanding of the needs of children with
autism. An effective intervention for Harry has been established and regular
discussions with Harry’s mum continue to help us to develop our provision.

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Appendix 1
Observation.
Appendix 2
Interview Questions.
Appendix 3
Categories Found.
Observations
On task (no communication)

On task Cs) Communication to self/noises
C) Communicating with others
Ci) Initiating communication with others
C2) Communicating with others by teasing
Not on task, wandering

WCs) Talking to self
Communicating C1) Interaction during activity that is not play, e.g.

dinnertime
C1i) Initiating communication during non-play
activities
Distressed a) Not prepared for change

b) Another child’s actions
c) Frustration, cannot complete a task
Following instructions, following routine

FCs) Talking to self
Not understanding, not following instructions (but not distressed)
Refusal to follow routine, refusal to comply
Attempts made by adult to alter routine to Harry’s expectations
Unproductive behaviour (hitting, throwing, lying on floor)

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a) Appears unhappy
b) Appears excited
Choosing from pictures/being shown routine using pictures
Approaching adult because wants to choose picture
Interview
Positive remarks about use of schedule
When and how the family use it
How she came to use it, who
Details about the pictures themselves
Other interventions and strategies
+ pointing
+ Makaton
+ drawing
Explanations
Thoughts
Examples
What happens when don’t use
When it doesn’t work/don’t use
+ ambiguous pictures
+ understands but not happy about changes
+ necessary to rpt whole routine
+ clothes
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Further Reading
Allison, B. and Race, P. (2004) The Student’s Guide to Preparing Dissertations and
theses. London: Routledge.
Bailey, S. (2004) Academic Writing: A Practical Guide for Students. London:

Routledge.
Bond, A. and Lawler, G. (2006) Your Masters Thesis: How to Plan, Draft, Write
and Revise. London: Studymates Ltd.
Hart, C. (2004) Doing your Masters Dissertation. London: Sage.
Levin, P. (2004) Write great essays! a guide to reading and essay writing for
undergraduates and taught postgraduates. Available at www.Guides-for-
students.com
Levin, P. (2005) Excellent Dissertations! Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Newton, R.R. (2007) Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to
Content and Process. London: Sage.
Sikes, P. and Potts, A. (2008) Researching Education from the Inside: Investigating
Institutions from Within. London: Routledge.
Swetnam, D. (2000) Writing Your Dissertation: How to Plan, Prepare and Present.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wellington, J. (2000) Educational Research: Contemporary Issues and Practical

Approaches. London: Continuum.

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/production/mcgraw−hill/booksxml/denby/zindex
Index
Locators shown in italics refer to importance and value of research,

boxes, exercises, figures and 29–30
tables. assessment, research see evaluation,
abstracts, student writing research
characteristics and need, 17 assignments, student
accreditation, portfolio, 131 need for criticality in writing of,
achievement, student 13–14
case study of in computer usage, role of tutors when supervising,
153–67, 153 14–15
action research technical requirements for
as portfolio evaluation framework, successful, 15–19
129 see also context, assignments;
case study utilizing, 187–99 outcomes, assignments
characteristics and considerations see also elements of eg titles; words
in relation to methodology, see also elements of practice eg
67–72, 68 closure; conclusions, research;
role of conclusion section in frameworks, writing;
highlighting further research, plagiarism; references and
117–19, 119 referencing
Atkinson, P., 161
analysis, content
autism, case study of interventions
need for and characteristics in
for, 187–99
successful writing, 19
balance, content-criticality
analysis, research role and importance as element of
as element of research evaluation, writing, 96–7, 97
86–8, 87–8 Bartlett, S., 192
case study examples of plans for, Batho, R., 176
163–6, 194–6 Bell, J., 69, 111
use of criticality at stage of, 103–4 Bentley, M., 174–85
appearance, visual BERA (British Educational Research
research posters, 142–3 Association), 192
Aristotle, 61 blogs, strengths and weaknesses as
Armstrong, D., 101 data collection site, 89
Arnold M., 13 Bologna Agreement, 2–3
articles, journal books, value to research, 30–31
Kerrypress Ltd – Typeset in XML A Division: zindex F Sequential 1

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206 INDEX
Boswell, J., 27 case study examples of, 167,

Brause, R., 94–5 196–7
British Educational Research characteristics, purpose and
Association (BERA), 192 structure, 19, 109–10
Brown, A., 130, 192 contextualisation as element of,
Bulwer-Lytton, E., 109 116–17, 116–17
Burton, D., 192 see also recommendations,
Campbell, C., 114 educational practice
case studies see also elements of process eg
action research on interventions identification, research
for autism, 187–99 outcomes; summarization,
characteristics, strengths and research findings
weaknesses as research method, confidentiality, 65–7, 66–7
68 Conjectures and Refutations (Popper),
curriculum package preparation, 46
174–85, 180–82 consent, informed, 64–5
dissertation compilation, 153–67, content
153 of research posters, 141–2
CDs (Compact Discs) of seminar papers, 145–6
use as portfolio evaluation context and contextualisation,
method, 130–31 assignment
Charmaz, K., 82 as element of conclusions section,
Chetcuti, D., 122 116–17, 116–17
children, autistic case study examples, 153–6, 187
case study of interventions for, individual rationales for deciding,
187–99 54–7, 57
Children Act (2004), 72 process of and considerations
closure, student assignment when exploring, 51–4, 54
style and procedures,, 119–20 continuing professional
codes and coding, data, 86–7 development (CPD)
Clough, P., 61 characteristics of opportunities in
Cohen, L., 70, 71, 161, 176 education, 2–3
collection, data use of assignment conclusions as
piloting of, 73–4, 73–4 forum for highlighting impact
strengths and weaknesses, 88–90 on, 117–19, 119
Compact Discs (CDs) see also development, personal
use as portfolio evaluation Convery, C., 191
method, 130–31 Cooper, M., 165–6
computers criticality
as research method arena, 72–3, definition and need for in writing,
73 94–5
case study of dissertation role and importance in written
compilation concerning, work, 13–14
153–67, 153 see also elements of process eg
conclusions, research analysis; balance; discussion;
as forum for gauging impact on mastery, topic; viewpoints,
educational practice, 113–15, author
115 see also sources of eg reading
as forum for highlighting further see also subjects critiqued eg policies,
research possibilities, 117–19, educational; theories,
119 educational

JOBNAME: 5821−McGraw−Denbyeta PAGE: 3 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Tue Jun 3 08:27:12 2008 SUM: 5F2F9760
INDEX 207
cycles, of learning, 34 educationalists, value, strengths and

data weaknesses as research
analysis of, 74–5, 103–4 respondents, 83–5
coding of, 86–7 Elliott, J., 33
collection and piloting of, 73–4, EMails, strengths and weaknesses as
73–4, 88–90 data collection site, 89
Dawson, 196 essays, student see assignments, study
degrees, master’s level Ethical Guidelines for Educational
characteristics of in education Research (BERA), 192
field, 1–3 ethics
Demie, F., 164 as consideration of research
Denscombe, M., 31, 68 methodology, 64
influence on research image, 86
development, personal
evaluation, research
importance as element of
definition, characteristics and
improved practice, 3–5, 4–5
purpose, 79–81, 81
see also continuing professional need for and value in relation to
development interviews, 83–8
diaries, research use of portfolio evidence in
role and examples of, 75–7, 75–7 displaying, 128–31, 131
strengths and weaknesses as data see also drivers influencing eg
collection site 89 rapport, research respondent;
digital video discs (DVDs) reliability; triangulation;
as portfolio evaluation method, validity
130–31 see also elements assisting eg
dilemma analysis, 87 analysis, research; synthesis
discussion, research see also sources eg papers, seminar;
case study examples of plans for, posters
163–6, 194–6 see also types eg oral evaluation
need for balance as element of Every Child Matters (Dept for
writing, 96–7, 97 Education), 72
dissemination, research findings evidence, research
case study examples of, 196–7 characteristics and role in
as consideration of research portfolio preparation, 122–7,
projects, 116 122–3, 127
see also methods eg papers, seminar; use of in displaying as evaluations,
posters 128–31, 131
dissertations, case study of expression, student writing
preparation, 153–67, 153 role and importance of good
Dowling, P., 130, 192 quality, 15–16, 16
DVDs (digital video discs) Feinstein, L., 165–6
as portfolio evaluation method, findings, research
130–31 dissemination of, 116, 139–48,
Eaglen, L., 187–99 142, 144, 146, 148
education relationship of analysis of to
characteristics of subject as driver literature review process, 41–2,
for masters study, 1–2 42
see also Bologna Agreement; see also conclusions, research;
policies and practice, outcomes, research
educational; theories, see also elements of recording of eg
educational summarizing

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208 INDEX
Flaubert, G., 79 ICT (information and

focus, research project communications technology)
individual rationale for deciding, as research method arena, 72–3,
54–7, 57 73
process of and considerations case study of dissertation
when establishing, 48–51, compilation concerning,
50–51 153–67, 153
use of portfolio evidence in identification, research outcomes
displaying, 127–8, 128 as element of research
focus groups conclusions, 111–13, 113
characteristics, strengths and image, portfolio (physical image),
weaknesses as research method, 131–3, 133
71–2 images, visual
Fontana, A., 86 strengths and weaknesses as data
Foucault, M., 95 collection site, 88–9
formative evaluation, 80–81, 81 incidents, critical
frameworks, educational as portfolio evaluation method,
critiquing of, 102, 102 129–30
demonstrating relevance as inference, role in research, 81–2
element of criticality, 103 information and communications
frameworks, writing technology (ICT)
example of for portfolio as research method arena, 72–3,
preparation, 133–7, 135, 136, 73
137 case study of dissertation
importance in relationship to compilation concerning,
literature reviewing, 43 153–67, 153
need for in master level research, internet
28–9 value to research, 31–2
Frey, J., 86 see also computers
gender, influence on research image, interviews
86 characteristics, strengths and
Gorard, S., 164 weaknesses as research method,
Grieg, A., 62, 64, 65, 67–8, 70 69–70
groups, focus, evaluation, strengths and
characteristics, strengths and weaknesses of, 83–8
weaknesses as research method, interviews, group, 85–6
71–2 introductions, research assignment
Habermas, J., 63 case study examples, 153–6,
Halliday, J., 84–5 174–5, 187
Hammersley, M., 161 characteristics and importance, 17
Haywood, P., 99 journals
headings and sub-headings, need for maintenance of as portfolio
in writing, 19 evaluation method, 130
Hendricks, C., 161 value to research, 29–30
Hitchcock, G., 69–70 strengths and weaknesses as data
Hopkins, D., 192 collection site, 89
Huberman, A., 74, 161 Joyce, B., 175, 184
Hughes, D., 69–70 Kemmus, 159
Hunt, L., 121 Kerry, T., 177, 179
Hustedt, J., 28–9 Kimmel, A., 65–6
ibid., correct usage of, 25–6 Knight, P., 130

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INDEX 209
knowledge, topic interviews; observations;

role and importance in writing, questionnaires; reliability; validity
95–6 Mezirow, J., 3
Kolb, D, 33, 34, 34 Miles, M., 74, 161
layout, research posters, 140–41 Mills, J., 178
learners, education models, critical reflection, 33–4, 34
importance of academic monographs, value to research,
development and improved 30–31
practice, 3–5 Morrison, K., 161
quality expectations of written motives, individual
work, 13–15 for carrying out research, 46–8
value, strengths and weaknesses of Murova, O., 164–5
research responses, 85 music, teaching of
‘learning cycle’ (Kolb), 34 case study of curriculum package
Letter to Louise Colet (Flaubert), 79 for, 174–85, 180–82
letters, strengths and weaknesses as Nutbrown, C., 61
data collection site, 89
observations
Lewin, K., 190
as portfolio evaluation method,
Life of Samuel Johnson (Boswell), 27
130
Likert scales, 70
characteristics, strengths and
listening, researcher-respondent
weaknesses as research method,
importance within research 69
methodology, 72
strengths and weaknesses as data
see also arenas for eg focus groups
collection site, 89–90
literature
opinions, practitioner respondents
need for usage of wide range,
35–7, 37 influence within
researcher-respondent
reviews of see reviews, literature
relationships, 85
sources of, 29–32, 32
need for and value of evaluation
logbooks, strengths and weaknesses
of, 83–5
as data collection site, 89
oral evaluation, 149–50
McNiff, J., 110, 129, 159
McTaggart, 159 Orwell, G., 4
Manion, L., 161 Osterling, 196
mastery, topic outcomes, assignment
role and importance in writing, expected quality of at masters
95–6 level, 5–6, 5–6
methodology, research outcomes, research
analytical approaches to, 62–4, 64 relationship to literature review
case study examples of plans, process, 40–41, 40–41
159–62, 190–91 see also conclusions; findings,
see also considerations eg research; recommendations,
confidentiality; consent; ethics educational practice
methodology, statement of see also elements of recording of eg
need for and characteristics in identification
successful writing, 18–19 Oxtoby, R., 129
methods, research see name, elements packages, curriculum
and tools eg action research; case study of preparation, 174–85,
analysis, research; collection, data; 180–82
diaries, research; focus groups; papers, seminar

JOBNAME: 5821−McGraw−Denbyeta PAGE: 6 SESS: 10 OUTPUT: Tue Jun 3 08:27:12 2008 SUM: 5DE3AC9B
210 INDEX
characteristics, purpose and characteristics, purpose and

requirements for success, requirements for success,
144–6, 146 139–44, 142, 144, 148
paraphrasing, process of, 22, 22 presentations, slide
Pervin, K., 85 characteristics, purpose and
Petty, G., 176, 177–8, 183 requirements for success,
Philpott, P., 176 146–8, 148
pilots and piloting, data, 73–4, ‘progressive focusing’, 48
73–4 publications, governmental, 36
plagiarism, characteristics and need qualitative and quantitative research
to avoid, 20 characteristics, strengths and
policies and practice, educational weaknesses, 62–4, 64
critiquing of, 100–102, 101–2 questionnaires
role of personal and professional characteristics, strengths and
development in enhancing, weaknesses as research method,
2–5, 4–5 70–71
value and importance of research strengths and weaknesses as data
recommendations, 113–15, 115 collection site, 90
Popper, K., 46 questions, value as element of poster
portfolios, research and seminar presentations, 148
accreditation and evaluation of, quotations, referencing of, 22–4, 23,
128–31, 131 24
characteristics and role of Rainey, D., 164
evidence presented within, rapport, researcher-respondent, 83
122–7, 122–3, 127 rationales, individual
definition and characteristics, for carrying out research, 46–8
121–2, 122 for research project focus and
physical presentation, 131–7, 133, context, 54–7, 57
135, 136, 137 Raver, T., 28–9
see also uses of eg evaluation, reading, student
research; focus, research project extent required to develop critical
posters, as mode of research finding thinking, 97–8
dissemination, 139–44, 142, 144 need and importance of breadth
power (concept) and depth of, 35–7, 37
influences within value and importance for
researcher-respondent educational practice, 3
relationships, 85 see also tools, usage and student
practice, reflective see criticality skills eg reflection, critical;
practices and policies, educational reviews, literature
critiquing of, 100–102, 101–2 recommendations, educational
role of personal and professional practice
development in enhancing, value and importance as element
2–5, 4–5 of research conclusions,
value and importance of research 113–15, 115
recommendations furthering, records, documentary
113–15, 115 strengths and weaknesses as data
practice-based literature, 36 collection site, 88, 89
practitioners, education see also type eg diaries; logbooks;
value, strengths and weaknesses as monographs; reports,
research respondents, 83–5 governmental
presentations, poster references and referencing

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INDEX 211
importance in successful writing, case study examples of plans for,

21 157–8, 175–9, 188–90
physical arrangement of, 26, 26 characteristics and importance,
technical process of, 22–6, 23, 24 18, 18
see also plagiarism reasons for presenting, 27–8
reflection, critical see criticality relationship of analysis of findings
relationships, researcher-respondent to, 41–2, 42
strengths and weaknesses, 83–5 relationship to research outcomes,
reliability, research 40–41, 40–41
role of researcher in ensuring, requirements and aspects of,
82–3 38–40, 40, 42–4
Richardson, J., 63
reports, government
Roszak, T., 63
value to research, 31
‘scaffolding’
research, action see action research example of for portfolio
research, education preparation, 133–7, 135, 136,
focus, context and rationale for 137
accomplishing, 46–57, 50–51, importance in relationship to
54, 57 literature reviewing, 43
report conclusions as forum for need for in master level research,
further research, 117–19, 119 28–9
see also evaluation, research; Schofield, J., 120
evidence, research; findings, Schön, D., 31, 33
research; methodology, searches and searching, literature
research; outcomes, research; importance in relation to
responses and respondents, literature reviewing, 43–4, 44
research secondary referencing, 25
see also elements of process eg sensitivity, influence on research
conclusions, research; image, 86
contextualization, research; Sikes, P., 84
discussion, research; Slee, R., 101
dissemination, research Smith, E., 164, 165–6
findings; identification, statements, methodology
research; introductions,
need for and characteristics, 18–19
research assignment; rapport,
Story of Rimini (Hunt), 121
research respondent;
summarization, research structure, student writing
findings importance and technical
requirements for quality,
research-based literature, 35
16–19, 18, 19
resources, web-based
students, education
value to research, 31–2 importance of academic
see also computers development and improved
responses and respondents, research practice, 3–5
educationalists as, 83–5 quality expectations of written
influence within work, 13–15
researcher-respondent value, strengths and weaknesses of
relationships, 85 research responses, 85
process of analysing, 86–8, 87–8 studies, masters level
see also drivers influencing eg characteristics of in education
listening; rapport field, 1–3
reviews, literature subjects, student writing

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212 INDEX
role and importance of mastery, validity, research

95–6 role of researcher in ensuring,
summarization, research findings 82–3, 82–3
as element of research videos, use of
conclusions, 111–13, 113 as portfolio evaluation method,
summative evaluation, 80–81, 81 130–31
Swanwick, K., 178 viewpoints, author
Symons, J., 165–6 challenges and importance as
synthesis, role as element in research element of criticality, 97–100,
evaluation, 90–92, 90–92 98, 99–100
TDA (Training and Development Wall, K., 188
Agency), 2–3 Whitehead, J., 129
testimonials, strengths and Wikis, strengths and weaknesses
weaknesses as data collection site, as data collection site, 89
89 Wilkinson, S., 71
themes, subject Williams, D., 152–67
analysis of, 87 Wragg, E., 99
selection and usage in relation to Wright, S., 165
literature reviewing, 42 writing, student academic
theoretical-based literature, 35–6 role and importance of topic
theories, educational knowledge, 95–6
critiquing of, 102, 102 role and importance of tutors,
demonstrating relevance as 14–15
element of criticality, 103 value and importance for
thinking, critical see criticality educational practice, 4–5, 4–5
Thomas, F., 139 see also collection, data;
titles, student assignment plagiarism; frameworks, writing
relationship to literature review see also elements of eg analysis;
process, 40 balance; content; criticality;
Tooley, J., 63 expression; headings and
topics, student writing subheadings; references and
role and importance of mastery, referencing; statements,
95–6 methodology; structure
Training and Development Agency see also specific writing eg abstracts;
(TDA), 2–3 assignments, student
triangulation, 83 words, assignment
Tummons, J., 122 importance of adherence to
Tripp, D., 129 relevant number, 42–3
Turner, A., 85 world wide web
Tutt, R., 196 value to research, 31–2
tutors, role and importance for see also computers
writing, 14–15 Zuber-Skeritt, 159

Master’s Level Neil Denby
Master’s Level Study

Robert Butroyd
Study in Helen Swift
Education Jayne Price
• Are you keen to study at Master’s level? Jonathan Glazzard
• Do you need to understand what is expected
from your research and written work?
• Would you like to see real examples of
successful Master’s level study?
If you answered ‘yes’ to any of these questions, then
this is the book for you.
Taking a practical approach, this book will guide you

The authors are all based
in
through and demystify the process of thinking, at the University of
researching, writing and achieving at Master’s level. It Huddersfield, UK, in the
Master’s Level
Education
offers an insight into the knowledge, tools and skills that School of Education and
need to be developed for a successful outcome in an Professional
Development.
educational context.
Neil Denby is Senior
Study in
Using detailed – and real – exemplars, the authors cover Lecturer in Education and
the conventions that need to be followed and consider the Partnership Co-ordinator
different elements of Master’s level work. Each chapter is for the PGCE (Schools).
supported by appropriate reference to, and extracts from, Helen Swift is Head of
the three most common types of work undertaken – Continuing Professional
traditional essay, curriculum package, and portfolio.
Now that the DCFS plans to make teaching a Master’s
level profession, it is vital that you can develop the
Development and Course
Leader for the MA in
Professional
Development.
Education
confidence in making the transition from H level to M Robert Butroyd is Senior
Lecturer in Education and
level. The book will enable you to:
Denby, Butroyd, Swift, Price, Glazzard

✦ Understand how to prepare, carry out and write a the Business Education
(with Citizenship) PGCE
literature review
Jonathan Glazzard is
✦ Consider the different methodologies and Course Leader for Primary
approaches that are inherent in Master’s level work and Early Years Education.
✦ Understand the nature of Master’s level work within Jayne Price is Senior
education as a research/evidence based profession Lecturer in Education and
A Guide
✦ Appreciate the importance of ethical underpinning
when working at this level
the PGCE Music course.
to
Master’s Level Study in Education is a valuable Success
guide not just for teacher training students but
also for their mentors and for teachers in post, for PGCE
undertaking further Professional Development.
Students
Cover design Hybert Design • www.hybertdesign.com
www.openup.co.uk

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Master's Level: Study Education

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Master’s Level Neil Denby

Master’s Level Study

Taking a practical approach, this book will guide you

Denby, Butroyd, Swift, Price, Glazzard

Masters Level Study

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Masters Level Study

A Guide to Success for PGCE Students

Neil Denby, Robert Butroyd, Helen Swift,

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Open University Press

and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121—2289, USA

First published 2008

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

ISBN-13: 978-0-33-5234141 (pb) 978-0-33-5234134 (hb)

Typeset by Kerrypress, Luton, Bedfordshire

Fictitious names of companies, products, people, characters and/or data

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Notes on the Authors vii

Part I Study Skills at Masters Level

1 Writing at M Level: Good practice in essay writing 13

Part II Research Skills at Masters Level

Part III Written Outcomes at Masters Level

7 Drawing conclusions 109

Part IV Case studies

Case study A Dissertation: A study into the factors which contribute

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Debbie Williams 152

Case study B Curriculum package: Music curriculum package

Michelle Bentley 174

Case study C Action Research Report: A study into the effectiveness

Further reading 203

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Notes on the Authors

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This book is written for post-graduate education students, who may be

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evaluated. Importantly, it addresses the research process at M Level, offering

Professor James Avis

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The primary focus of the book is on studying at M Level generally – on the

+ Understand the nature of M Level work within education as a

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+ Understand how to prepare, carry out and write a literature review.

How to use this book

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includes an idea for an extended project or exercise to practise and underpin

Each chapter is supported by appropriate reference to and extracts from three

+ traditional ‘essay’ or dissertation;