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2011-2015
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All, praise is to Almighty Allah who has sustained us throughout this project work.
A special thanks to our final year project supervisor, Mr. Waqas Ahmad and Mr. Usman
Asghar, for his incessant co-operation and suggestions towards the completion of the
final year project.
We are also grateful to the head of department Prof. Dr. A.K. Salariya, Prof .Dr. G.M
Mamoor, co-ordinator Mam Adila Anbreen, and Mr. Waqas Ahmad for their profound
gratitude and super guidance in connection with the project.
We like to thank our loving parents from the core of heart, it is just because of their
prayers, selfless efforts, support, encouragement and their belief on us that today we have
achieved remarkable success in our life. Their support and affection is the most precious
gift for us in our life.
Last but not least, I would to appreciate the guidance given by other supervisor as well
as the panels especially in our project presentation that has improved our presentation
skills by their comment and tips.
i
Preface
Keeping these points in mind we work & we are feeling great to present our work on
“Production of Acetone from Isopropyl Alcohol by Dehydrogenation of Isopropanol”.
This report is divided in different chapters. First of all the introduction of acetone is
given, with its importance. Next are detailed description of production process.
Afterwards material and energy balance is presented. In preceding chapters introduction
to different equipment’s of plant along with their designing procedure and specification
sheets is presented. Instrumentation & control, HAZOP study, EIA and cost estimation
for this plant are also included in this report.
ii
List of Tables
iii
List of Figures
Figure 2.1:Process flow sheet Production of Acetone from Isopropyl Alcohol. ......... 133
Figure 5.1: Variation of inverse of rate law with conversion ......................................... 65
Figure 5.2: Variation of conversion with temperature. ................................................. 66
Figure 7.1: Control scheme of distillation column ....................................................... 125
Figure 8.2: HAZOP study of heat exchanger E-403 .................................................... 131
iv
Nomenclature
v
Psig = Gauge pressure (psig
PT = Tube pitch (ft)
Q = Heat flow rate (Btu/h)
R = Heat of reaction (Btu/h)
T = Temperature (°F)
T1 = Inlet Temperature (°F)
T2 = Outlet Temperature (°F)
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (Btu/h-ft-°F)
V = Vapor flow rate (lb-mol/h)
α = Absorption efficiency factor
∆PT = Total plate pressure drop (N/m2)
∆T = Temperature gradient (°F)
ʎ = Latent heat (Btu/lb)
vi
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................... i
Preface .............................................................................................................................ii
List of Tables................................................................................................................. iii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................ iv
Nomenclature .................................................................................................................. v
Chapter 1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 1
Introduction: ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 History of acetone:............................................................................................. 2
1.2 Physical and chemical properties: ..................................................................... 3
1.3 Production and shipment of acetone: ................................................................. 4
1.4 World acetone production: ................................................................................ 5
1.4.1 World capacity, production, and consumption: ............................................. 6
1.5 Uses of acetone: ................................................................................................. 7
Chapter 2 Literature Review................................................................................... 9
2.1 Methods for preparation of acetone: .................................................................. 9
2.1.1 Cumene process for phenol and acetone: ....................................................... 9
2.1.2 By the direct oxidation of propylene using air:.............................................. 9
2.1.3 By the dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol: ............................................... 9
2.2 Process selection: ............................................................................................. 10
2.3 Acetone production process: ........................................................................... 11
2.4 Selection of catalyst: ....................................................................................... 11
2.4.1 Turn over frequency: .................................................................................... 11
2.5 Reaction kinetics: ............................................................................................ 12
2.6 Process description: ........................................................................................ 15
2.6.1 Detail process description: ........................................................................... 15
Chapter 3 Material Balance .................................................................................. 18
3.1 Material balance around reactor: ..................................................................... 18
3.2 Material balance around separator: .................................................................. 20
3.3 Material balance around scrubber: .................................................................. 22
3.4 Material balance around acetone column: ....................................................... 23
3.5 Material balance around IPA column: ............................................................. 24
3.6 Recycle stream balance: .................................................................................. 25
3.8 Overall plant material balance: ........................................................................ 26
Chapter 4 Energy Balance ..................................................................................... 28
vii
4.1 Energy balance around feed drum: .................................................................. 28
4.2 Energy balance around vaporizer: ................................................................... 29
4.4 Energy balance around reactor: ......................................................................... 31
4.5 Energy balance around cooler: ....................................................................... 34
4.6 Energy balance around condenser: .................................................................. 35
4.8 Energy balance around acetone column: ......................................................... 40
4.9 Energy balance around IPA column: ............................................................... 44
Chapter 5 Equipment Design ................................................................................ 48
5.1 Design of vaporizer ........................................................................................ 48
5.2 Design of reactor .......................................................................................... 60
5.2.3 Design steps for the reactor: ......................................................................... 62
5.3 Furnace design ............................................................................................. 70
5.4 Design of cooler: ............................................................................................. 78
5.5 Design of phase separator: ................................................................................. 85
5.6 Design of scrubber: ......................................................................................... 88
5.7 Design of distillation column: .......................................................................... 97
5.8 Pump calculation: .......................................................................................... 113
Chapter 6 Mechanical Design of Reactor ........................................................ 116
6.1 Design Pressure: ............................................................................................ 116
6.1.1 Design temperature ....................................................................................... 116
6.2 Thickness of the reactor: ................................................................................ 116
6.3 Head selection and design: .......................................................................... 117
6.3.1 Thickness of head: .................................................................................... 117
6.4 Vessel Supports: ............................................................................................ 118
6.4.1 Types of supports: ........................................................................................ 118
6.5 Weight of shell: .............................................................................................. 119
6.6 Stress calculations: ......................................................................................... 119
6.7 Weight of insulation ....................................................................................... 120
Chapter 7 Instrumentation and Control ............................................................. 121
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 121
7.2 Process instrumentation: ................................................................................. 121
7.2.1 Measurement of temperature: ........................................................................ 121
7.2.2 Measurement of pressure: ............................................................................. 121
7.2.3 Measurement of flow: ................................................................................. 122
7.2.4 Measurement of concentration: .................................................................. 122
viii
7.3 Control mechanism: ................................................................................... 122
7.3.1 Process control:........................................................................................... 122
7.3.2 Components of a control system: ............................................................. 122
7.4 Types of control: ......................................................................................... 123
7.4.1 Feedback control: ...................................................................................... 123
7.4.2 Feed forward control: .............................................................................. 123
7.5 Control scheme of distillation column: ...................................................... 125
7.5.1 Reflux drum level control ......................................................................... 126
7.5.2 Column base level control ......................................................................... 126
Chapter 8 HAZOP Study ................................................................................... 128
8.1 Introduction: ................................................................................................ 128
8.2 Objectives: ................................................................................................... 128
8.3 Keywords used in HAZOP study: ............................................................. 128
8.3.1 Primary keywords: .................................................................................... 128
8.3.2 Secondary keywords: .............................................................................. 129
8.4 How to conduct a HAZOP study: .............................................................. 129
Chapter 9 Cost Estimation ................................................................................. 133
9.1 Cost of purchased equipment: ..................................................................... 133
9.2 Annual operating cost: .............................................................................. 137
9.2.1 Fixed operating cost: ................................................................................ 137
9.2.2 Variable operating cost .............................................................................. 138
9.2.3 Plant overhead ......................................................................................... 139
9.3 Net profit: ..................................................................................................... 139
9.4 Rate of return: ............................................................................................... 140
9.5 Payback period: ............................................................................................ 140
Chapter 10 Acetone Environmental Impacts .................................................... 141
10.1 Acetone plants: ............................................................................................ 141
10.2 Acetone as a product: .................................................................................. 141
10.3 Sources of human and environmental exposure: ............................................ 142
10.4 Environmental levels and human exposure: .................................................. 143
10.5 Evaluation of human health risks and effects on the environment: ................ 144
10.6 Further research: ............................................................................................ 145
Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 146
Important Website Links .......................................................................................... 147
ix
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
Introduction:
Acetone is the organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CO. Acetone is the simplest
and most important of the ketones. It is a colorless, mobile, flammable liquid with a
mildly pungent, somewhat aromatic odor, and is miscible with water in all proportion
and most organic solvents. Acetone is an excellent solvent for a wide range of gums,
waxes, resins, fats, greases, oils, dyestuffs, and cellulosic. It is used as a carrier for
acetylene, in the manufacture of a variety of coatings and plastics, and as a raw material
for the chemical synthesis of a wide range of products such as ketone, methyl
methacrylate, bisphenol A, diacetone alcohol, methyl isobutyl ketone, hexylene glycol
(2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol), and isophorone.
World production of acetone in 1990 was about 3 million metric tons per year, of which
about 1 million are made in the United States. In 2010, the worldwide production
capacity for acetone was estimated at 6.7 million tons per year in which the United States
had the highest production capacity with 1.56 million tons per year and the second largest
production is in Taiwan and followed by China (2010). Most of the world's manufactured
acetone is obtained as a co product in the process for phenol from cumene and most of
the remainder from the dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol. Numerous natural sources
of acetone make it a normal constituent of the environment. It is readily biodegradable.
1
Chapter 1 Introduction
Acetone was a co product of the shell process for glycerol. Propylene was hydrated to
isopropyl alcohol. Some of the alcohol was catalytically oxidized to acrolein and some
was oxidized to give hydrogen peroxide and acetone. Some more of the isopropyl alcohol
and the acrolein reacted to give alkyl alcohol and acetone. The alkyl alcohol was then
treated with the peroxide to give glycerol. About 1.26 kg of acetone resulted per kilogram
of glycerol. In 1974, 23,000 to 32,000 ton of acetone may have been produced by this
method.
Dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol accounts for most of the acetone production not
obtained from cumene. The vapor is passed over a brass, copper, or other catalyst at 400-
500°C, and a yield of about 95% is achieved (1.09 unit weight of alcohol per unit of
acetone).
Almost 95% of the acetone produced in the United States in 1987 and 1988 was made
from cumene and 4% from isopropyl alcohol.
2
Chapter 1 Introduction
3
Chapter 1 Introduction
Small containers up to 4-5 L (about 1 gal) are usually glass. Acetone is also shipped by
suppliers of small quantities in steel pails of 18 L. Depending on the size of the container,
small amounts are shipped by parcel delivery services or truck freight. Quantities that
can be accepted by some carriers are limited by law and special "over-pack" outer
packaging may be required. Usual materials for larger containers are carbon steel for 55-
gal (0.21m3) drums, stainless steel or aluminum for tank trucks, and carbon steel, lined
steel, or aluminum for rail tank cars. The types of tank cars and trucks that can be used
are specified by law, and shippers may have particular preferences. Barges and ships are
usually steel, but may have special inner or deck-mounted tanks. Increasing in use,
especially for international shipments, are intermodal (IM) portable containers, tanks
suspended in frameworks suitable for interchanging among truck, rail, and ship modes
of transportation.
Containers less than bulk must bear the red diamond-shaped "flammable liquid" label.
Bulk containers must display the red "flammable" placed in association with the UN1090
identification. Fire is the main hazard in emergencies resulting from spills. Some
manufacturers provide transportation emergency response information. A listing of
properties and hazard response information for acetone is published by the U.S. Coast
Guard in its CHRIS Manual.
Tank cars contain up to 10, 20, or 30 thousand gal of material, tank trucks 6000 gal
(22.7m3), and barges 438,000 gal (about 1270 tons). International shipments by sea are
typically about 2000 tons.
4
Chapter 1 Introduction
Cumene 39 23 69 70
Imports,10^3 t - 0.6 - 8
Exports,10^3 t 18 1.4 - 31
Net imports,10^3 t - - 35 -
ACH/MMA 11 - 268 88
Aldol chemicals 8 - 78 -
Bisphenol A - 1 74 25
5
Chapter 1 Introduction
Table-1.2: World capacity, production, and consumption for acetone, 103 tons.
Canada 87 41 - 18
Mexico 96 47 1.4 47
6
Chapter 1 Introduction
Acrylics:
Acetone is converted via the intermediate acetone cyanohydrin to the monomer methyl
methacrylate (MMA) The MMA is polymerized to poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
to make the familiar clear acrylic sheet. PMMA is also used in molding and extrusion
powders. Hydrolysis of acetone cyanohydrin gives meth acrylic acid (MAA), a monomer
which goes directly into acrylic latexes, carboxylate styrene-butadiene polymers, or
ethylene-MAA monomers. As part of the meth acrylic structure, acetone is found in the
following major end use products: acrylic sheet molding resins, impact modifiers and
processing aids, acrylic film, ABS and polyester resin modifiers, surface coatings, acrylic
lacquers, emulsion polymers, petroleum chemicals, and various copolymers.
Bisphenol A:
One mole of acetone condenses with two moles of phenol to form bisphenol A, which is
used mainly in the production of polycarbonate and epoxy resins. Polycarbonates (qv)
are high strength plastics used widely in automotive applications and appliances,
multilayer containers, and housing applications. Epoxy resins (qv) are used in fiber-
reinforced laminates, for encapsulating electronic components, and in advanced
composites for aircraft-aerospace and automotive applications. Bisphenol A is also used
for the production of corrosion- and chemical-resistant polyester resins, polysulfone
resins, polyetherimide resins, and polyarylate resins.
Aldol chemical:
The aldol condensation of acetone molecules leads to the group of aldol chemicals which
are themselves used mainly as solvents. The initial condensation product is diacetone
alcohol (DAA) which is dehydrated to mesityl oxide. Because of its toxicity effects,
mesityl oxide is no longer produced for sale, but is used to make methyl isobutyl ketone
(MIBK) and methyl isobutyl carbinol (MIBC) by hydrogenation. DAA is hydrogenated
to hexylene glycol. Three molecules of acetone give isophorone and phorone which is
hydrogenated to diisobutyl ketone (DIBK) and diisobutylcarbinol (DIBC).
7
Chapter 1 Introduction
MIBK is a coatings solvent for nitrocellulose lacquers and vinyl and acrylic polymer
coatings, an intermediate for rubber antioxidants and specialty surfactants, and a solvent
for the extraction of antibiotics. MIBC is used mainly for the production of zinc dialkyl
dithiophosphates which are used as lubricating oil additives. It is a flotation agent for
minerals and a solvent for coatings. Besides its use as a chemical intermediate, DAA is
used as a solvent for nitrocellulose, cellulose acetate, oils, resins, and waxes, and in metal
cleaning compounds. Hexylene glycol is a component in brake fluids and printing inks.
Isophorone is a solvent for industrial coatings and enamels. DIBK is used in coatings and
leather finishes.
Other uses:
More than 70 thousand metric tons of acetone is used in small volume applications some
of which are to make functional compounds such as antioxidants, herbicides, higher
ketones, condensates with formaldehyde or diphenylamine, and vitamin intermediate.
8
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Cu/C
CH3 - CHOH - CH3 → CH3 - CO - CH3 + H2
Isopropyl Alcohol Acetone Hydrogen
The primary advantage of this process is that the acetone produced is free from trace
aromatic compounds, particularly benzene. For this reason, acetone produced from IPA
is favored by the pharmaceutical industry.
9
Chapter 2 Literature Review
To purify acetone large number Less separation process Less separation process
of separation processes are required and production cost required and production cost is
required which increase the is low. low.
production cost.
Reason:
Major disadvantage of the production of acetone from cumene process is that some
amount of reactant benzene is present along with desired product which is toxic.
The disadvantage of production of acetone from propylene oxidation process is that
propylene required for the process should be 99 % pure. So our process for the production
of acetone is dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol.
10
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Chemical reaction:
The reaction occurs in vapor phase at a temperature of 350 °C and a pressure of 1.8 – 2
bars in the presence of catalyst.
Catalyst
CH3 -CHOH-CH3 (v) → CH3 -CO-CH3 (v) + H2 (g) ∆H = +62.9 KJ/mol
Isopropyl Alcohol Acetone Hydrogen
Side reactions:
At a temperature lower than 325 °C the following reaction is more expected to occur,
and ether (di-isopropyl ether) is obtained as the product instead of acetone.
So the suitable temperature conditions for the reaction is between 325 °C to 350 °C.
11
Chapter 2 Literature Review
12
V-401 P-401A/B E-401 R-401 E-402 E-403 P-402A/B H-401 V-402 T-401 T-402 E-404 V-403 E-405 P-403A/B T-403 E-406 E-407 V-404 P-405A/B E-408
IPA Feed IPA Feed IPA Feed IPA Reactor Trim Reactor Reactor Phase Acetone Acetone Acetone Acetone Acetone Acetone IPA IPA IPA IPA Reflux IPA Reflux Waste
Drum Pump Vaporizer Reactor Effluent Cooler Heater Furnace Separator Scrubber Column Overhead Reflux Reboiler Reflux Column Overhead Reboiler Drum Pump Water
Cooler Pumps Condenser Drum Pumps Condenser Cooler
Process Water
16
E-404 Hydrogen
P-406A/B 8 7 11
IsoPropyl E-406
Alcohol 2 Acetone
V-403
H-401
4
T-402 13 V-404
1 T-401
E-401
R-401 air ng 9
T-403
P-403A/B 12
V-402 5
P-402 A/B
3 P-405A/B
V-402
P-401 A/B 6
E-402 E-403
E-405 15
P-404A/B
14
13
Table-2.1: Process stream table
Stream no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 14 15
Pressure 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.1 1.4
(bar)
Temperature 25.0 109.50 350.0 94.7 81.0 28.1 70.0 25.0 45.0 102.3 105.0 111.5 111.5
(oC)
Acetone - - 12327.3 12327.5 3307.72 3304.3 3.306 - 12322.3 11415.5 907.87 - 0.0
(kg/hr)
Hydrogen - - 425.08 425.08 425.088 - 425.1 - - - - - -
(kg/h)
Water (kg/h) 1749.11 1932.21 1932.2 1932.2 146.412 25721.01 - 25574.5 27506.6 - 27506.8 177.81 27296.9
Unreacted 12872.58 14169.6 1416.9 1416.9 110.46 110.46 - 1416.3 119.28 1297.02 1304.0 -
IPA (kg/h)
Mass flow 14621.96 16101.8 16101.5 16101.5 3989.6 29103.9 527.1 25574.5 41245.2 11534.7 29711.6 1481.8 27296.9
(kg/h)
14
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Feed drum:
Feed drum is a kind of tank used for the mixing of the recycle stream and feed stream.
Recycle stream concentration is assumed to be same with the feed stream. Feed stream
is at room temperature (25°C) and at a pressure of 2 bars, which is assumed to be
constant. The temperature of recycle stream calculated as 111.50 °C from the energy
balance around the isopropyl alcohol distillation column. The temperature of the leaving
stream from the feed drum calculated as 32.890 °C, by the energy balance around feed
drum.
Vaporizer:
In the vaporizer molten salt is used for heating. The temperature at the entrance of the
unit is the temperature of the mixture leaving the feed drum, which is 32.890 °C. And
the leaving temperature is the bubble point temperature of the mixture, which is 109.50
°C. The pressure is 2 bars, and assumed to be constant.
Pre-heater:
Since the temperature leaving the vaporizer is not enough for the reaction to carry out.
Due to which a pre-heater is used to maintain the temperature of the feed stream to the
reaction temperature of 350 °C which is the reaction temperature. The unit is working at
2 bars and assumed to be constant. The entrance and leaving temperatures are 109.50°C
and 350°C. This unit heats the molten salt that provides heat to the reactor. Energy is
supplied by combustion of natural gas, which may be assumed to be pure methane. The
heat capacity of molten salt is 1.56 J/g K.
15
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Reactor:
The reactor is the starting point for the calculations. The temperature values for the
entering and leaving streams is 350 °C, (i.e the process is isothermal). The reaction takes
place inside is endothermic, for this reason the reactor has to be heated. For heating,
molten salt is used from the furnace and the conversion at 350 °C temperature is 90%.
The reactor exit pressure is 1.8 bar. Only the following reaction take occurs;
Catalyst
CH3 -CHOH-CH3 (v) → CH3 -CO-CH3 (v) + H2 (g) ∆H = +62.9 KJ/mol
Isopropyl alcohol Acetone Hydrogen
Cooler:
The entrance temperature of the cooler is 350 °C and leaving temperature is 94.70°C
(temperature is calculated by using energy balance). For cooling purpose water is used.
By using refrigerant better results may be obtained. But since it costs too much, due to
which it isn’t chosen as the cooling material. From the temperature values it’s easily seen
that the load is on the cooler not on the condenser, for this process. But in reality the unit
cannot cool that much, and the load is mostly on the condenser. In this process, the
mixture cooled down to its dew point. The pressure is 1.5 bars, and assumed to be
constant.
Condenser:
The temperature of the entering stream is the dew point and the leaving temperature is
the bubble point of the mixture. In the condenser water is used as cooling material.
Separation vessel:
This unit disengages the vapor and liquid effluent from E-402. In this separator, all
hydrogen in the feed enters the vapor phase. All other components distribute according
to Raoult’s Law at the temperature and pressure of E-402. The combination ofE-402 and
V-401 is often called a flash operation.
Flash unit:
Flash unit is operating isothermally, for this reason temperature is not changed. It is 81
°C in the entrance and exit. From trial and error method, (V/F) value is found to be 0.2.
The entrance temperature of the unit is the bubble point of the mixture, but if it is its dew
point the (V/F) value should be much higher. In the flash unit the hydrogen is flashed out
from the mixture of isopropyl alcohol, water and acetone. Along with hydrogen some
amount of acetone and isopropyl alcohol is also flashed out. In order to recover these, a
scrubber unit is used.
16
Chapter 2 Literature Review
Scrubber:
Scrubber operated adiabatically. Water entering the unit is at atmospheric temperature
(i.e 25°C). The temperature of the off gas, including hydrogen and a very little amount
of acetone, is between 40-50°C. The temperature of the leaving stream (containing water,
acetone and isopropyl alcohol) is found to be 28.10 °C from the energy balance around
the scrubber.
The streams leaving the scrubber and flash unit are mixed together before entering the
acetone column. The temperature leaving the flash unit and scrubber are 81°C and 28.10
°C respectively. The temperature of the mixture is found to be 45.0 °C. This result is
obtained by using energy balance around the mixing point.
17
Chapter 3 Material Balance
Basis:
236.16 kmol/h of the isopropyl alcohol are entering in the reactor.
Since the solution used for the preparation of acetone is 88%. So the number of moles
of water entering in the reactor is calculated as:
Weight of solute
Weight percent =
Total weight of solution
Weight of IPA
0.88 =
(Weight of IPA+ Weight of water)
236.16 × 60
0.88 =
236.16 × 60 + Weight of water
1700.352
Weight of water = = 1932.218 kg/h
0.88
1932.218
Moles of water entering in reactor = nwater, in = = 107.345 kmol/h
18
Reaction:
Cu/C
CH3 -CHOH-CH3 → CH3 -CO-CH3 + H2
Number of moles of acetone leaving from reactor in stream 3 = nacetone = 236.16 × 0.90
= 212.544 kmol/h
18
Chapter 3 Material Balance
Number of moles of hydrogen leaving from reactor in stream 3 = nhydrogen = 236.16 × 0.90
= 212.544 kmol/h
Number of moles of water leaving from reactor in stream 3 = nwater = 107.34 kmol/h
Number of moles of isopropyl alcohol leaving from reactor in stream 3 = nIPA = 236.16 × 0.10
= 23.616 kmol/h
212.544
Mole fraction of acetone in stream 3 = yacetone = = 0.3822
556.049
212.544
Mole fraction of hydrogen in stream 3 = yhydrogen = = 0.3822
556.049
107.345
Mole fraction of water in stream 3 = ywater = = 0.1930
556.049
23.616
Mole fraction of isopropyl alcohol in stream 3 = yIPA = = 0.0424
556.049
Mass of water in + Mass of IPA in = Mass of water out + Mass of IPA out +
Mass of acetone out + Mass of hydrogen out
Acetone - 212.544
Hydrogen - 212.544
IPA 236.16 23.616
Water 107.345 107.345
19
Chapter 3 Material Balance
V/F = 0.2
V = 0.2 × 343.505 = 68.701 kmol/h
Overall balance:
F= V + L
L= 343.505 - 68.701 = 274.804kmol/h
Composition:
Yv = KxL
F × zf = VYV + LXL
20
Chapter 3 Material Balance
For acetone:
Yv= 1.467 XL
F× zf = VYV + LXL
212.544= 68.701 (1.467 XL) + 274.804 XL
XL= 0.5658
YV= 0.8301
For IPA:
Yv= 0.339 XL
F× zf= VYV + LXL
23.616= 68.701 (0.339 XL) + 274.804 XL
XL= 0.0792
Yv= 0.0268
For Water:
Yv = 0.328 XL
F× zf= VYV + LXL
107.345= 68.701 (0.328 XL) + 274.804 XL
XL= 0.3610
Yv= 0.1184
21
Chapter 3 Material Balance
Scrubber
Mass of solvent:
22
Chapter 3 Material Balance
Acetone
Acetone = 212.455 kmol/h 6
IPA = 23.605 kmol/h Column
Water = 1526.376 kmol/h
F = 1764.182 kmol/h
F=D+B
B =1764.182 – D
Acetone balance:
1764.182 × 0.1204= 0.99D + 0.01(1764.182 –D)
D= 194.814/ 0.98
D= 198.81 kmol/h
B= 1764.182 –D
B= 1764.182 –198.81
B= 1565.372kmol/h
23
Chapter 3 Material Balance
15
Water = 1517.972 kmol/h
F=D+B
B = 1563.745 – D
IPA balance:
D = 47.442 kmol/h
B =1517.972 kmol/h
24
Chapter 3 Material Balance
YH2O = 0.32
YIPA = 0.68
Nwater (13) = 21.617×0.32/0.68
Nwater (13) = 10.172 kmol/h
21.617 0.68
IPA
10.172 0.32
Water
31.789 1
Total
14
25
Chapter 3 Material Balance
Input = output
F + R +S = A + O + I
311.716 + 31.789 + 1420.811 = 236.16 + 212.601 + 1517.977
1764.316 kmol/h = 1929.387 kmol/h
39286.877 kg/h = 39286.878 kg/h
26
Table-3.6: Material balance sheet.
Stream no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 14 15
Pressure (bar) 2.0 2.0 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.3 1.3 1.6 1.5 1.5
Temperature 25.0 109.50 350.0 94.7 81.0 28.1 70.0 25.0 45.0 102.3 105.0 111.5 111.5
(oC)
Acetone (kg/h) - - 12327.3 12327.5 3307.72 3304.3 3.306 - 12322.3 11415.5 90.687 - 0.0
Hydrogen - - 425.08 425.08 425.088 - 425.1 - - - - - -
(kg/h)
Water (kg/h) 1749.11 1932.21 1932.2 1932.2 146.412 25721.01 - 25574.5 27506.6 - 27506.8 177.81 27296.9
Unreacted IPA 12872.58 14169.6 1416.9 1416.9 110.46 110.46 - 1416.3 119.28 1297.02 1304.0 -
(kg/h)
Mass flow 14621.96 16101.8 16101.5 16101.5 3989.6 29103.9 527.1 25574.5 41245.2 11534.7 29711.6 1481.8 27296.9
(kg/h)
27
Chapter 4 Energy balance
T outlet =?
Tin let = 25 °C 1 mIPA = 14169.6 kg/h
mIPA = 12872.58 kg/h 2 mH2O = 1932.21 kg/h
Feed drum
mH2O = 1749.114 kg/h mP = 16101.81 kg/h
mF = 14621.964 kg/h
14
Reference temperature = 25 °C
mF = 14621.694 kg/h
mR = 1491.222 kg/h
m p = 16101.81 kg/h
Q in = Q out
(14621.694 × 2.698)(25 - 25) + (1491.22 × 2.698) (111.5 - 25) = (16101.81 × 2.698) (T –25)
T = 33.010 °C
28
Chapter 4 Energy balance
At Temperature = T = 33.010°C
For Water:
Tc = 647.3 K
Tb = 394 K at 2 bar
Watson’s correlation:
TC − T 0.38
∆HVap,H2O = ∆Hf [ ]
TC − Tb
For IPA:
Tc = 508.3 K
Tb = 375 K at 2 bar
29
Chapter 4 Energy balance
Watson’s correlation:
TC − T 0.38
∆HVap,IPA = ∆Hf [ ]
TC − Tb
Q = 17371917.05 KJ/h
Q = 1.737×107 KJ/h
T outlet = 350 °C
T inlet =109.5 °C mIPA = 14169.6 kg/h
mIPA = 14169.6 kg/h Pre-heater mH2O = 1932.21 kg/h
mH2O = 1932.21 kg/h mP = 16101.81 kg/h
mP = 16101.81 kg/h
Temperature = T = 109.5°C
Q = mIPACPIPAΔT + mH2OCPH2OΔT
Q = 8027190.626 KJ/h
Q = 8.027×108 KJ/h
Molten salt:
We assume ΔT = 150 °C
Q = m CP molten salt ΔT
M = 34303.41 Kg
30
Chapter 4 Energy balance
The reaction occurring in the reactor is isothermal at the temperature of 350 °C.
Reaction:
Cu/C
CH3 − CHOH − CH3 → CH3 − CO − CH3 + H2
Heat of formation of
Stream (2) Stream (3) components
Component
kmol/h kmol/h
Reference temperature = 25 °C
350
31
Chapter 4 Energy balance
350
Reference temperature = 25 °C
350
350
350
32
Chapter 4 Energy balance
350
∆Hr = 1.505×107 KJ
33
Chapter 4 Energy balance
T outlet = 94.7 °C
T inlet = 350 °C mIPA = 14169.6 kg/h
mIPA = 14169.6 kg/h Cooler mH2O = 1932.21 kg/h
mH2O = 1932.21 kg/h mH2 =12327.552 kg/h
mH2 = 425.088 kg/h mAcetone = 12327.5 kg/h
mAcetone = 12327.5 kg/h
CP H2 =12.608 KJ/Kg.K
Q = -9256735.31 KJ
Q = -9.25×106 KJ
For water:
ΔT = 45 - 25 = 20 °C
Q = m CP water ΔT
M = 110672.40 Kg
34
Chapter 4 Energy balance
Interpolation:
X-H1 Y-Y1
=
H2 -H1 Y2 -Y1
1.5-1 Y-56.2
=
2-1 78.6-56.2
Y = 67.1
For acetone:
Tc = 508.1 K
Tb = 340.1 K
Q = macetoneCPacetoneΔT
Q = -219047.03 KJ
Watson’s correlation:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,IPA = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
35
Chapter 4 Energy balance
Watson’s correlation:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,IPA = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
For IPA:
Tc = 508.3 K
Tb = 364.9 K
Q = mIPA CPIPA ΔT
Q = -34185.1518 KJ
Interpolation:
X-H1 Y-Y1
=
H2 -H1 Y2 -Y1
1.5-1 Y-82.5
=
2-1 101.3-82.5
Y = 91.9
Watson’s correlation:
(T -T)
∆HVap,IPA = ∆Hf [ T C-T ]0.38 using Watson’s correlation
C b
36
Chapter 4 Energy balance
For water:
Tc = 647.7 K
Tb =385 K
Q = mwaterCPwaterΔT
Q = -50242.48 KJ
Watson’s correlation:
Watson’s correlation:
For hydrogen:
CP H2 =13.225 KJ/Kg.K
Q = m H2 CP H2 ΔT
Q = -77018.14 KJ
∑ mCP∆T= -219047.03-34185.1518-50242.48-77018.14
∑ mCP∆T= -380492.80 KJ
37
Chapter 4 Energy balance
∑ m∆HVap = (12327.552×681.613)+(1416.96×681.613)+(1932.21×2432.48)
∑ m∆HVap = 11821520.35 KJ
QTotal = 11441027.55 KJ
QTotal = 11.44×106 KJ
38
Chapter 4 Energy balance
7 T= 70 °C
8
macetone= 3.306 Kg/h
mH2O = 25574.598 Kg/h
T inlet = 81 °C Scrubber
mIPA = 110.46 kg/h
mH2O = 146.412 kg/h
mH2 = 425.088 kg/h T outlet = 28.1 °C
mAcetone = 3307.724 kg/h mIPA = 110.46 kg/h
mH2O = 25721.01 kg/h
5 6 mAcetone = 3304.318 kg/h
Qin = Qout
Qin = 425.088×14.419(81-25)+3307.624×1.259(81-25)+146.412×4.193(81-25)
Qin = 621437.4445 KJ
Qout = 425.088 × 14.401 (70 - 25) + 3.306 × 1.229 (70 -25) + 3304.318 × 1.249
(T - 25) + 25721.01 × 4.183 (T - 25) + 110.46 × 1.710 (T - 25)
Qin = Qout
T = 28.1 °C
39
Chapter 4 Energy balance
10 Distillate
T = 69 °C
macetone = 11415.618 kg/h
mIPA = 119.28 kg/h
Acetone
Feed Column
9
T inlet = 45 °C
macetone = 12322.39 kg/h
mIPA = 1416.3 kg/h
mH2O = 27506.682 kg/h
Bottom
12 T = 112 °C
macetone = 90.787 kg/h
mIPA = 1297.02 kg/h
mH2O = 27506.87 kg/h
Condenser:
For acetone:
Tc = 508.1 K
Tb = 331.44 K
Interpolation:
X-H1 Y-Y1
=
H2 -H1 Y2 -Y1
1.1-1 Y-56.2
=
2-1 78.6-56.2
Y = 58.44
40
Chapter 4 Energy balance
Watson’s correlation:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,acetone = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆Hf = 29166.72
Kmol
508.1-375.3 0.38
∆HVap,acetone = 29166.72[ ]
508.1-331.44
KJ
∆HVap,acetone = 26169.19
kmol
KJ
∆HVap,acetone = 451.192
kmol
For IPA:
Tc = 508.1 K
Tb = 84.38 K
Interpolation:
X-H1 Y-Y1
=
H2 -H1 Y2 -Y1
1.1-1 Y-82.5
=
2-1 101.3-82.5
Y = 84.38
Watson’s correlation:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,IPA = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆Hf = 38.954
Kmol
41
Chapter 4 Energy balance
508.1-375.3 0.38
∆HVap,acetone = 38.954[ ]
508.1-357.38
KJ
∆HVap,acetone = 37127.17
kmol
KJ
∆HVap,acetone = 618.786
kg
KJ
∆Hmixture = 452.867
Kg
Kg
∆HT =11534.898
hr
Q = mT ∆Hmixture
Q = 11534.898 × 452.867
Q =5.223×106 KJ
Reboiler:
For acetone:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,acetone = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆Hf = 29166.72
Kmol
508.1-378 0.38
∆HVap,acetone = 29166.72[ ]
508.1-331.44
KJ
∆HVap,acetone = 25965.72
kmol
KJ
∆HVap,acetone = 447.684
kmol
42
Chapter 4 Energy balance
For water:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,water = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆Hf = 40875
Kmol
647.3-378 0.38
∆HVap,water = 40875[ ]
647.3-375
KJ
∆HVap,water = 40703.28
kmol
KJ
∆HVap,water = 2261.29
kmol
For IPA:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,IPA = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆Hf = 38954
Kmol
508.3-378 0.38
∆HVap,IPA = 38954[ ]
508.3-357
KJ
∆HVap,IPA = 36838.94
kmol
KJ
∆HVap,IPA = 613.982
kmol
KJ
∆Hvap,mixture = 2220.081
Kg
KJ
mT = 29711.576
kmol
Q = mT ∆HVap,mixture
Q = 29711.576 × 2220.081
KJ
Q = 6.596×107
Kg
43
Chapter 4 Energy balance
Distillate
T = 102 °C
13
mIPA = 1297.02 kg/h
macetone = 90.787 kg/h
mH2O = 177 kg/h
Feed
T intlet = 105 °C
mIPA = 1297.02 kg/h IPA
12
macetone = 90.787 kg/h Column
mH2O = 27506.874 kg/h
Bottom
T = 114 °C
15
mH2O = 27296.874 kg/h
Condenser:
For IPA:
Tc = 508.1 K
Tb = 357.38 K
Interpolation:
X-H1 Y-Y1
=
H2 -H1 Y2 -Y1
1.1-1 Y-82.5
=
2-1 101.3-82.5
Y = 84.38
44
Chapter 4 Energy balance
Watson’s correlation:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,IPA = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆Hf = 38954
Kmol
508.1-384.5 0.38
∆HVap,IPA =38954[ ]
508.1-357.38
KJ
∆HVap,IPA =36125.52
kmol
KJ
∆HVap,IPA =602.09
kmol
For acetone:
Tc = 508.1 K
Tb = 331.44 K
Interpolation:
X-H1 Y-Y1
=
H2 -H1 Y2 -Y1
1.1-1 Y-56.2
=
2-1 78.6-56.2
Y = 58.44
Watson’s correlation:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,acetone = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆Hf = 29166.72
Kmol
45
Chapter 4 Energy balance
508.1-384.5 0.38
∆HVap,acetone = 29166.72[ ]
508.1-331.44
KJ
∆HVap,acetone = 25464.90
kmol
KJ
∆HVap,acetone = 439.05
kg
For water:
Tc= 647.3 K
Tb = 375 K
Watson’s correlation:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,water = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆Hf = 40875
Kmol
647.3-384.5 0.38
∆HVap,water = 40875[ ]
647.3-375
KJ
∆HVap,water = 40327.12
kmol
KJ
∆HVap,water = 2240.39
Kg
For mixture:
KJ
∆Hvap,mixture = 798.685
Kg
46
Chapter 4 Energy balance
Q = mT ∆Hvap, mixture
Q =1480.116×798.685
KJ
Q =1182146.447
h
KJ
Q =1.182×106
h
Reboiler:
For water:
TC -T 0.38
∆HVap,water = ∆Hf [ ]
TC -Tb
KJ
∆HVap,water = 2240.31
kg
Q = mT ∆HVap,mixture
Q = 2240.31 × 27323.496
KJ
Q = 61215287.2
h
KJ
Q = 6.12×107
h
47
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Q1 mcpt
Latent heat:
Q2 m
49
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Q Q1 Q2
Q 1.646 10^7 1.33 10^7
Steam required:
Q W
(T1 t 2 ) (T2 t1 )
LMTD1
T t
ln( 1 2 )
T2 t1
Where
T1 507.2F
T2 507.2F
t1 91.09F
t 2 229.1F
49
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
t LMTD FT
To find FT we have relation
T2 T1
R
t 2 t1
507.2 507.2
R
229.1 91.09
R0
t 2 t1
S
T1 t1
229.1 91.09
S
507.2 91.09
S 0.33
So,
FT =1
t1 345F
For vaporization:
LMTD2 278.1F
t 2 278.1F
Q1 1.646 10 7
t1 345
Q1
47710 .14 Btu/h oF
t1
Q2 1.33 10 7
t 2 278 .1
Q2
47824 .52 Btu/h oF
t 2
50
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Q
t wt
Q1 Q2
t1 t 2
2.97 10 7
t wt
47710 .14 47824 .52
t wt 310.88F
Assumed calculations:
Let assume
Ud = 120 Btu/ft2.h.oF
Q UATwt
Q
A
UTwt
2.97 10 7
A
120 310.88
A 796.12 ft2
Tube specifications:
Length = 16 ft
OD = 3/4in
BWG = 16
Pitch = 1in square pitch.
Passes = 2
Outside surface area per linear ft, a”= 0.1963ft2
No. of tubes
A
Nt
a L
796 .12
Nt
0.1963 16
Nt 253.47
51
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Nearest count
Nt = 270
Shell ID = 21.25in
Baffle spacing = B = 4.25 in
Corrected coefficient:
A Nt L a
A 270 16 0.1963
A = 848.01 ft2
Q
UD
At wt
UD 112.65 Btu/ft2.h.oF
Average temperature:
Since fluid is not viscos so, (<1cp for both sides) except Tc and tc we use average temp.
Tavg = 160oF
tavg = 507.2oF
Nt at
at
144 n
270 0.302
at
144 2
at 0.283 ft
2
52
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Mass velocity:
W
Gt
at
42032 .86
Gt
0.283
Gt = 148526 lb/h.ft2
Reynold number:
Tave = 507.2oF
µ = 0.017 lb/ft.h
0.620
D 0.051 ft
12
DGt
Re
0.051 148526
Re
0.017
Re = 445578
a s 0.156 ft2
53
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Mass velocity:
W
Gs
as
35423 .98
Gs
0.156
DGs
Re
t = 160oF
1.34 lb/ft.h
De
4 PT2 d o2 / 4 0.95in
0.75
De = 0.079 ft
0.079 227076 .80
Re
1.34
Re 13387 .36
k C
1/ 3
ho jH
De k
ho 319.65 Btu/hr.ft2 oF
54
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
1500 319.65
UP
1500 319.65
U P 263.49 Btu/h.ft2 oF
Q1
AP
U p t1
1.646 10 7
AP
263.49 345
AP 181.07 ft2
Vaporization zone:
Reynold number:
t = 229.1oF
0.687lb / ft.h
0.079 227076 .80
Re s
0.687
Re 26112 .17
s
Heat transfer coefficient:
jH = 97
Cp = 0.93 Btu.lb oF
= 0.687lb/ft.h.
k = 0.16 Btu/h.ft oF
k Cp
1/ 3
ho j H
De k
ho 311.67 Btu/h.ft
55
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
hio ho
UV
hio ho
1500 311.67
UV
1500 311.67
Q2
AV
U V t 2
1.33 10 7
Av
258.05 278.1
AV 185.33 ft2
AC AP AV
AC 181.07 185.33
AC 366.4 ft2
Uc A
U
Ac
95534 .66
UC
366.4
U C 260.73 Btu/h.ft2 oF
Dirt factor:
UC U D
RD
U CU D
260.73 112.65
RD
260.73 112.65
o
RD 0.005 h. ft2 F/Btu
56
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Pressure drop:
Tube side:
NRet = 445578
f = 0.0001 ft2/m2
s = 0.025
fGt2 Ln
Pt
5.22 1010 DeSt
0.0001 (148526 ) 2 16 2
Pt
5.22 1010 0.051 0.025 1
LAP
LP
AC
16 181.07
LP
366.4
LP 7.90 ft
No. of crosses:
12 LP
N+1=
B
12 7.90
N + 1
4.25
N + 1 22.30
57
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Pressure drop:
fG s2 N 1D5
Ps1
5.22 1010 DeS
fG s2 DS N 1
PS 2
5.22 1010 DeS3
58
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Vaporizer
Identification: Vaporizer Date: 5-June-2015
No. required: 1 By: Group A
Operation: Continuous
59
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
F = 16101.81 kg/h
Acetone = 38.24 %
350 °C Hydrogen = 38.24 %
Water =19 %
Unreacted IPA= 4.2 %
60
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Use of the catalyst requires modifications to basic reactor design to fixed bed reactors,
moving bed reactors or fluidized bed reactors.
Fixed bed reactors:
These are used in the heterogeneous catalyst reactions and pressure drop across the bed
is small. The design of the fixed bed reactor is very easy as compared to the moving bed
and fluidized bed reactors. Their size is also compact as compared to other fluidized bed
and moving bed reactors. The energy requirement is also small because no amount of
energy is needed as in fluidized bed and moving bed required to fluidize or move the
bed.
Fluidized bed reactors:
These are the reactors with a gas phase working fluid that requires gas flow around and
across the fine particles at a rate sufficient to fluidize the particles suspended within the
reactor. Since the catalyst bed has to be fluidized so the energy requirement in these
reactors is large. Pressure drop is also large as compared to the fixed bed reactors because
the pressure is dissipated to fluidize the bed. The volume of the reactor required is also
large as compared to fixed bed reactor, because the void spaces between the fluidized
beds occupy the more volume.
Moving bed reactor:
These units are fluid reactors used where the fluid contain solid particles that can be
separated from the suspension fluid. Mostly suitable for liquid phase reactions or where
the slurry travels through the reactor. Moving bed reactors are not preferred for the gas
phase reactions. In these reactors the pressure drop is the greater among all.
From above points we see that the suitable reactor for our process is fixed bed tubular
reactor, with the reaction occurring in the tubes and the heat exchanging material
flowing outside the tubes.
61
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
62
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Where W is the weight of the catalyst, FAo is the flow rate of the isopropyl alcohol, −rA is
the rate of the reaction. The weight of the catalyst is found from this performance
equation.
Since the rate equation of reaction is
-rIPA = K CIPA
In the form of conversion the rate equation becomes
1 − XA
−rA = K CAo ( )
1 +∈A XA
Where
−Ea
K = K o exp [ ]
RT
m3 gas
K o = 3.51 × 105
m3 bulk catalyst
Mj Kj
E = 72.38 & 72380
Kmol Kmole
63
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
kmol
CAo = 0.68 × 0.035 = 0.0238
m3
∈ = 𝑌𝐴𝑜 𝜕 = 0.68 × 1 = 0.68
-72380
K = 3.51×105 exp [ ]
8.314 × 623
m3 gas
K = 0.2999 m3 bulk catalysts
1- XA
-rA =K CAo ( )
1+∈A XA
64
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
0 125944.5
0.1 149454.2
0.2 178841.3
0.3 217145.8
0.4 267002.5
0.5 337531.4
0.6 443324.9
0.7 619647.3
0.8 972292.1
0.9 2030226.7
2500000
1500000
Inverse of rate
law (1/-ra)
1000000
500000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Conversion (X)
65
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
300 46.3
310 55.4
320 64.6
330 73.4
340 83.5
350 90
100
Conversion (X) %
80
60
Conversion (X)
%
40
20
0
300 310 320 330 340 350
Temperature (°C)
66
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
From graph area under the curve and by Simpson’s 1/3 rule
So
XA
dXA
∫ = 372473.58
-rA
0
Weight of catalyst:
Weight of the catalyst = FAO × 372473.58
= 18623.67 kg
Volume of catalyst:
Particle density of the catalyst = 8940 kg/m^3
Volume of the catalyst = Weight of catalyst/Density
= 2.08 m^3
Diameter of tube = 0.05 m
Diameter of particles = 0.003 m
Void fraction = 0.4
No. of tubes:
From TEMA standards, the length of tube = L = 20 ft & 6.098 m
Volume of one tube = Π × D^2 × L/4
= 0.011 m^3
Number of tubes = Volume of catalyst/Volume of one tube
= 189 tubes
Height of reactor:
Allowance of the reactor height is 20% - 50% of the shell height.
Shell height = 6.098 + (2 × 0.20 × 6.098) = 8.53 m
Volume of reactor:
From D. Q. Kern, take the shell ID = 35 in & 0.88 m
Volume of reactor = Π × D^2 × L/4
= 5.66 m^3
Space time:
Space time = Volume/Volumetric flow rate
= 5.66/0.300
= 18 min
67
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Pressure drop:
For the fixed bed reactor to operate economically the pressure
drop along the length of the reactor should be less than the 10% of the operating pressure.
The pressure drop along the length of the packed bed is calculated by using the Ergun
equation. The Ergun equation is:
Where
∆P = Pressure drop along the length of reactor = ?
L= Length of reactor = 8.53 m
68
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Reactor
Inlet flows
Outlet flows
Vapor effluent 556.04 kmol/h Isopropyl Alcohol (0.04%), Water (0.19%), Acetone
(0.38%), Hydrogen (0.38%)
Operating conditions
Inlet Exit
Design data
Position Vertical
69
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
350℃
410℃
Air ng
Design calculations:
Average heat flux:
Assumed average heat flux = 10,000 Btu/h.ft2
∑∅
= 2 average flux
αAcp
∑∅
= 2 10,000
αAcp
∑∅
= 20,000 Btu/h.ft2
αAcp
70
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
3.596 10 6
QF= kcal/h
0.75
Kmol Btu
QF = 4.794 106 & 1.902 10 7
h h
Q
Fuel consumption = qF = lowering heatingF value of fuel
1.902 107
qF =
21500
lb
qF =884.654
h
25% excess air corresponding to 17.44 lb air/ lb fuel
Air required = qF × lb air/ lb fuel
= 884.654 × 17.44
=15428.313 lb/h
Entering temp of air = 357C & 674.6F & 1134.6 R
Enthalpy of entering air =HA = 4711.49 Btu/lb fuel
= 162.49 Btu/lb.
QA = HA qA = 2506483.73 Btu/h
QW = 2% at QF
2.0
QW = 1.902 107
100
QW = 380400 Btu/lb
Amount at fuel consumed
884.654
QF =
16
QF = 55.29 moles
From equation:
71
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
72
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
17541256 .53
=
781860
= 22 tubes
Diameter of furnace:
2 R = No of tubes C – C distance
1.6*1.6
=
2*3.14
Radius = 5.60 ft
Diameter = 11.2 ft
Effectiveness factor:
C C dis tan ce
=
O D at tubes
20
= =2
10
From Fig 19.11, book of D.Q. Kern
= 0.87
Cold surface plane area:
Acp = (no at tubes) (length at each tube) (C – C distance)
= 22 30 1.6
= 1055 ft2
Total area of furnace:
AT = 11.2 30
AT = 1055.04 ft2
AR = AT - Acp
= 1055.04 – (0.87 1055)
73
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
=136.050 ft2
AF 136
0.148
ACP 0.87 1055
Emissivity of gas:
From Graph given in Nelson (18.16)
For 20% Excess air
at H2O + CO2 = 0.178 atm
From reaction:
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
at CO2 = 1/3 = 1/3 0.178 = 0.059 atm
at H2O = 2/3 = 2/3 0.178
at H2O cap = 0.118 atm
CO2 using PP at CO2 = 0.0593 atm
TS = 806F TG = 1610F
qCO2 = 280 Btu/h.ft2 qCO2 = 1780 Btu/h. ft2
qCO2 L = 280 7.4 qCO2 L = 1780 7.4
qCO2 L = 2072 Btu/h.ft qCO2 L = 12728 Btu/h ft
74
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
TS = 806F TG = 1610F
qH2O = 380 Btu/h.ft2 qH2O = 1700 Btu/h ft2
qH2O L = 380 7.4 qH2O L = 1700 7.4
qH2O L = 2812 Btu/h.ft qH2O L = 12580 Btu/h.ft
1610 460
4
qb at TS = 0.173 1
100
= 31763.4 Btu/h. ft2
31300 .24
ACP f
75
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
(Assumed TG was 1610F which is not far away from 1580F. Hence we can consider
our calculation and assumptions correct).
76
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Operation Continuous
NO. of tubes 22
77
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
t2 = 113 °F
Step-1:
Heat Balance:
Q = WC(T1 − T2) Q = wc(t2 − t1)
Btu Btu
Q = 8767772.5 Q = 8767772.5
h hr
78
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Step-2
True LMTD:
(T2−t1)−(T1−t2)
LMTD = (T2−t1) =308oF
ln
(T1−t2)
t2−t1 T1−T2
S = T1−t1 = 0.059 R= = 12.7
t2−t1
FT =0.94
∆t = LMTD × FT =289.5 F
Step-3
Caloric Temperature Tc & tc:
Only for mixture find the caloric temperature difference is more
o
than 100 F.
Kc=0.87
Fc=0.18
Tc= 284.8oF
Trail:
Assume
Btu
UD = 90 (h)(ft2 )(F)
Q
A = UD∆T = 316 ft2
Tube specification:
At ¾ in OD and 16 BWG
Surface per lin ft = at = 0.1963 ft2
A
Number of tubes = N = L∗at = 107
Select number of tubes, shell ID and passes at ¾ in. OD tubes on 1 in. square pitch.
Corrected number of tubes = N = 124
Number of passes = n = 02
Shell ID = 15.25 in.
79
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Step-4:
Shell side: Tube side
Flow area: Flow area:
as = Ds×C×B/144 at = (Nt×at')/144 × n
as = 0.080 ft2 at= 0.130 ft2
Step-5
Mass velocity: Mass velocity:
Gs = W/as Gt = w/at
Gs=442787.5 lb/h.ft2 Gt= 1872917.5 lb/h.ft2
Tc= 284.8 F Tav=154 F
µ = 0.387 lb/h.ft µ = 0.051 lb/h.ft
De = 0.079 ft
Step-6
Reynolds number: Reynolds number:
Res= (De × Gs)/u , Ret= (D×Gs) /u
Res= 90388 Ret= 81554.8
Step-7
jH factor jH factor
jH = 176.000 jH = 200
80
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Step-8
Prandtle number: Prandtle Number:
(C× u/K)(1/3) = 0.12 (C× u/K)(1/3)= 0.2
Step-9
Heat transfer coefficient: Heat transfer coefficient:
ho= (jH× K)/(De) (C × u/K)(1/3) (θs) hi= (jH× K)/(De) (C × u/K)(1/3) (θt)
ho = 267.34 (Btu)/(h.ft2.oF) hi =1162 (Btu)/(h.ft2.oF)
θt & θs = Viscosity correction factor for the trail = 1
Step-10
Correct hi:
ID
hio = hi×
OD
Btu
hio = 960.5
h. ft2 . F
Step- 11
Overall clean coefficient:
hio ho (Btu)
Uc = hio+ho = 209 (h)(.ft2) (.F)
Step- 12
Dirt factor:
Uc−Ud (h)(ft2 )(F)
Rd = = 0.006326
Uc Ud Btu
81
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Step- 13
Shell side: Tube side:
Pressure drop: Pressure drop:
fGs2 Ds(N+1) (f)(Gt2 )(L)(n)
∆Ps = 5.22×1010 De Sθs ∆Pt = 5.22×1020 (D)( S)(Qt)
82
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Cooler
Operation: Continuous
Type: 1-2 horizontal heat exchanger
Btu
Heat duty: 8767772.5 Outside area 365 ft2
h
83
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Condenser
Operation: Continuous
Type: 1-2 horizontal heat exchanger
Btu
Heat duty: 10843601 Outside area 954 ft2
h
84
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Acetone = 20.4%
T = 81 ℃ Hydrogen =76%
IPA = 0.6%
Water =2.910%
V = 3989.584 kg//h
T = 81℃
Acetone = 38.2% Phase Phase
Hydrogen = 38.2% Separat Separator
IPA = 4.2% or
Water =19.3% Acetone = 56%
F =16098.48 kg//h Hydrogen = 0%
IPA = 7.8%
T = 45℃ Water =35.8%
L = 12109.58 kg//h
Design calculations:
Vapor density:
PM
Vapor density = ρ = RT
1.5×50 kg
ρ = 0.082×354 = 2.58 m3
3989.572 m3
Gas volumetric flow rate= = 1546.34
2.58 h
Terminal velocity:
ρL-ρV 1/2
Terminal velocity = Ut = [ ]
ρV
Ut = 1.27 m/s
85
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Surge velocity:
Surge velocity = Us = 0.15× Ut
Us = 0.15× 1.27
Us = 0.190 m/s
Diameter of vessel:
4×0.429
Diameter of vessel = Dv = √3.14×0.190
2.34
Liquid depth required = (pi )
(1.69)2
4
86
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Phase Separator
Type Vertical
Operation Continuous
87
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
88
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
L g
= 0.27
G L
aw
0.75
Lw
0.1
Lw 2 a
0.05
Lw 2
0.2
1 exp 1.45 c 2
g a
a
l a L L L L
89
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Where
aw = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume m2/m3
Lw = liquid mass velocity kg/m2s
a = actual area of packing per unit volume m2/m3
σc = critical surface tension for particular packing material
σL = liquid surface tension N/m
a = 92 m2/m3
Lw = 1.63 kg/m2s
σc = 61 x 10-3 N/m
σL = 70 x 10-3 N/m
µL=1.8 CP
ρL =1011Kg /m3
aw 0.75
61 10.88
0.1 2 0.05
10.88 92 10.88 2
0.2
1 exp 1.45 3
70 92 1.8 10 1011 9.8 1011 70 10 92
3
2
92
aw = 66.2 m2/m3
1 2 1
L 3
ad
3 2
K L L 0.0051 w L
0.4
L g aw L L DL
p
90
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
1
0.7
V g 3
ad p 2
K G RTg
K5 w
aDg a g g Dg
Where
KG = Gas film coefficient, kmol/m2s.bar
VW = Gas mass velocity = 428.396/(3600x0.0178)=6.68 Kg m2/s
K5= 5.23 (For packing size above 15mm)
Dg = Diffusivity of gas = 1.81 x 10-5 m2/s
Then, by substituting the values,
KG =1.20 x 10-4 kmol/m2s.bar
Now,
Gm
HG
KG awP
Where,
HG = Gas-film transfer unit height
Gm = 6.68/34 = 0.196 Kmol/m2.s
Then,
HG = 0.39/(1.07 x 10-2 × 53.5 ×2.5)
Lm
H
L K L awCt
And ,
HL= Liquid-film transfer unit height
Lm= 10.88/18 = 0.60 Kmol/m2.s
Ct = Concentration of solvent = 1011/18 = 56.16 Kmol/m3
HL = 0.60/(2.28 × 10-4 × 66.2 ×56.16)
= 0.70 m
91
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
mGm
H oG H G HL
Lm
HG = 0.40 m
HL = 0.28 m
So,
Height of transfer units = HOG = 0.43 + 0.32 × 0.70
HOG = 0.65 m ( range is 0.6 to 1m)
92
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
L
g
= 0.04
G
L g
93
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Wetting rate = Liquid volumetric flow rate per unit cross-sectional area
Specific area of packing per unit volume
Gx y
Gy x y = 0.04
Here, Gx = L (lb/s.ft2)
Gy = G (lb/s.ft2)
94
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
= (lb/ft3)
y g
= L (lb/ft3)
x
Also,
G2 ×Fp×µL0.1 / ρg (ρL - ρg)gc = 0.069
Then ,
ΔP = 0.6 in.H2O/ft of packing
ΔP =1.9 in. H2O/m of packing
ΔP = 47.5 mm H2O/m of packing (Recommended pressure drop for
absorber is 15 to 50 mmH2O/m of packing, topic 11.14.4, Coulson & Richardson)
Total pressure drop = 47.5 x 5= 237.5 mmH2O/m of packing
Total pressure drop = 2.32 kPa/m of packing.
95
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Identification:
No. required: 01
Operation: Continuous
Design data:
Diameter = 2.12m
Internals:
96
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
5.7.1 Distillation:
“Process in which a liquid or vapor mixture of two or more substances is separated into
its component fractions of desired purity, by the application and removal of heat”.
The column may be trayed or packed. The column consist of two section, the
rectification (or refining) section above the feed, the striping section below the feed. Heat
is supplied to the reboiler at the bottom of the column and removed in the condenser at
the top of the column. the feed enters at some intermediate plate in the column.
Distillate is removed from the top of the column, the purity being determined by the
number of trays in the column and the quality of column in the condensate returned to
the column, i.e. reflux ratio, R=L/D.
Batch columns
Continuous columns
Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
flooding.
If a system contains solid contents; it will be handled in plate column, because
solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it
ineffective.
Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid are
low as compared to gases.
For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate column.
If periodic cleaning is required, man holes will be provided for cleaning. In
packed columns packing must be removed before cleaning.
97
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Design information for plate column is more readily available and more reliable
than that for packed column.
Inter stage cooling can be provided to remove heat of reaction or solution in plate
column.
When temperature change is involved, packing may be damaged.
System is non-foaming.
Temperature variation is high i.e. 90C.
Non corrosive
They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
Pressure drop is low as compared to bubble cap trays.
Peak efficiency is generally high.
Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.
98
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
A re boiler to provide the necessary vaporization for the distillation process. The
liquid removed from the re boiler is known as the bottoms product or simply,
bottoms.
A condenser to cool and condense the vapor leaving the top of the column. The
condensed liquid that is removed from the system is known as the distillate or top
product.
A reflux drums to hold the condensed vapor from the top of the column so that
liquid (reflux) can be recycled back to the column. The condensed liquid is stored
in a holding vessel known as the reflux drum. Some of this liquid is recycled back
to the top of the column and this is called the reflux.
99
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
T = 112 ̊C
Volatility calculations:
Feed temperature = B.P = 93 ̊C
Operating pressure =1.3 bar
For volatility calculations, first step is to determine bubble point and dew point of feed,
top product and bottom product.
For bubble point and dew point calculations, we need K-values of all components.
To calculate K-values at given temperature, vapor pressure data of all feed components
is taken from literature and K-values are calculated using relation
Ki = Pi/ P
Where Pi = Vapor pressure of component i.
P = Operating pressure of column
100
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
For bubble point calculations, assume a temperature, calculate K-values and the
temperature at which
∑yi= ∑(Ki*xi) =1
is bubble point. Same methodology used for dew point calculations and relation to be
used is
∑xi=∑(yi/Ki)=1
Adopting this procedure bubble and dew points of feed, top product, bottom product were
calculated and they comes out to be
Feed bubble point= 93 ̊C
Feed dew point= 104 ̊C
Top product dew point=69 ̊C
Bottom product bubble point=112 ̊C
From feed temperatures it can be visualized that feed is saturated liquid entering at its
bubble point.
Relative volatility (α) of each component is calculated using K-value that component and
that of heavy key.
α =Ki / Kj
Where
i=light key
j=heavy key
Adopting this procedure, relative volatility of each of components in feed, top product
and bottom product is computed at their respective temperatures.
Average volatility is calculated using top, feed and bottom volatilities using relation
αavg = (αfeed*αtop*αbottom)1/3
101
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Component XF XD XB
Acetone (LK) 0.299 0.990 0.001
aLK
a LK,HK = = 3.81
aHK
log XXCB XC
D XB B
N min
log α BC ave
Nmin 6
Calculation of minimum reflux ratio (Rmin):
The minimum reflux ratio can be calculated using the follow two
equations proposed by Underwood.
n
αi xi,F
α
i 1 Ø
1 q q=1 for saturated feed
i
102
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
1<∅<3.8, so ∅=2
R min = 1.119
N Nmin
0.75 1 R R min
0.566
N 1
R 1
From which the theoretical no. of stages to be,
N= 12 stages
103
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
2
N
log D
NB
D
x
0.206log B HK
xLK
xLK B
xHK D
T = 90.5C
ρV = 2.04 Kg/m3
ρL = 165.85 Kg/m3
Qv= 0.2270 m3/sec
QL=0.0289 m3/sec
104
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Flow parameter:
0.5
Ln ρ v
FLV
Vn ρ L
Capacity parameter:
Assumed tray spacing = 18 in. = 0.45m
Fig (9.1) of , value of souders-brown coefficient
Csb(20) = 0.069 m/s
105
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
0.5
ρ ρV
Now Unf = C sb L = 0.274 m/s
ρV
80-85% of flooding velocity is mostly used as vapor velocity for design calculations.
Choosing 80% of flooding velocity as design velocity.
Tower diameter:
An QV
AT = = =1.034 m2
0.88 0.88Un*
π
AT = D2 = 1.175 m2
4
D = 1.32 m
Area calculations:
Number of trays = 24
Tray spacing = 0.45 m
Height = No. of trays×tray spacing+0.9+Ls+0.25D
Where 0.9m= height given above top tray to minimize entrainment
106
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Ls = Height in bottom of column for liquid surge capacity and for reboiler return
0.25D = For manholes, hand holes and gas liquid separation
Ls = 0.06×number of trays+2
Ls = 3.41 m
Height of column=15 m
Height of column /diameter =15/1.23 =12
Which is in allowable range (5 to 20)
Tray hydraulics:
No. of holes per plate:
Hole diameter=0.00477 m
(dh)2
Area of one hole= =1.79e-5
4
Hole area=0.11 m2
No. of holes per plate=6100
Flooding check:
Vapor velocity=volumetric flow rate of vapors/net area
QV QV
Un = = = 0.245 m/s
An 0.88AT
Un
Now F = 100 = (0.219/0.2450.31)×80
Uf
= 83%
Entrainment:
As FLV = 0.276 and F = 83%
From Figure 9.2, we calculate
= 0.075
107
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Entrainment will be
e ( L)
1
108
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
ρv Uh 2
hh 0.186 ( )
ρl Cvo
Dry tray drop=0.0702 m of liquid
h 0.48( q' )2 / 3
ow
l w
Aeration factor:
Kinetic energy parameter (Fva) is calculated from
F q' (ρ )1/2
va v
A a
Fva = 0.74
From graph, for Fva = 0.74
Aeration factor = (β) = 0.67
109
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Pressure drop:
Tray pressure drop = Dry tray drop + Wet tray drop
ht = hh + hl
ht = 0.160 m of liquid
Tray pressure drop(ΔP)=ρl*g*ht = 55 Pa
Pressure drop/tray = 0.0806 psia
( Which is in allowable range)
Weeping:
how = 0.065548013
hw = 0.0508
hlo = hw + how
hlo = 0.116 m of liquid
From graph 15.5,it can be seen that for hole area/active area ratio of 0.131, operation is
well above weeping point
110
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Identification
No. required 1
Function
111
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet
Identification
No. required 1
Function
2
Tray spacing 0.45m Active area 1.19 m
112
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
m2
Ha = 113.48
s2
Pb
Hb = ρ mixture
184227.27
Hb = 811.68
m2
Hb = 226.97
s2
Head developed = ∆H = Hb - Ha
∆H = 226.97 − 113.48
m2
∆H = 113.49
s2
Mass flow rate = 161.81kg⁄h
M = 4.472 kg⁄s
Power = ∆H. m = 4.472 × 113.49
Power =∆H. m = 507.52 J⁄s
Power =∆H. m = 507.52 Watt
Efficiency = 𝓃 = 0.68%
507.52
Power = 0.68
113
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
114
Chapter 5 Equipment Design
Specification sheet:
Efficiency 68%
NPSH 10.55 m
115
Chapter 6 Mechanical Design of Reactor
1-2 7
2-2.5 9
2.5-3 10
3-3.5 12
Since the diameter of the vessel is 1.708 m, so from the above table the thickness of the
shell is 7 mm.
PiDi
Thickness of the reactor shell = e = 2Jf- Pi
116
Chapter 6 Mechanical Design of Reactor
0.23 ×1708
e=
(2×1×80)- 0.23
e = 2.25 +2
e = 4.25 mm
Cheapest from all Above 10 bars Economical within Capital cost is high
types their cost should pressure limits
be compared with
that of an
equivalent
ellipsoidal head
P i RC CS
e=
2Jf+ Pi (Cs - 0.2)
1 RC
CS = (3+ √ )
4 RK
Cs = 1.77
117
Chapter 6 Mechanical Design of Reactor
P i RC CS
e=
2Jf+ Pi (Cs - 0.2)
e = 4.35 mm
Bracket support
118
Chapter 6 Mechanical Design of Reactor
Longitudinal stress:
PiDi
σn = 2t
1708
σn = 0.23 ×
2(4.25)
N
σn = 46.21
mm2
Circumferential stress:
PiDi
σn = 4t
N
σn = 23.10
mm2
N
σw = 0.022
m2
Wind loading:
Fw = Pw × Dmean
Take dynamic wind pressure as 1280N/m2 -3
Mean diameter include insulation = 1.708 + 2(4.25 + 75)×10
Mean diameter = 1.866 m
By putting values
N
Fw = 2389.12
m
119
Chapter 6 Mechanical Design of Reactor
Bending moment:
Fw
Mx = × H2
2
Mx = 86917.26 Nm
Volume of insulation.
V = π × H × di × thickness of insulation
V = 3.43 m3
120
Chapter 7 Instrumentation and Control
7.1 Introduction:
Measurement is a fundamental requisite to process control whether that control is
affected automatically, semi automatically, or manually. The quality of control
obtainable also bears a relationship to the accuracy, reproducibility and reliability of the
measurement method which are employed. Therefore, selection of the most effective
means for measurement is an important first step in the design and formulation of any
process control system.
Various types of measuring instruments are given in tabular form. These instruments are
used for measuring and thus controlling of temperature, pressure, flow, level, and
composition.
In many instances sensors forms an essential part of control system or strategy for a
process. This may be quite complex and rely upon the performance and characteristics
of a substantial number of different sensors.
49
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
For special applications other flow meters may be employed e.g. for process no external
disturbance in the fluid stream is required for magnetic flow meters.
Process:
Any operation or series of operations that produce a desired final result in a process.
Measuring means:
As all parts of control system, measuring element is perhaps the most important. If
measurements are not made properly the remainder of the system cannot operate
satisfactorily, also the measured variable is chosen to represent the desired
conditions in the process.
122
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
Controller:
The controller is the mechanism that responds to any error detecting mechanism.
The output of the controller is predetermined function of the error.
Feedback control.
Feed forward control.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
It waits until the effect of disturbance has been felt by the system.
Unsatisfactorily for slow processes or with significant dead time.
It may create instability in the closed loop response.
123
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
In order to design a control system to operate not only automatically but efficiently, it is
frequently necessary to obtain both steady state and dynamic manner in which
this information is obtained is dependent largely upon the process being controlled
and control strategy to be implied.
124
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
CW in
LC
Reflux Distillate
Feed
LT
Steam
Reboiler
LC
Condensate
Bottom Product
125
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
Reason of control:
Liquid in the liquid drum must be at specific level. Increasing liquid level affects the
column operating pressure and cause changing in the distillate properties and even
composition. The drum level in the top section is controlled by changing the distillate
flow rate using valve.
Action of control:
If the drum level is higher than the set value, decrease the distillate flow rate and if it is
lower than the set point then increase the distillate flow.
Process Heating
Controller Automatic (PID)
Reason of control:
The column base level on the bottom is controlled by changing the bottom flow rate
using valve.
Action of control:
If the reboiler liquid is higher than the set point decrease the bottom flow rate and if it
is lower than the set point then increase the bottom.
126
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
Process Heating
Controller Automatic (PID)
127
Chapter 8 HAZOP Study
8.1 Introduction:
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of systematic
qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing facilities and can be applied
to a whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of equipment, It uses as its database the
usual sort of plant and process information and relies on the judgment of engineering and
safety experts in the areas with which they are most familiar. The end result is therefore
reliable in terms of engineering and operational expectations, but it is not quantitative
and may not consider the consequences of complex sequences of human errors.
8.2 Objectives:
The objectives of a HAZOP study can be summarized as follows:
Primary keywords which focus attention upon a particular aspect of the design
intent or an associated process condition or parameter.
Secondary keywords which, when combined with a primary keyword, suggest
possible deviations.
128
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
Pressure Temperature
Flow Level
React Mix
Corrode Erode
129
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
This preparatory work will be the responsibility of the Chairman, and the
requirements can be summarized as follows:
130
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
Case Study:
HAZOP study of heat exchanger E-403:
Using relevant guide work, perform HAZOP study on heat exchanger E-403.
CW in
CW out
131
Chapter 7 Instrumentation And Control
Less Less cooling water Pipe leakage Process fluid Install of flow meter
temperature is
too low
Reverse Reverse process Failed of process Product off Install check valve
fluid flow fluid inlet valve set
132
Chapter 9 Cost Estimation
Cost of reactor:
Cost of furnace:
Cost of cooler:
128
Chapter 9 Cost Estimation
Cost of vaporizer:
Cost of separator:
134
Chapter 9 Cost Estimation
Cost of scrubber:
Column height = 7m
Diameter = 2.12m
Packing = 66mm saddles ceramics
Material of column = Carbon steel
Packing height = 5m
Bare cost = $ 92000
Purchased cost = 92000 × 1 × 1
Purchased cost in 2004 = $ 92000
Cost of packing = Volume × 520
Volume = Area × Height
Volume = 3.52 × 5
Volume = 17.6m3
Cost of packing = 17.6 × 520
Cost of packing = $ 16177.81
Cost of column including packing = 92000 + 16177.81
Cost of column including packing in 2004 = $ 108177.81
Cost in 2015 = 108177.81 × 570.6/444.2
Cost in 2015 = $ 138960.50
135
Chapter 9 Cost Estimation
Power = 0.746 KW
Cost = Cast steel
Cost in 2002 = $ 5090
Cost in 2015 = 5090 × 570.6/395.6
Cast in 2015 = $ 7341.64
Power = 0.208 KW
Material = Cast steel
Cost in 2002 = $ 4960
Cost in 2015 = 4960 × 570.6/395.6
Cost in 2015 = $ 7154.13
Feed drum:
Capacity = 20 m3
Ce = Csn , where C = 2400, n =0.6, s = 20
Ce = $ 14482 in 2004
Cost in 2015 = 14482 × 570.6/444.2
Cost in 2015 = $ 18602.94
136
Chapter 9 Cost Estimation
Annual operating cost = Fixed operating cost + Variable operating cost + Plant overhead
cost.
Maintenance:
Laboratory cost:
Supervision cost:
137
Chapter 9 Cost Estimation
Plant overhead:
Capital charges:
Insurance:
Local taxes:
Royalties:
Raw material:
Miscellaneous material:
Utilities:
Process water:
= 15990.58 $/ year
Cooling Water:
Power:
Steam:
Direct cost:
Plant overhead:
Production cost:
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Chapter 9 Cost Estimation
Total income:
Gross income:
Net profit:
Taxes = 50%
Net profit = Gross income × (1-Taxes)
Net profit = 170533148 $/yr
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Chapter 10 Acetone Environmental Impacts
The production methods of acetone and the chemical itself both directly impact the
environment. The plants that produce acetone create by-products which, in turn, affect
the environment; as well, the chemical can be released into the ecosystem at the end of
its lifecycle as a consumer product, thus also affecting the environment.
Atmospheric emissions occur from consumer products including nail polish removers,
particle board, carpet backing, some paint removers, and liquid/paste waxes or polishes.
Certain detergents/cleansers, adhesives, automobile carburetor and choke cleaners also
contain acetone.
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Chapter 10 Acetone Environmental Impacts
Acetone is released into surface water in wastewater effluents from a wide range of
manufacturing processes and industries, such as paper, plastic, pharmaceuticals,
specialty cleaning and polishing products, paint and allied products, gum and wood
chemicals, cyclic intermediates, industrial organic chemicals, gypsum products,
paperboard products, and energy-related industries, such as coal-gasification and oil
shale processing.
Sources of acetone release into soil include disposal of agricultural and food waste,
animal waste, atmospheric wet deposition, household septic tank effluents and chemical
waste disposal sites.
As a result of all the above factors listed which combine to reduce the overall effect of
acetone on the environment, it is considered one of the least toxic industrial solvents
manufactured.
Natural occurrence:
Acetone occurs as a metabolic component in blood, urine and human breath.
Because endogenous acetone formation is so closely linked with the utilization of
stored fats as a source of energy, background levels can fluctuate depending on an
individual's health, nutrition, and level of activity. The acetone level in the human
body at any instant is reflective of acetoacetate production and ketogenesis. It
occurs naturally as a biodegradation product of sewage, solid wastes and alcohols
and as an oxidation product of humic substances. Acetone has been detected in a
variety of plants and foods, including onions, grapes, cauliflower, tomatoes,
morning glories, wild mustard, milk, beans, peas, cheese and chicken breast.
Natural emissions from a variety of tree species contain acetone vapor and another
source is direct emission from the ocean.
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Chapter 10 Acetone Environmental Impacts
Anthropogenic sources:
There are many anthropogenic sources of acetone, with various levels a
concentrations that cover a broad range. Human sources of emissions to the aquatic
environment include wastewater discharges from many industries and leaching
from industrial and municipal landfills. A major source of emission to the air is
from evaporation of acetone solvent from coating products such as paints, cleaners,
varnishes and inks. Acetone is an emission product from the combustion of wood,
refuse and plastics), and is emitted in exhaust from automobile, diesel and turbine
engines.
Other important anthropogenic sources of acetone in the air are chemical manufacture,
tobacco smoke, wood burning and pulping), polyethylene burning, refuse combustion,
petroleum production, and certain landfill sites. Acetone is formed in the atmosphere
from the photochemical oxidation of propane and possibly from propylene oxide and
epichlorohydrin.
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Chapter 10 Acetone Environmental Impacts
Acetone is formed endogenously from fatty acid oxidation and is uniformly distributed
throughout the body among non-adipose tissues. It is rapidly cleared from the body by
metabolism and excretion, mainly through the lungs. Acetone induces the hepatic
mixed-function oxidase enzymes that bring about its own metabolism, and so the body
has a homeostatic mechanism that has evolved to maintain acetone levels in the body
at a "baseline" level. Induction of hepatic mixed-function oxidase enzymes can
potentiate (and in some instances antagonise) the effects of other chemicals. People at
most risk to potentiation include diabetics, alcoholics and those undergoing prolonged
fasting. In common with other chemicals, metabolism of acetone may be reduced in
neonates, the elderly and in hepatic diseases.
In one study on human volunteers, increases in leucocyte count were reported.
However, this has not been found in other studies, in an inhalation study, human female
volunteers reported menstrual irregularities (delayed menstruation).
No long-term experimental studies have been conducted. The relevance to humans
of the liver, reproductive and developmental effects observed in animal studies is not
known, and these end-points have not been sufficiently examined in humans.
The majority of genotoxicity assays on acetone were negative; therefore, acetone can
be considered to present no potential genotoxic hazard to humans.
It should be noted that the perception of "irritation" from acetone vapor by humans may
be at a concentration in air as low as 23.7 mg/m3 (100 ppm), which is at or near the
odour threshold.
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Chapter 10 Acetone Environmental Impacts
145
Bibliography
146
Important Website Links
www.che.cemr.wvu.edu/publications/projects/acetone/acetone-a.PDF
http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~ceng403/gr1998/acetone.html
http://www.scribd.com/doc/30134032/Isopropyl-Alcohol
www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/.../annurev.matsci.35.100303.12073
www.jbrwww.che.wisc.edu/home/jbraw/chemreacfun/.../slides-masswrxn.p
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