Momentum Transfer Laboratory

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Expt. No. Name of Experiment Pg. No.

Identification of Laminar and Turbulent Flows

1 3-4
(Reynolds Apparatus)

2 Verification of Bernoulli’s Equation 5-7

3 Measurement of flowing fluid using Venturi Meter 8-10

4 Measurement of flowing fluid using Orifice Meter 11-12

Determination of Friction loss in fluid flow through

5 13-15
pipes

6 Characteristics of multistage centrifugal pump 16-19

7 Characteristics of Reciprocating pump 20-22

8 Coefficient of discharge of V – notch 23-25

9 Head loss due to Sudden Expansion 26-28

10 Head loss due to Sudden Contraction 29-30

11 Head loss due to Fittings and Valves 31-32

12 Measurement of flowing fluid using Pitot Tube 33-36

13 Measurement of flowing fluid using Rotameter 37-39

14 Determination of Pressure drop in packed bed 40-42

15 Determination of Pressure drop in fluidized bed 43-45

16 Characteristics of single stage centrifugal pump 46-48

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
1
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

INTRODUCTION
Fluid Mechanics is the branch of physics which involves the study of fluids (liquids and
gases) and the forces on them. Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid statics, the study of
fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. It is a
branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models matter without using the
information that it is made out of atoms; that is, it models matter from a macroscopic
viewpoint rather than from microscopic. Fluid mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an
active field of research with many problems that are partly or wholly unsolved. Fluid
mechanics can be mathematically complex, and can best be solved by numerical methods,
typically using computers.
Fluid statics: Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids
at rest. It embraces the study of the conditions under which fluids are at rest in stable
equilibrium; and is contrasted with fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in motion.
Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics, the engineering of equipment for storing,
transporting and using fluids. It is also relevant to geophysics and astrophysics, to
meteorology, to medicine, and many other fields.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid dynamics is a sub discipline of fluid mechanics that deals with fluid
flow-the natural science of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion. It has several sub disciplines
itself, including aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. Fluid dynamics has a wide range of
applications, including calculating forces and moments on aircraft, determining the mass flow
rate of petroleum through pipelines, predicting weather patterns, understanding nebulae in
interstellar space and modeling fission weapon detonation.
Fluid dynamics offers a systematic structure-which underlies these practical disciplines-that
embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws derived from flow measurement and used to
solve practical problems. The solution to a fluid dynamics problem typically involves
calculating various properties of the fluid, such as velocity, pressure, density, and
temperature, as functions of space and time.

The objectives of Fluid Mechanics laboratory are:

1. To study the phenomena and effects of flow of fluids
2. To test and calibrate flow measurement devices

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
2
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-1 Date:

IDENTIFICATION OF LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

(REYNOLD’S APPARATUS)

Aim: To determine the Reynold’s number and hence the type of flow

Introduction: The purpose of this experiment is to illustrate the influence of Reynolds

number on pipe flows. Reynolds number is a very useful dimensionless quantity (the ratio
of dynamic forces to viscous forces) that aids in classifying certain flows. For
incompressible flow in a pipe Reynolds number based on the pipe diameter, Re = Dvρ/μ,
serves well. Generally, laminar flows correspond to Re < 2100, transitional flows occur in
the range 2100 < Re < 4000, and turbulent flows exist for Re > 4000. However,
disturbances in the flow from various sources may cause the flow to deviate from this
pattern. This experiment will illustrate laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows in a pipe.

Theory: The flow of real fluids can basically occur under two very different regimes namely
laminar and turbulent flow. The laminar flow is characterized by fluid particles moving in
the form of lamina sliding over each other, such that at any instant the velocity at all the
points in particular lamina is the same. The lamina near the flow boundary moves at a
slower rate as compared to those near the center of the flow passage. This type of flow
occurs in viscous fluids, fluids moving at slow velocity and fluids flowing through narrow
passages.
The turbulent flow is characterized by constant agitation and intermixing of fluid particles
such that their velocity changes from point to point and even at the same point from time to
time. This type of flow occurs in low density fluids flow through wide passage and in high
velocity flows.
Reynolds conducted an experiment for observation and determination of these regimes of
flow. After conducting his experiment Reynolds concluded that the various parameters
on which the regimes of flow depend can be grouped together in a single non
dimensional parameter called Reynolds number.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
3
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Reynolds number is defined as, the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force. Where
viscous force is shear stress multiplied area and inertia force is mass multiplied
acceleration.
Re = Dvρ/ µ = Dv/υ
Where υ = µ/ρ
Re-Reynolds number
v - Velocity of flow
D - Diameter of pipe
ρ - Mass density of fluid
µ - dynamic viscosity of fluid
υ - Kinematic viscosity of fluid

Observations:
Volume of Time taken for Velocity Reynold’s
S.No Discharge Type of
liquid discharge ‘v’ Number
3
‘q’ in (m3/sec) flow
‘V’ in (m ) ‘t’ in (sec) (m/sec) ‘Re’
1
2
3
4
5
6

Procedure:
1) Start the experiment and allow water to flow through pipe at low velocity.
2) Collect water in collection tank.
3) After the tank is filled, note down the height of water in collection tank.
4) Repeat the experiment by increasing the rate of flow and diameter of pipe.

Result:
1) Reynolds number, Re = Dvρ/ µ =
2) Regime of flow =

Experiment-2 Date:

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
4
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

Aim: Study of Bernoulli’s theorem and verify its practical variations

Basic Equations:

p g  b vb2  p a g  v2 
w p  b  zb    z a  a a   h fs
 gc 2gc   gc 2gc 
 

v2
H  h
2g
Theory: The Bernoulli’s equation is a special form of a mechanical energy balance. (g/gc) z

p
and (v2/2gc) are the potential, kinetic energy and  represents mechanical work done by

forces.

pa g v2 pb g v2
 za  a =  zb  b
 gc 2gc  gc 2gc

This is known as Bernoulli’s equation without friction. It also shows that in the absence of
friction, when the velocity is reduced, either height above the plane, z or the pressure p or
both must increase. When the velocity increases it does so only at the expense of z or p. If the
height is changed compensation must be found in a change of either pressure or velocity.
The Bernoulli’s equation has greater range of validity than its derivation implies. Although in
the derivation the assumption was made that the stream tube is straight, the principle of
conservation of energy permits the extension of the equation to potential flow taking place in
curved stream tubes. If the tube is curved the direction of velocity changes. The scalar speed,
rather than the vector velocity is used. In all reap situations, there are some friction losses in
the fluid and some variations of velocity with in a cross section of the tube, but in some cases
these are small friction losses and they are to be ignored. In other situations by the use of
cross section factors, the equations can be modified for use in boundary layer flow, where
velocity variations with in a cross section and frictional effects are active.
To apply the Bernoulli’s equation to a specific problem it is essential to identify the
streamline or stream tube and to choose definite upstream and downstream situations.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
5
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Stations ‘a’ & ‘b’ are chosen on the basis of convenience and are usually taken at locations,
where the most information about pressure, velocities and heights are available.
p u2 g
In frictional flow the quantity,   z is not constant along a streamline as called for
 2gc gc

by, but always decreases in a direction of flow and in accordance with the principle of
conservation of energy. For compressible fluids, the Bernoulli’s equation is corrected for
friction by adding a term to the right hand side. Thus after introducing a kinetic energy
correction factor a and  b , it becomes.

pa g  v2 p  b vb2
 z a  a a  b  g zb  + h fs
 gc 2gc  gc 2gc

Procedure:
1. Fill the sump with water to the level to prevent the pump running dry.
2. Check the piezometer and other connections and switch on the pump by opening the
bypass valve.
3. Slowly open the main valve and allow water to flow through the test section at very low
flow rates.
4. Check the piezometer and if air is present remove them with the help of a capillary tube.
5. When the system attains steady state i.e. if there is no fluctuations in the piezometer
readings, note down the values from the scales provided.
6. Repeat the above procedure at different flow rates.

Specifications:
D1 = 24mm, D2 = 20mm, D3 = 17mm, D4 = 14mm,
D5 = 12.5mm, D6 = 14mm D7 = 17mm, D8 = 19mm,
D9 = 20mm, D10 = 24mm

Observations table:
S.No Peizometer Readings, h (m) Volume Time Volumetric
(m3) (s) flow rate, q
(m3/s)

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
6
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6 h7 h8 h9 h10

Bernoulli’s statement for steady incompressible flow is as follow

p/ρg + v2/2g + z = H
where
p/ρg = piezometer reading, m
v2/2g = velocity head , m
z = datum head ,m

Calculations:
Total head H= p/ρg + v2/2g (assume datum head is negligible)
p/ρg= ρgh/ ρg=h (Peizometer Reading)
v=q/s
where s=(Π/4)D2

Volumetric flow rate,

Total head, H (m)
S.No q (m3/s)
H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9 H10

Result: Bernoulli’s theorem is verified.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
7
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-3 Date:

MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING FLUID USING VENTURI METER

Aim: To determine the coefficient of discharge of a given Venturi meter.

Basic Equations:
Rm   A   B 
H
B

A1 A2 2 g
K
A12  A22

At �ht
QA 
t
QT = K √H
QA
CV 
QT
Theory: A short conical inlet section leads to a throat section, then to a long discharge cone.
Pressure taps at the start of the inlet section and at the throat are connected to a manometer or
differential pressure transmitter. In the upstream cone the fluid velocity is increased and its
pressure decreased. The pressure drop in this in this cone is used to measure the flow rare. In
the discharge cone the velocity is decreased and the original pressure largely recovered. The
angle of the discharge cone is made small, between 5 0 and 150 to prevent boundary layer
separation and to minimize friction. Since there is no separation in a contracting cross
section, the upstream cone can be made shorter than the downstream cone. Typically 90
percent of the pressure loss in the upstream cone is recovered. Although Venturi meters can
be applied to the measurement of gas flow rates, they are most commonly used with liquids,
especially large flows of water where, because of the large pressure recovery, a Venturi
requires less power than other types of meters.
The basic equation for a Venturi meter is obtained by writing the Bernoulli equation for
incompressible fluids across the upstream cone. If Va and Vb are the average upstream and
downstream velocities, respectively, and ρ is the density of the fluid,

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
8
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

2 2 2( p a  p b )
bV b   aV a 

The continuity equation can be written, since the density is constant, as
2
D 
V a   b  V b   2 V b
 Da 

Where Da= diameter of pipe

Db = diameter of throat of meter
 = diameter ratio Db/Da

1 2( p a  p b )
Vb 
 b   4 a 

Venturi coefficient: Equation applies strictly to the frictionless flow of incompressible fluids.
To account for the small friction loss between locations a and b, is corrected by introducing
an empirical factor Cv and writing
Cv 2( p a  pb )
Vb 
1  4 

The small effects of the kinetic energy factors  a and  b are also taken into account in the
definition of Cv.

Procedure:
1. Fill in the sump tank with clean water
2. Keep the delivery valve closed
3. Connect power connection to 1¢, 220 V.
4. Switch ON the pump & open the delivery valve.
5. Open the corresponding ball valve of the Venturi meter pipe line
6. Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump
7. Open the corresponding ball valves fitted to Venturi meter tapings
8. Note down the differential head reading in the Manometer
9. Operate the (PVC Ball) valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the known
time and keep it open when the readings are not taken
10. Change the flow rate & repeat the experiment

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
9
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Specifications:
Diameter if pipe, D1 = 25.4 mm
Diameter if orifice, D2 = 12.5 mm
Size of measuring tank = 500 x 250 mm
Cross sectional area, A = (Π/4) D2

Observations Table:
Manometer
Volume of Volumetric
Reading Time, QT
S.No liquid, V flow rate, QA H (m) Cv
Rm t (s) (m3/s)
LHS RHS (m3) (m3/s)
(m)

Result: Coefficient of discharge of the given Venturi meter is ________ .

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
10
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-4 Date:

MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING FLUID USING ORIFICE METER

Aim: To determine the coefficient of discharge of a given orifice meter.

Basic Equations:
R    B 
H m A
B

A1 A2 2 g
k
A12  A22

At �ht
QA 
t
QT = K √H
QA
Co 
QT

Theory: The orifice meter has certain practical disadvantages for ordinary plant practice. It is
expensive, it occupies considerable space and its ratio of throat diameter to pipe diameter
cannot be changed. For a given meter a definite manometer system the maximum
measurable flow rate is fixed. So, If the flow rate is changed, the throat diameter may be
too large to give an accurate reading or too small to accommodate the next maximum
flow rate.
The principle of orifice meter is identical with that of Venturi i.e it is used to measure the
flow rate of fluid by reducing the cross section of flowing fluid. One important complication
appears in the office meter, is because of the sharpness of the office, the fluid stream
separates from the downstream side of the orifice plate and forms a free flowing set in the
diameter downstream fluid.
Co 2gc  p A  pB 
uo =
1  4 

where uo = Velocity through orifice

 = Ratio of orifice diameter to pipe diameter; p A , p B = Pressure at stations A, B

C0 = orifice coefficient

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
11
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

NRe = D uo ρ/µ
Equation (1) is useful for design because C o is almost constant and independent of 
provided. NRe is greater than 30,000 under these conditions C 0 may be taken, as 0.61 for both
flange taps is vena contract. It is especially important that enough straight pipes will be
provided both upstream and downstream of the orifice to ensure a flow pattern i.e normal and
undistributed by fittings valves otherwise the velocity distribution will not be normal and the
orifice coefficient will be affected in an up predictable manner.

Procedure:
1. Fill in the sump tank with clean water
2. Keep the delivery valve closed
3. Switch ON the pump & open the delivery valve
4. Open the corresponding ball valve of the Orifice meter pipe line
5. Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump
6. Open the corresponding ball valves fitted to Orifice meter tapings
7. Note down the differential head reading in the Manometer
8. Operate the (PVC Ball) valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the
known time and keep it open when the readings are not taken
10. Change the flow rate & repeat the experiment

Specifications:
Diameter if pipe, D1 = 25.4 mm; Diameter if orifice, D2 = 12.5 mm
Size of measuring tank = 500 x 250 mm; Cross sectional area, A = (Π/4) D2

Observations Table:
Manometer Reading Volume
S. Time, Volumetric flow QT
of liquid, H (m) CO
No. LHS RHS Rm (m) t (s) rate, QA (m3/s) (m3/s)
V (m3)

Result: Coefficient of discharge of the given Orifice meter is ________ .

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
12
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-5 Date:

DETERMINATION OF FRICTION LOSS IN FLUID FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Aim: To determine the effect of Reynolds number on friction factor for pipes of different
sizes

Apparatus:
1. Pipe lines of 1, ¾, and 1/2 inch.
2. U- Tube manometer with a stabilizing valve to measure the pressure difference across
the tapping, one at either end of the pipe line fitted with a ball valve
3. A steady supply of water with a means of varying the flow rate using centrifugal type
monoblock pump
4. Measuring tank to measure the flow rate

Basic Equations:
Pressure drop across the bed:
�DP � g Rm   A   B 
� � 
�L �exp gc L

At �ht
Volumetric flow rate = Q 
t

  D
2
Area of pipe = A pipe 
4
 Q
Average velocity = v  A
pipe

2

Pressure drop across the bed (theoretical) =  DP   4 f v

 L  theo 2g c D


Reynolds number = N Re D v

m
16
Friction Factor f  (NRe < 2100)
N Re

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
13
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

0.125
f  0.32
 0.0014 (3000 < NRe < 3x106)
N Re

�DP � 2t �DP � 2 f n 2
Theory: The equations � �  0 and � � apply to both laminar and
�L � r �L � D
turbulent flow provided the fluid is incompressible and the flow is steady and fully
developed because the shear stress viscosity relationship for laminar flow is simple.
The velocity profile in a circular pipe is a parabola and the average velocity is
previously one half of the maximum velocity. The kinetic energy correction factor is
found to be  = 2.0. Momentum correction factor is found to be = 4/3.
A closed circuit of any cross section used for flow of liquid is known as pipe. In hydraulics,
generally pipes are assumed to be running full and are generally in circular cross section.
Liquids flowing through pipes are encountered with resistance resulting in loss of head or
energy. This resistance is of two types depending upon the velocity of flow.
1. Viscous Resistance
2. Frictional Resistance due to different diameters

Procedure:
1. Switch –ON the pump and open the delivery valve
2. Open the corresponding gate valve of the pipe line
3. Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump
4. Open the corresponding ball valves provided in control panel to measure differential head
5. Note down the differential head reading in the manometer
6. Operate the PVC Ball valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the known
time and keep it open when the readings are not taken
7. Change the flow rate and repeat the same procedure.

Specifications:
Pipes length = 1.2 m
Pipes Diameter = 1, ¾ and ½ inch
Size of measuring tank = 250 x 500 mm
Density of manometer fluid, ρA = 13600 kg/m3

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
14
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Density of process fluid, ρB = 1000 kg/m3

Observations Table:
Manometer Fluid
Reading

Volume
Volumetric
of Time, (Δp/L)The (Δp/L)exp
S.No flow rate, NRe f
Rm liquid, t (s) (Pa/m) (Pa/m)
LHS RHS Q (m3/s)
(m) V (m3)

Result:
The effect of NRe on friction factor is studied.
Friction factor, f for 1 inch pipe is =
Friction factor, f for 1/2 inch pipe is =
Friction factor, f for 3/4 inch pipe is =

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
15
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-06 Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF MULTISTAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Aim: To study the performance characteristics of multi stage centrifugal pump at constant
speed and to determine the specific speed design head and design discharge.

Theory: A centrifugal pump consists of an impeller rotating inside a casing. The impeller has
a number of curved vanes. Due to the centrifugal head impressed by the rotation of the
impeller, the water enters at the center and flow out wards to the periphery. There it is
collected in a gradually increasing passage in the casing known as inviolate chamber, which
serves to convert a part of the velocity head into pressure head. For higher heads multistage
centrifugal pumps having two or more impeller in series will have to be used. This single
stage centrifugal pump of size 50 cm x 50 cm is coupled to 5 H.P. capacity spiral case
induction motor by means of V-belt and vary speed drive.
By rotating the hand wheel of the base, different speeds can be got. The suction side is 50 cm
dia and the delivery side is 50 cm dia. An energy meter is provided to measure the input into
the motor and a collecting tank to measure the discharge. A pressure gauge and a vacuum
gauge are fitted in the delivery and suction sides to measure the head.

Basic Equations:
a) Discharge Qa = AR /t
Where A = Area of collecting tank in m2
R = Rise of water level in m
t = time taken for rise R
b) Total head H = G + V
Where G = gauge pressure head in m
V = Vacuum pressure head in m
X = difference in between vacuum gauge and pressure gauge
c) Output of the pump:
B.P. = g QH /1000 kW
Where Q - discharge in m3 / s

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
16
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

H - pressure head in m of water

3600 10
d) Input of the pump = x kW
E t
Where energy meter constant is N revolution per kWh.
Time for 10 revolutions = t sec.
outputpower
Efficiency Of The Pump () = inputpower x100
Specific Speed: It is defined as the speed in revolutions per minute of a pump to deliver 1
liter of liquid per second against a head of 1 m.
Ns = N  Q / H5/4 = N  P / H5/4
Procedure:
a) Prime the pump with water.
b) Close the gate valve.
c) Start the motor.
d) Measure the speed with tachometer.
e) Note :
1. the pressure gauge reading G
2. the vacuums gauge reading V
3. time for 10 revolution in the energy meter by means of stopwatch (t).
4. time for 20 cm rise in the collecting tank by means of stopwatch (t).
5. the difference of level between the pressure and vacuum gauge.
f) Take at least 6 sets of reading varying the head from maximum at shut off to
minimum where gate valve is fully open. This can be done by throttling the
delivery valve.
Graphs:
1. Q Vs total head.
2. Q Vs percentage efficiency.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
17
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Observations Table:

Time for 10 cm
Gauge readings Time for 10 rev.
S. No rise of water in
Delivery gauge, Suction gauge, in energy meter
2 collection tank
Pd (kgf/cm ) Ps (mm of Hg)

Calculations:
Diameter of the collecting tank (D) =_______ m
Area of the collecting tank (A) = (/4) D2 = _______ m2
Discharge (Q) = Area of the collecting tank x Rise of water in collecting tank
Time for collection of water
= AR / t = ______ m3 / sec
Delivery pressure head (Pd) = (Pd in kgf / cm2 ) / water x 104 = ___ m of H2O
Suction pressure head (Ps) = (Ps in mm of Hg )hg/water x 10-3 = ___ m of H2O
The level difference between vaccum gauge and delivery gauge (DZ) = __ m
 Total head, H = Pd + Ps + DZ = _________ m of H2O
Input power supplied to the pump (Pi) (Actual power required)
Pi = (3600 / energy meter constant) x (1/Time for one revolution) x m KW
= (3600 / E) x (10/t) KW = ______ KW
Output power of the pump (Po) (Theoretical power required)
Po = Pressure x Discharge = gHQ / 1000 KW = ________ KW
Efficiency of the pump () = Theoretical power required Output power (Po)
Actual power required Input power (Pi)

= _____ %

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
18
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Total head Discharge Input power Output power Efficiency

S.No
(H) m of H2O (Q) m3/sec (Pi) KW (Po) KW  = Po / Pi

Result: The performance characteristics of multi stage centrifugal pump at constant speed is
studied and specific speed design head and design discharge is determined.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
19
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-07 Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF RECIPROCATING PUMP

Aim: To determine the coefficient of discharge, slip and overall efficiency.

Description:
The reciprocating pump is a positive displacement type of pump and consists of a piston or a
plunger working inside a cylinder. The cylinder has got two valves, one allowing water into
the cylinder from the suction pipe and the other allowing water from the cylinder into the
delivery pipe.

Specifications of the pump:

a) Type: Double acting single cylinder.
b) Piston stroke = 45 mm
c) Piston diameter = 40 mm
d) Suction pipe = 25 mm
e) Delivery pipe = 19 mm

An energy meter is provided for the determination of input to the motor. The pump is belt
driven by AC motor. The pump can be run at four different speeds by the use of V-belt and
differential pulley system. The belt can be put in different grooves of the pulleys for different
Department of Chemical Engineering
VFSTR University
20
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

speeds quickly by loosening the belt special arrangement is provided for quick alteration of
speed. A set of pressure gauge and vaccum gauges are provided and the required pipe lines
are also provided.

Theory:
Reciprocating pumps are those in which the liquid is sucked and then it is actually pushed or
displaced due to thrust exerted on it by a moving member which results in lifting the liquid to
the required height. This is the working principle of reciprocating pumps.

a) Coefficient of discharge: The actual discharge (Qact) of reciprocating pump is always

slightly different from the theoretical discharge (Qth) due to leakage and the imperfect
operation of the valve. The ratio between the actual discharge and the theoretical discharge is
defined as the coefficient of discharge (Cd) of the pump.
2 D 2 N
Qth  L
4 60
where D = diameter of the piston = 40 mm
L = Length of the cylinder = 45 mm
N = No. of revolutions per minute
The actual discharge (Qact) can be calculated by collecting water in the collecting tank over a
known period of time.
Qact
Then Cd  Qth

b) Slip: The difference between the theoretical discharge and the actual discharge is known as
slip of the pump.
Slip = Qth – Qact
Qth  Qact
% slip   100  2% for good condition.
Qth

output
c) Overall efficiency  input  100

Input to the motor, Pi = 18000 x 5/t Watt (1 KWh = 200 revolutions)

t = Time for 5 revolutions (sec)
Output from motor = ρgHQact
d) Head of the pump H = Hs+Hd+ΔZ m

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
21
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Hs = suction guage pressure (mmHg) x 10-3 x ρHg / ρwater

Hd = delivery guage pressure (kg/cm2) x 104 / ρwater
ΔZ = 6 cm

Procedure:
1. Select the required speed.
2. Open the gate valve in the delivery pipe fully.
3. Start the motor.
4. Throttle the gate valve to get the required head.
5. Note (a) speed of the pump
(b) pressure guage and vaccum gauge readings
(c) time taken for 5 revolutions in the energy meter
(d) time taken for 20 cm rise in the collecting tank.
6. Take at least six sets of readings by varying the head.

Observations Table:
Time for Time for 5
delivery
Suction guage No. of Total 20 cm revolutions
Sl. guage
pressure revolutions / head, rise of of energy
No. pressure
(mmHg) Min H, m water t meter disc,
(kg/cm2)
sec. t, sec.

Sl. Qth, Qact, % Power input to Power output from Overall

No. m3/s m3/s Slip pump, Pi, Watt pump, Po, Watt efficiency

Results: Graphs are drawn for Head vs. Qact and Head vs. % slip.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
22
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-08 Date:

COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF V – NOTCH

Aim: To determine the coefficient of discharge of V-notch.

Apparatus: V- notch, collecting tank, constant head tank, stop and scale.

Theory: Notch is a structure which is used to measure the rage of flow in canal, streams and
channels. The flow of water in the canals is obstructed by notch structure. This will cause rise
of water in upstream side of notch and head builds above sill level of notch. This cause the
flow over notch, Inlet By principle, and the kinematic head is converted into static head and
again it converts into kinetic head.

Experimental Setup: The experiment setup consists of supply tank with perforated sheets
placed near inlet valve to reduce the velocity of incoming water and to reduce the velocity of
approach. Thus the perforated sheet can reduce eddies and steady flow can be obtained in the
channel. The notches are fitted in interchangeable groove at the front end of the channel. A
collecting tank is provided to measure the actual discharge.

Procedure:
1. Fix the notch plate in the groove and measure the sill length of the notch.
2. Open the inlet valve and allow the water into the channel to rise up to sill of the notch
in the channel.
3. Measure the water surface level with the help of hook gauge (initial water level) H1.
4. Allow the water to enter into channel and flows over the sill of the notch at steady
state condition
5. Measure the water surface level with the help of hook gauge (final water level) H2.
6. The difference between initial water level and final water level gives the head causing
flow over the notch.
7. Collect the know volume of water (V) in collecting tank in specified time (t).
8. Determine the actual discharge Qact
9. Determine the theoretical discharge Qact
10. Determine the coefficient of discharge Cd
11. Repeat the steps for various heads of water above the sill level of notch in the
channel.
Department of Chemical Engineering
VFSTR University
23
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Observations:
1. Angle of notch ( for V notch) θ = 600
2. Length of notch( for rectangular notch) L = 50 mm
3. Cross section area of collecting tank A = 300 x 400 mm
4. Time taken for collection of water t =
5. Rise of water in the tank R =

Calculations:
1. Volume of water collected V = AxR
2. Initial water level H1 =
3. Final water level H2 =
4. Fed of water above the sill level H = H1 - H2
5. Actual discharge Qact = V/t
6. Theoretical discharge(for V notch) Qth =
7. Theoretical discharge(for rectangular notch) Qth =
8. Coefficient of discharge Cd =

Observations Table:
Sl. No. Initial Final Head Volume Time Actual Theoretical Coefficient
water water H= H1 - of water taken for discharge discharge of discharge
level level H2 collected collection Qact Qth Cd
(t)

Results:
1. coefficient of discharge from experiment =
2. coefficient of discharge from graph =

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
24
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-09 Date:

HEAD LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN EXPANSION

Aim: To determine loss of head and power due to sudden expansion.

Apparatus: Pipe of smaller diameter connected to larger diameter, inlet, outlet valves,
collecting tank, stop watch etc.

Formula: Losses due to sudden expansion:

 v1  v2  2
h fe 
2gc
Where: hfe = Loss of head due to sudden expansion.
v1 = Velocity of flow at smaller section.
v2 = Velocity of flow at larger Section.

Theory: Loss of energy due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude or
direction is called as minor loss of energy.
Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe line which has sudden enlargement. Consider two
section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2 before and after enlargement.
Let,
P1 = Pressure intensity at section 1 – 1.
v1 = Velocity of flow at section 1 – 1.
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1 – 1.
P2, v2 and A2 = Corresponding values of pressure, velocity and area at section 2 - 2.
hfe = Loss of head due to sudden expansion.

Due to sudden change of diameter, the liquid flowing from smaller pipe is not able to follow
abrupt change of boundary and turbulent eddies are formed, since the flow separates from the
boundary.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 – 1 and 2 – 2.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
25
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

P1 v12 gZ P v2 gZ
  1  2  2  2  h fe
 2 g c gc  2 gc gc

But Z1 = Z2

 P P   v2 v2 
h fe   1  2    1  2 
     2 gc 2 gc 
On solving

h fe 
 v1  v2  2
2 gc

Procedure:
 Measure diameter of pipe and dimensions of measuring tank
 Open the inlet valve, keeping the outlet valve opened.
 Connect the manometer to sudden fallings and to one of the pipes / pipe
fittings and check that there is no air bubble entrapped.
 Open partially the outlet valve, keeping the common inlet valve fully open and switch
on the pump.
 Let the flow become constant and take the readings.
 Collect the discharge and measure the time required to fill up to 30 cm.
 Simultaneously take manometer reading.
 Repeat procedure up to 3 to 4 times.

Observations Table:
Velocity Loss of
Velocity Power
Manometer Volumetric at head due Head,
Volume, at larger loss,
S.No. reading, flow rate, smaller to sudden H=12.6xRm
V (m3) section, P=ρgHq
Rm (m) q (m3/s) section, expansion, (m)
v2(m/s) (Watt)
v1(m/s) hfe (J/kg)

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
26
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Sample Calculations:
Head, H = Rm (ρHg - ρwater)/ ρwater = 12.6 x Rm = ______ m
Actual discharge, q=V/t = ______ m3/s
Velocity at smaller section, v1=q/A1 = ________ m/s
A1=Π/4 D12 = ______ m2
Velocity at larger section, v2=q/A2 = ________ m/s
A2=Π/4 D22 = ______ m2
 v1  v2  2
Loss of head, h fe  = _____ J/kg
2 gc

Power loss, P=ρgHq = ______Watts

Result: Head loss due to sudden expansion was found to be ________ and corresponding
power loss is found to be _______.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
27
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-10 Date:

HEAD LOSS DUE TO SUDDEN CONTRACTION

Aim: To determine loss of head and power due to sudden contraction.

Apparatus: Pipe of larger diameter connected to smaller diameter, inlet, outlet valves,
collecting tank, stop watch etc.

Formula: Loss of head due to sudden contraction:

2
v
h fc  K c 2
2 gc
Where: hfc = Loss of head due to sudden contraction.
v1 = Velocity of flow at larger section.
v2 = Velocity of flow at smaller Section.
Kc = Contraction loss coefficient
 A 
For turbulent flow K c  0.41  2 
 A1 
Theory: Loss of energy due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude or
direction is called as minor loss of energy.
When the cross section of the conduit is suddenly reduced, the fluid stream cannot follow
around the sharp corner and the stream breaks contact with the wall of the conduit. A jet is
formed, which flows into the stagnant fluid in the smaller section. The jet first contracts and
then expands to fill the smaller cross section, and downstream from the point of contraction
the normal velocity distribution eventually is reestablished. The cross section of minimum
area at which the jet changes from a contraction to an expansion is called vena contracta.
Procedure:
 Measure diameter of pipe and dimensions of measuring tank
 Open the inlet valve, keeping the outlet valve opened.
 Connect the manometer to sudden fallings and to one of the pipes / pipe
fittings and check that there is no air bubble entrapped.
 Open partially the outlet valve, keeping the common inlet valve fully open and switch

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
28
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

on the pump.
 Let the flow become constant and take the readings.
 Collect the discharge and measure the time required to fill up to 30 cm.
 Simultaneously take manometer reading.
 Repeat procedure up to 3 to 4 times.

Observations Table:
Velocity Loss of
Power
Manometer Volumetric at head due to Head,
S.No Volume, loss,
reading, flow rate, smaller sudden H=12.6xRm
. V (m3) P=ρgHq
Rm (m) q (m3/s) section, contraction, (m)
(Watt)
v2(m/s) hfc (J/kg)

Sample Calculations:
Head, H = Rm (ρHg - ρwater)/ ρwater = 12.6 x Rm = ______ m
Actual discharge, q=V/t = ______ m3/s
Velocity at smaller section, v2=q/A2 = ________ m/s
A2=Π/4 D22 = ______ m2
 A 
Contraction loss coefficient, K c  0.41  2 
 A1 
2
v2
Loss of head, h fc  K c = _____ J/kg
2 gc
Power loss, P=ρgHq = ______Watt

Result: Head loss due to sudden contraction was found to be ________ and corresponding
power loss is found to be _______.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
29
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Experiment-11 Date:

HEAD LOSS DUE TO FITTINGS AND VALVES

Aim: To determine loss of head and power due to fittings and valves.
Apparatus: Pipe connected with fittings and valves, inlet valve, outlet valve, collecting tank,
stop watch etc.
Formula: Loss of head due to fittings and valves:
2
v
h ff  K f
2g c

Where: hff = Loss of head due to fittings and valves.

v = Velocity of flow leading to fitting.
Kf = Fittings and valves loss coefficient

Theory: Loss of energy due to change of velocity of the flowing fluid in magnitude or
direction is called as minor loss of energy.
Fittings and valves disturb the normal flow lines and cause friction. In short lines with many
fittings, the friction loss from the fittings may be greater than that from the straight pipe. The
friction loss hff from fittings is found from an equation
2
v
h ff  K f
2g c

Fittings loss coefficient is found by experiment and differs for each type of connection. A
short list of factors is given in the following table.
Fitting Kf
0
45 0.35
Elbow
900 0.75
Straight through 0.4
Tee
Used as elbow 1.0
Return Bend 1800 1.5
Half open 4.5
Gate valve
Wide open 0.17
Angle valve Wide open 2.0
Globe valve Wide open 6.0
Procedure:
 Measure diameter of pipe and dimensions of measuring tank
 Open the inlet valve, keeping the outlet valve opened.
 Connect the manometer to the fitting and check that there is no air bubble
Department of Chemical Engineering
VFSTR University
30
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

entrapped.
 Open partially the outlet valve, keeping the common inlet valve fully open and switch
on the pump.
 Let the flow become constant and take the readings.
 Collect the discharge and measure the time required to fill up to 30 cm.
 Simultaneously take manometer reading.
 Repeat procedure up to 3 to 4 times.

Observations Table:
Velocity
Loss of Power
Manometer Volumetric leading Head,
S.No Volume, head due loss,
reading, flow rate, to H=12.6xRm
. V (m3) to fitting, P=ρgHq
Rm (m) q (m3/s) fitting, (m)
hff (J/kg) (Watt)
v(m/s)

Sample Calculations:
Head, H = Rm (ρHg - ρwater)/ ρwater = 12.6 x Rm = ______ m
Actual discharge, q=V/t = ______ m3/s; Velocity leading to fitting, v=q/A = ________ m/s
A=Π/4 D2 = ______ m2
2
v
Loss of head, h ff  K f = _____ J/kg
2g c

Power loss, P=ρgHq = ______Watt

Result: Head loss due to fittings and valves was found to be ________ and corresponding
power loss is found to be _______.

Experiment-12 Date:

MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING FLUID USING PITOT TUBE

Aim: To examine the velocity profile of fluid flowing in a pipe.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
31
 Momentum Transfer Laboratory

Introduction: Not all fluid particles travel at the same velocity within a pipe. The shape of
the velocity curve (the velocity profile across any given section of the pipe) depends upon
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent as shown in figure (1). If the flow in a pipe is
laminar, the velocity distribution at a cross section will be parabolic in shape with the
maximum velocity at the center being about twice the average velocity in the pipe. In
turbulent flow, a fairly flat velocity distribution exists across the section of pipe, with the
result that the entire fluid flows at a given single value.

Figure (1): velocity distribution inside pipe for both laminar and turbulent flow.
The velocity of the fluid in contact with the pipe wall is essentially zero and increases the
further away from the wall. The velocity profile depends upon the surface condition of the
pipe wall.
The Pitot tube traverse unit and a manometer shown in figure (2), is fitted to the pipe for
studying the velocity profile of the flow across a diameter of the pipe. The Pitot tube
measures a fluid velocity by converting the kinetic energy of the flow into potential energy.
The conversion takes place at the stagnation point, located at the Pitot tube entrance.

Department of Chemical Engineering

VFSTR University
32
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Figure (2): The Pitot tube traverse unit and a manometer

For the flow can be considered incompressible, the relationship between the velocity and
pressure along a streamline is the Bernoulli equation. Evaluated at two different points along
a streamline, the Bernoulli equation yields

If z1 = z2 and point 2 is a stagnation point, i.e., v2 = 0, the above equation reduces to

Then, the velocity is given by:

or simply:

Apparatus: A pitot tube may be traversed across a diameter of the pipe. Its position at any
point is read directly from a combined linear scale and vernier. The Pitot tube measures the
stagnation pressure only, the associated static pressure being sensed at a tapping pointing the
wall of the pipe. The difference between the two pressures is measured by a different water
manometer mounted on the panel and is used to calculate the velocity at points across the

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

33
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

plane of traverse.

The whole assembly is mounted on a small flange secured to the pipe in such a position that
the plane of the piezometer opening is at a distance of 276 mm from the discharge end of the
pipe.

Procedure: Switch on the fan with inlet valve fully open. The following observations can
then be taken:
1. Air pressure before the orifice plate (fan pressure).
2. Pressure drop a cross the orifice plate.
3. Barometric pressure.
4. Pitot pressure at 2 mm intervals across the section of the pipe.
It should also be noted that when the Pitot tube is in a position near to the walls of a tube
"whistling" sound maybe heard. This is no way injurious to the apparatus and will not affect
the results. The velocity measured by the Pitot tube can't be made at points less than half the
diameter of the Pitot tube from the walls of the pipe. The diameter of the Pitot tube is 2 mm.

Theory and Calculations

Air pressure at orifice = barometric pressure + fan pressure
Air mass flow rate: w = ρ*orifice area *Cd *

where
Cd = 0.613 the orifice discharge coefficient. P
= pressure drop across the orifice (N/m2)
For determining air presure it may be noted that 1 mm of water = 9.81 N/m2
Mean density in pitot plane,
The static pressure in the pitot plane can be taken as: Static pressure - barometric pressure +
(276/1524) * test length drop
Air velocity at a point in the pitot tube:

where
Ps = stagnation pressure (N/m2)
P = Static pressure (N/m2)

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

34
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

ρ = mean air density in pitot tube (kg/m3)

a) Mean velocity from mass flow =

b) Mean velocity from profile =

Guide for data recording:

Barometric pressure: ..........................
Fan pressure: ...................................
Orifice pressure drop: ........................
Test length measure drop: ...................

Pitot Traverse Actual Distance (Ps-P) Fluid Velocity

Distance (mm) Across Tube in (mm of "V" (m/s)
(mm) water)

Result: Velocity of flowing fluid is _________ m/s.

Experiment-13 Date:

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

35
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

MEASUREMENT OF FLOWING FLUID USING ROTAMETER

Aim: Calibration of rotameter and measuring of flowing fluid using rotameter.

Theory: The rotameter is the most popular flow meter. It consists essentially of a plummet or
float which is free to move up or down in a vertical slightly tapered tube having its small end
down. The fluid enters the lower end of the tube and causes the float to rise until the annular
area between the tube and the float is such that the pressure drop across this construction is
just sufficient to support the float. Typically, the tapered tube is of glass and caries etched
upon it a nearly linear scale on which the position of the float may be usually noted as an
indication of the flow.
Rotameter have proved satisfactory both for gasses and for liquids at high and low pressures.
Rotameter required straight runs of pipe before or after the point of installation. Pressure
losses are substantially constant over the whole flow rang. In experimental work, for greatest
precision, a rotameter should be calibrated with the fluid which is to be entered. However,
most modern rotameters are precision-mode such that their performance closely corresponds
to a mater calibration plate for the type in question.

Fig. (1). Rotameter.

Procedure:
1. Select rate of fluid flow through the rotameter.
2. Open the inlet valve till the float reaches the selected flow rate.
3. Estimate the time required to fill a fixed volume of output water.

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

36
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

4. The rotameter reading indicates the rotameter flow rate (Q rot.) in L/min; while the volume
selected divided by the time measured indicates the actual flow rate (Qact.) in L/sec.
5. Repeat the procedures from 1 to 3 for other selecting flow rates.

Calculation and Results:

The actual volume flow rate is found from dividing the selected volume of water by the time
required to accumulate that volume,
Qact.= V/t = (Axh)/t m3/s
Where
V: is the volume of water output accumulated in the storage tank, m3.
t: is the time it takes to fill the selected volume, sec.
A: is the cross-section area of the storage tank, m2.
h: is the height of water in the storage tank, m.
Record the selected value of rotameter and estimated value of actual flow rate in the table as
shown in below.
Qrot. h t V Qact.
S. No. Cf = Qrot. / Qact.
(m3/sec) (m) (sec) (m3) (m3/sec)

Calculating correction factor (Cf), which is the ratio between the rotameter reading (Qrot.)
divided by the actual volume flow rate (Qact.), for each reading, and then finding the average
value of the correction factor.
Draw the calibration curve, the reading of the rotameter (on y-axis) against the measured
actual volume flow rate (on x-axis). Also, find the average correction factor from Fig. (2)
shown below, by finding the slope of the line.

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

37
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Qrot., (m3/sec)

Qact., (m3/sec)

Fig. (2). Calibration curve for rotameter.

Result: The relation between actual volume flow rate and rotameter reading is found. Also,
the average correction factor obtained from table and that obtained from the figure is
compared.

Experiment-14 Date:

DETERMINATION OF PRESSURE DROP IN PACKED BED

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

38
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Aim: To determine the friction factor for the flow of liquid through a packed bed.

Theory: In many technical processes, liquids (or) gases flow through beds of solid particles.
The resistance to the flow of fluid through the voids in a bed of solids is the resultant of the
total drag of all the particles in the bed depending up on laminar flow, turbulent flow, from
drag separation and wake formation occur. The most common methods of calculating the
pressure drop through a bed of solids are based on estimates of total drag on the solid
boundaries of the tortuous channels through the bed practices. The actual channels are
irregular in shape. The total surface area is the surface area per particle times number of
particles, but it is more convenient to base the calculation on the volume fraction particles in
the bed and the surface-volume ratio for the particles, this ratio is 6/D p for a sphere and for
irregular particles, the term sphericity s included,  s is defined as surface to volume ratio
of spherical particles divided by surface to volume ratio of non-spherical particles whose
nominal size is Dp.
6 / DP
s 
S p / VP

Volume fraction particles in the bed is (1-  ) where  is porosity (or) void fraction.
To determine the equivalent channel diameter Deq, the surface area for ‘n’ parallel channels of
length ‘L’ is set equal to the surface-volume ratio times the particles volume S 0L(1-  ), where
S0 is the cross sectional area of the bed:

Deq  2
3 S DP
1 

The pressure drop depends on the average velocity in the channels, V .

V0
V 


Where V0 is superficial or empty-tower velocity,  is porosity.

Basic Equations:
Pressure drop across the bed:
�DP � g Rm   A   B 
� � 
�L �exp gc L

The Ergun equation covering the entire range of flow rates for estimation of theoretical
pressure drop is

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

39
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

150 m vO  1  e  1.75  vO2  1  e 

2
DP
( )The  
L g cs2 d p2e 3 g cs d pe 3
The Kozeny – Carman equation for estimation of theoretical pressure drop (If NRe,P < 1)

150 m vO  1  e 
2
DP
( )The 
L g cs2 d p2e 3
The Burke-Plummer equation for estimation of theoretical pressure drop (If NRe, P >1000)

DP 1.75  vO2  1  e 
( )The 
L g cs d pe 3
Ergun Equation for estimation of minimum fluidization velocity:

g Rm   A   B  150 m vOM  1  e M   1 e M 
2
1.75  vOM
2

 
gc L g cs2 d p2e M
3
g cs d pe M
3

 vo d p
Particle Reynolds number, N Re , P  FS
m

� Dc 
2
Area of column, Ac 
4
V
Volumetric Flow rate, Q 
t
Q
Superficial velocity, vo 
Ac
150(1  e )
Friction Factor, f  N Re, p
 1.75

Specifications:
Diameter of column. dc = 11.46 cm
Length of column, L = 148.5 cm
Diameter of packing material, dp = 1.905 cm
Sphericity of packing material, Φs = 0.33
Porosity of bed, ε = 0.67

Observations Table:

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

40
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Manometer Reading
V t Q v0 (ΔP/L)The (ΔP/L)Exp
NRe.p f
m3sec m3/s m/s Pa/m Pa/m
LHS RHS Rm, cm

Procedure:
1. Connect the U tube manometer to the taps of packed bed
2. Open the valve of the taps and allow the liquid to flow through the packed bed
3. Adjust the flow to minimum
4. After steady state is reached note down the manometer reading and flow rate of liquid
5. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates from minimum to maximum.

Graphs:
Two graphs are plotted between
�DP �
1. vo vs � �
�L �exp

2. f vs NRe.p
Result: The friction factor for the flow of liquid through packed bed is _______.

Experiment-15 Date:

DETERMINATION OF PRESSURE DROP IN FLUIDIZED BED

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

41
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Aim: To determine the velocity and pressure drop for a given fluidized bed.

Theory: Consider a fluid is flowing through a bed of solid particles. If the fluid velocity
through the solids bed is steadily increased, the pressure drop and drag on the individual
particles increase and eventually the particles start to move and become fully suspended in
the fluid. This phenomenon is called fluidization and the condition of suspended particles is
referred to as fluidized bed, since the suspension behaves as a dense fluid. If the bed is tilted
the top surface of the bed remains horizontal and large objects will float or sink in the bed
depending upon their density related to the suspension. The fluidized solids can be drained
from the bed through pipes and valves just like a liquid. This fluidity is one of the main
advantages in the use of fluidization for handling of solids.

Basic Equations:
Pressure drop across the bed:
�DP � g Rm   A   B 
� � 
�L �exp gc L

The Ergun equation covering the entire range of flow rates for estimation of theoretical
pressure drop is

150 m vO  1  e  1.75  vO2  1  e 

2
DP
( )The  
L g cs2 d p2e 3 g cs d pe 3
The Kozeny – Carman equation for estimation of theoretical pressure drop (If NRe,P < 1)

150 m vO  1  e 
2
DP
( )The 
L g cs2 d p2e 3
The Burke-Plummer equation for estimation of theoretical pressure drop (If NRe, P >1000)

DP 1.75  vO2  1  e 
( )The 
L g cs d p e 3
Ergun equation for estimation of minimum fluidization velocity:

g Rm   A   B  150 m vOM  1  e M  1 eM 

2
1.75  vOM
2

 
gc L g cs2 d p2e M
3
g cs d pe M
3

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

42
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

 vo d p
Particle Reynolds number, N Re , P  FS
m

� Dc 
2
Area of column, Ac 
4
V
Volumetric Flow rate, Q 
t
Q
Superficial velocity, vo 
Ac

Procedure:
1. Switch on the motor and wait till the outlet flow is achieved by adjusting the variable
valve keeping the stationary valve constant.
2. At static bed height, increase the outlet flow rate and observe the pressure drop using
a manometer. Note down manometer reading, bed height and outlet flow rate.
3. Then increase the velocity of outlet flow rate such that the particles just start to move.
This velocity is the minimum fluidization velocity. Note down the manometer
reading, bed height and outlet flow rate at minimum fluidization point.
4. Then increase the velocity and outlet flow rate by observing the pressure drop using
the manometer connected to the bed.
5. Note down the manometer reading and corresponding volumetric flow rate at different
bed heights.
6. Take at least 4-6 readings to observe the pressure drop during fluidization.

Specifications:
Diameter of column, dc = 5.3 cm
Diameter of particles, dp = 5 mm
Viscosity of water, µ = 0.682 cp
Length of the column, L = 88 cm
Sphericity of particles, Φs = 1.0
Porosity, ε = 0.37

Observations Table:

Bed Height, m NRe,p

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

43
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Manometer Volumetric
vo, (ΔP/L)The, (ΔP/L)Exp,
Reading, flow rate, q,
m/s Pa/m Pa/m
Rm, m m3/s

Graphs:
Two graphs are plotted between
�DP �
1. vo vs � �
�L �exp

2. vo vs Bed height

Result: Pressure drop per unit length of bed

(ΔP/L)The = -----------
(ΔP/L)Exp = -----------

Experiment-16 Date:

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

44
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

CHARACTERISTICS OF SINGLE STAGE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Aim: To calculate the efficiency and operation characteristics of the given centrifugal pump.

Basic Equations:
�p g  v 2 � �p g  v2 �
 wp  � b  zb  b b � � a  za  a a �
� g c 2 g c � � g c 2 gc �

 Dp g 
DH    Dz  g
 gc 
.
Pf  m DH

Pf
 x 100
PB
Theory: In the second major class of pumps the mechanical energy of the liquid is increased
by centrifugal action. A simple but very common the liquid enters through a section
connection concentric with the axis of a high speed rotary element called the impeller,
which carries radial vanes integrally cast in it. Liquid flows outward in the spaces
between the vanes and leaves the impeller at a considerably greater velocity with respect
to the ground than at the entrance to the impeller. In a properly functioning pump the
space between the vanes is completely filled with liquid flowing without cavitations. The
liquid leaving the outer periphery of the impeller is collected in a spiral casing called the
volute and leaves the pump through a tangential discharge connection. In the volute the
velocity head of the liquid from the impeller is converted into pressure head. The power
is applied to the fluid by the impeller and is transmitted to the impeller by the torque of
the drive shaft, which usually is driven by a direct connected motor at constant speed,
commonly at 1750 r/min.
Under ideal conditions of friction less flow the mechanical efficiency of a centrifugal pump
is, of course, 100 percent, and  =1. An ideal pump operating at given speed delivers a
definite discharge rate at each specific developed head. Actual pumps, because friction and
other departures from perfection fall considerably short of the ideal case. Centrifugal pump
constitute the most common type of pumping machinery in ordinary plant practice. They
come in a number of types other than the simple volute machine. A common type uses a
double suction impeller, which accepts liquid from both sides. Also, the impeller itself maybe
Department of Food Technology VFSTR University
45
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

a sample open spider or it may be enclosed or shrouded. Handbooks, texts on pumps, and
especially the catalogs of pump manufactures show many types, sizes, and designs of
centrifugal pumps.

Observations Table:
Pa, Pb, .
DZ, DH, q, m, Pf, PB, Revolutions
mmHg, kg/cm , 2

cm m m3/s Kg/s Watt Watt / Second
vacuum guage

Procedure:
1) Check the pump for water flow.
2) Switch on the power supply and collect water in the tank for a
certain time.
3) At this flow rate note down the current reading.
4) At the same flow rate note down the number of rotations for a
particular time.
5) Measure the height of suction and discharge from the water
level.
6) Measure suction and discharge pressures.
7) Repeat the experiment for different flow rates.

Sample Calculations:
Volumetric flow rate, q = V/t = _______ m3/s
Suction pressure, Pa= _______mmHg (vacuum)
Pa (absolute) = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum pressure = _______ (Pa)
Discharge pressure, Pb= _______ Kg/cm2 (guage)
Pb (Absolute) = Guage pressure + Atmospheric pressure = _______ (Pa)
Suction height, Za = 0 m
Discharge height, Zb = 29.5x10-2 m
Assume va = vb
Suction head, Ha = (Pa/ρ) + (g/gc)Za

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

46
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory

Discharge head, Hb = (Pb/ρ) + (g/gc)Zb

Head loss, ΔH = Hb - Ha
.
Mass flow rate, m  q   = _______ kg/s
.
Power delivered to fluid, Pf = m D = _______ W

Power supplied to pump PB = 2.4 x No. of revolutions / Time = _______ W (1 KWh = 1500
revolutions)
Pf
Pump efficiency,   x 100
PB
Graphs:
The following three graphs are to be plotted:
1) q vs DH
2) q vs PB
3) q vs Pf
4) q vs 

Result: The efficiency of centrifugal pump is _______.

Department of Food Technology VFSTR University

47