Sculpture

“Sculptor” redirects here. For other uses, see Sculptor

(disambiguation) and Sculpture (disambiguation).
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates

The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul [1] a Roman marble

copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE Capitoline
Museums, Rome

Michelangelo's Moses, (c. 1513–1515), San Pietro in Vincoli,

Rome, for the tomb of Pope Julius II.

Assyrian lamassu gate guardian from Khorsabad, c. 721–800

BCE

in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable

sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal
of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as
clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materi- Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivory
als but, since Modernism, there has been an almost com- with shell inlay
plete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety
of materials may be worked by removal such as carving,
assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. Sculpture in stone survives far better than works of art

1
2 2 PURPOSES AND SUBJECTS
The Angel of the North by Antony Gormley, 1998
in perishable materials, and often represents the major-
ity of the surviving works (other than pottery) from an-
cient cultures, though conversely traditions of sculpture in
wood may have vanished almost entirely. However, most
ancient sculpture was brightly painted, and this has been
lost.[2]
Sculpture has been central in religious devotion in many
cultures, and until recent centuries large sculptures, too
expensive for private individuals to create, were usually
an expression of religion or politics. Those cultures whose Open air Buddhist rock reliefs at the Longmen Grottos, China
sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures
of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, as well as
many in South America and Africa.
The Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient
Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great
masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle
Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and pas-
sions of the Christian faith. The revival of classical mod-
els in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such
as Michelangelo's David. Modernist sculpture moved
away from traditional processes and the emphasis on
the depiction of the human body, with the making of
constructed sculpture, and the presentation of found ob-
jects as finished art works.
1 Types of sculpture
A basic distinction is between sculpture in the round,
free-standing sculpture, such as statues, not attached (ex-
cept possibly at the base) to any other surface, and the
various types of relief, which are at least partly attached
to a background surface. Relief is often classified by
the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-
relief, high relief, and sometimes an intermediate mid-
relief. Sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient
Egypt. Relief is the usual sculptural medium for large
figure groups and narrative subjects, which are difficult
to accomplish in the round, and is the typical technique
used both for architectural sculpture, which is attached to
buildings, and for small-scale sculpture decorating other
objects, as in much pottery, metalwork and jewellery.
Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs,
usually of stone, often also containing inscriptions.
Another basic distinction is between subtractive carving
techniques, which remove material from an existing block
or lump, for example of stone or wood, and modelling
techniques which shape or build up the work from the ma-
terial. Techniques such as casting, stamping and mould-
ing use an intermediate matrix containing the design to
produce the work; many of these allow the production of
several copies.
The term “sculpture” is often used mainly to describe
large works, which are sometimes called monumental
sculpture, meaning either or both of sculpture that is
large, or that is attached to a building. But the term prop-
erly covers many types of small works in three dimensions
using the same techniques, including coins and medals,
hardstone carvings, a term for small carvings in stone that
can take detailed work.
The very large or “colossal” statue has had an enduring
appeal since antiquity; the largest on record at 128 m (420
ft) is the 2002 Chinese Spring Temple Buddha. Another
grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of
a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades.
The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the
“head”, showing just that, or the bust, a representation
of a person from the chest up. Small forms of sculpture
include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than
18 inches (46 cm) tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal
or coin.
Modern and contemporary art have added a number of
non-traditional forms of sculpture, including sound sculp-
ture, light sculpture, environmental art, environmental
sculpture, street art sculpture, kinetic sculpture (involv-
ing aspects of physical motion), land art, and site-specific
art. Sculpture is an important form of public art. A col-
lection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a
sculpture garden.

Moai from Easter Island, where the concentration of resources
on large sculpture may have had serious political effects.
2 Purposes and subjects
One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in some
form of association with religion. Cult images are com-
mon in many cultures, though they are often not the colos-
sal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek
art, like the Statue of Zeus at Olympia. The actual cult
images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples,
of which none have survived, were evidently rather small,
even in the largest temples. The same is often true in
Hinduism, where the very simple and ancient form of
the lingam is the most common. Buddhism brought the
sculpture of religious figures to East Asia, where there
seems to have been no earlier equivalent tradition, though
again simple shapes like the bi and cong probably had re-
ligious significance.
Small sculptures as personal possessions go back to the
earliest prehistoric art, and the use of very large sculp-
ture as public art, especially to impress the viewer with
the power of a ruler, goes back at least to the Great Sphinx
of some 4,500 years ago. In archaeology and art history
the appearance, and sometimes disappearance, of large
or monumental sculpture in a culture is regarded as of
great significance, though tracing the emergence is often
complicated by the presumed existence of sculpture in
wood and other perishable materials of which no record
remains;[3] the totem pole is an example of a tradition
of monumental sculpture in wood that would leave no
traces for archaeology. The ability to summon the re-
sources to create monumental sculpture, by transporting
usually very heavy materials and arranging for the pay-
ment of what are usually regarded as full-time sculptors,
is considered a mark of a relatively advanced culture in
terms of social organization. Recent unexpected discov-
eries of ancient Chinese bronze age figures at Sanxingdui,
3
some more than twice human size, have disturbed many
ideas held about early Chinese civilization, since only
much smaller bronzes were previously known.[4] Some
undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley
civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture
at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines and
seals. The Mississippian culture seems to have been pro-
gressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it
collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the
Easter Island culture, seem to have devoted enormous re-
sources to very large-scale monumental sculpture from a
very early stage.
Medal of John VIII Palaeologus, c. 1435, by Pisanello, the first
portrait medal, a medium essentially made for collecting.
The collecting of sculpture, including that of earlier peri-
ods, goes back some 2,000 years in Greece, China and
Mesoamerica, and many collections were available on
semi-public display long before the modern museum was
invented. From the 20th century the relatively restricted
range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded
greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or represen-
tation of any type of subject now common. Today much
sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and
museums, and the ability to transport and store the in-
creasingly large works is a factor in their construction.
Small decorative figurines, most often in ceramics, are
as popular today (though strangely neglected by modern
and Contemporary art) as they were in the Rococo, or in
ancient Greece when Tanagra figurines were a major in-
dustry, or in East Asian and Pre-Columbian art. Small
sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well
back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram
ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun.
Portrait sculpture began in Egypt, where the Narmer
Palette shows a ruler of the 32nd century BCE, and
Mesopotamia, where we have 27 surviving statues of
Gudea, who ruled Lagash c. 2144 – 2124 BCE. In an-
cient Greece and Rome, the erection of a portrait statue
4 3 MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

in a public place was almost the highest mark of hon-

our, and the ambition of the elite, who might also be de-
picted on a coin.[5] In other cultures such as Egypt and
the Near East public statues were almost exclusively the
preserve of the ruler, with other wealthy people only be-
ing portrayed in their tombs. Rulers are typically the only
people given portraits in Pre-Columbian cultures, begin-
ning with the Olmec colossal heads of about 3,000 years
ago. East Asian portrait sculpture was entirely religious,
with leading clergy being commemorated with statues,
especially the founders of monasteries, but not rulers, or
ancestors. The Mediterranean tradition revived, initially
only for tomb effigies and coins, in the Middle Ages, but
expanded greatly in the Renaissance, which invented new
forms such as the personal portrait medal.
Animals are, with the human figure, the earliest subject
for sculpture, and have always been popular, sometimes
realistic, but often imaginary monsters; in China animals
and monsters are almost the only traditional subjects for
stone sculpture outside tombs and temples. The king-
dom of plants is important only in jewellery and deco-
rative reliefs, but these form almost all the large sculp-
ture of Byzantine art and Islamic art, and are very im-
portant in most Eurasian traditions, where motifs such as
the palmette and vine scroll have passed east and west for Sumerian male worshipper, alabaster with shell eyes,
over two millennia. 2750−2600 B.C.E.

One form of sculpture found in many prehistoric cultures

around the world is specially enlarged versions of ordi- paint to time, or restorers. Many different painting
nary tools, weapons or vessels created in impractical pre- techniques have been used in making sculpture, includ-
cious materials, for either some form of ceremonial use or ing tempera, oil painting, gilding, house paint, aerosol,
display or as offerings. Jade or other types of greenstone enamel and sandblasting.[2][6]
were used in China, Olmec Mexico, and Neolithic Eu-
Many sculptors seek new ways and materials to make art.
rope, and in early Mesopotamia large pottery shapes were
One of Pablo Picasso's most famous sculptures included
produced in stone. Bronze was used in Europe and China
bicycle parts. Alexander Calder and other modernists
for large axes and blades, like the Oxborough Dirk.
made spectacular use of painted steel. Since the 1960s,
acrylics and other plastics have been used as well. Andy
Goldsworthy makes his unusually ephemeral sculptures
3 Materials and techniques from almost entirely natural materials in natural settings.
Some sculpture, such as ice sculpture, sand sculpture, and
gas sculpture, is deliberately short-lived. Recent sculptors
The materials used in sculpture are diverse, changing have used stained glass, tools, machine parts, hardware
throughout history. The classic materials, with outstand- and consumer packaging to fashion their works. Sculp-
ing durability, are metal, especially bronze, stone and pot- tors sometimes use found objects, and Chinese scholars’
tery, with wood, bone and antler less durable but cheaper rocks have been appreciated for many centuries.
options. Precious materials such as gold, silver, jade,
and ivory are often used for small luxury works, and
sometimes in larger ones, as in chryselephantine statues. 3.1 Stone
More common and less expensive materials were used for
sculpture for wider consumption, including hardwoods Stone sculpture is an ancient activity where pieces of
(such as oak, box/boxwood, and lime/linden); terracotta rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal
and other ceramics, wax (a very common material for of stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, ev-
models for casting, and receiving the impressions of idence can be found that even the earliest societies in-
cylinder seals and engraved gems), and cast metals such dulged in some form of stone work, though not all ar-
as pewter and zinc (spelter). But a vast number of other eas of the world have such abundance of good stone for
materials have been used as part of sculptures, in ethno- carving as Egypt, Greece, India and most of Europe.
graphic and ancient works as much as modern ones. Petroglyphs (also called rock engravings) are perhaps the
Sculptures are often painted, but commonly lose their earliest form: images created by removing part of a rock
3.3 Glass 5

Modern reconstruction of the original painted appearance (based

on scientific pigment analysis) of a Late Archaic Greek marble
figure from the Temple of Aphaea, c. 500 BCE Ludwig Gies, cast iron plaquette, 8 x 9.8 cm, “Refugees 1914–
1915”

surface which remains in situ, by incising, pecking, carv-

ing, and abrading. Monumental sculpture covers large
works, and architectural sculpture, which is attached to
buildings. Hardstone carving is the carving for artis-
tic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate,
onyx, rock crystal, sard or carnelian, and a general term
for an object made in this way. Alabaster or mineral
gypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smaller
works and still relatively durable. Engraved gems are
small carved gems, including cameos, originally used as
seal rings.
The copying of an original statue in stone, which was
very important for ancient Greek statues, which are nearly
all known from copies, was traditionally achieved by
"pointing", along with more freehand methods. Pointing
involved setting up a grid of string squares on a wooden
frame surrounding the original, and then measuring the
position on the grid and the distance between grid and 3.3
statue of a series of individual points, and then using this
information to carve into the block from which the copy
is made.[7]
Casting is a group of manufacturing processes by which
a liquid material (bronze, copper, glass, aluminum, iron)
is (usually) poured into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify.
The solid casting is then ejected or broken out to complete
the process,[8] although a final stage of “cold work” may
follow on the finished cast. Casting may be used to form
hot liquid metals or various materials that cold set after
mixing of components (such as epoxies, concrete, plaster
and clay). Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical
to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is
a copper Mesopotamian frog from 3200 BC.[9] Specific
techniques include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting
and sand casting.
Glass

3.2 Metal

Bronze and related copper alloys are the oldest and still
the most popular metals for cast metal sculptures; a cast
bronze sculpture is often called simply a “bronze”. Com-
mon bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable prop-
erty of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling
the finest details of a mold. Their strength and lack of
brittleness (ductility) is an advantage when figures in ac-
tion are to be created, especially when compared to var-
ious ceramic or stone materials (see marble sculpture for Dale Chihuly, 2006, (Blown glass)
several examples). Gold is the softest and most precious
metal, and very important in jewellery; with silver it is Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of
soft enough to be worked with hammers and other tools working techniques, though the use of it for large works
as well as cast; repoussé and chasing are among the tech- is a recent development. It can be carved, with con-
niques used in gold and silversmithing. siderable difficulty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but
6 4 SOCIAL STATUS OF SCULPTORS

unique.[10] Hot casting can be done by ladling molten

glass into molds that have been created by pressing shapes
into sand, carved graphite or detailed plaster/silica molds.
Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in a
kiln until they are liquid and flow into a waiting mold be-
low it in the kiln. Glass can also be blown and/or hot
sculpted with hand tools either as a solid mass or as part
of a blown object.

Detail of Jesus just dead, Spanish, wood and polychrome, 1793.

than the wood, and is often missing in surviving pieces.

Painted wood is often technically described as “wood and
polychrome". Typically a layer of gesso or plaster is ap-
plied to the wood, and then the paint is applied to that.

A carved wooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty 960–1279, 4 Social status of sculptors
Shanghai Museum

3.4 Pottery
Pottery is one of the oldest materials for sculpture, as well
as clay being the medium in which many sculptures cast
in metal are originally modelled for casting. Sculptors
often build small preliminary works called maquettes of
ephemeral materials such as plaster of Paris, wax, un-
fired clay, or plasticine.[11] Many cultures have produced
pottery which combines a function as a vessel with a
sculptural form, and small figurines have often been as
popular as they are in modern Western culture. Stamps
and moulds were used by most ancient civilizations, from
ancient Rome and Mesopotamia to China.[12]

3.5 Wood carving

Wood carving has been extremely widely practiced, but
survives much less well than the other main materials, be-
ing vulnerable to decay, insect damage, and fire. It there-
fore forms an important hidden element in the art his-
tory of many cultures.[3] Outdoor wood sculpture does
not last long in most parts of the world, so that we have
little idea how the totem pole tradition developed. Many
Nuremberg sculptor Adam Kraft, self-portrait from St Lorenz
of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in
Church, 1490s.
particular are in wood, and the great majority of African
sculpture and that of Oceania and other regions. Worldwide, sculptors have usually been tradesmen whose
Wood is light, so suitable for masks and other sculpture work is unsigned; in some traditions, for example China,
intended to be carried, and can take very fine detail. It where sculpture did not share the prestige of literati paint-
is also much easier to work than stone. It has been very ing, this has affected the status of sculpture itself.[13]
often painted after carving, but the paint wears less well Even in ancient Greece, where sculptors such as Phidias
6.1 Prehistoric periods
became famous, they appear to have retained much the
same social status as other artisans, and perhaps not
much greater financial rewards, although some signed
their works.[14] In the Middle Ages artists such as the 12th
century Gislebertus sometimes signed their work, and
were sought after by different cities, especially from the
Trecento onwards in Italy, with figures such as Arnolfo di
Cambio, and Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni. Gold-
smiths and jewellers, dealing with precious materials and
often doubling as bankers, belonged to powerful guilds
and had considerable status, often holding civic office.
Many sculptors also practised in other arts; Andrea del
Verrocchio also painted, and Giovanni Pisano, Michelan-
gelo, and Jacopo Sansovino were architects. Some sculp-
tors maintained large workshops. Even in the Renais-
sance the physical nature of the work was perceived by
Leonardo da Vinci and others as pulling down the sta-
tus of sculpture in the arts, though the reputation of
Michelangelo perhaps put this long-held idea to rest.
From the High Renaissance artists such as Michelangelo,
Leone Leoni and Giambologna could become wealthy,
and ennobled, and enter the circle of princes, after a pe-
riod of sharp argument over the relative status of sculp-
ture and painting.[15] Much decorative sculpture on build-
ings remained a trade, but sculptors producing individual
pieces were recognised on a level with painters. From the
18th century or earlier sculpture also attracted middle-
class students, although it was slower to do so than paint-
ing. Women sculptors took longer to appear than women
painters, and were less prominent until the 20th century.
5 Anti-sculpture movements
Aniconism remained restricted to Judaism, which did not
accept figurative sculpture until the 19th century,[16] be-
fore expanding to Early Buddhism and Early Christianity,
neither of which initially accepted large sculptures. In
both Christianity and Buddhism these early views were
later reversed, and sculpture became very significant, es-
pecially in Buddhism. Christian Eastern Orthodoxy has
never accepted monumental sculpture, and Islam has con-
sistently rejected nearly all figurative sculpture, except for
very small figures in reliefs and some animal figures that
fulfill a useful function, like the famous lions supporting a
fountain in the Alhambra. Many forms of Protestantism
also do not approve of religious sculpture. There has
been much iconoclasm of sculpture from religious mo-
tives, from the Early Christians, the Beeldenstorm of the
Protestant Reformation to the 2001 destruction of the
Buddhas of Bamyan by the Taliban.
6 History of sculpture
7
Venus of Hohle Fels (also known as the Venus of Schelklingen;
is an Upper Paleolithic Venus figurine hewn from ivory of a
mammoth tusk found in 2008 near Schelklingen, Germany. It is
dated to between 35,000 and 40,000 years ago, belonging to the
early Aurignacian, at the very beginning of the Upper Paleolithic,
which is associated with the assumed earliest presence of Homo
sapiens in Europe (Cro-Magnon). Along with the Löwenmensch,
it is the oldest undisputed example of Upper Paleolithic art and
figurative prehistoric art in general.
6.1 Prehistoric periods
The earliest undisputed examples of sculpture belong to
the Aurignacian culture, which was located in Europe
and southwest Asia and active at the beginning of the
Upper Paleolithic. As well as producing some of the
earliest known cave art, the people of this culture devel-
oped finely-crafted stone tools, manufacturing pendants,
bracelets, ivory beads, and bone-flutes, as well as three-
dimensional figurines.[17][18]
The 30 cm tall Löwenmensch found in the Hohlenstein
Stadel area of Germany is an anthropomorphic lion-man
figure carved from woolly mammoth ivory. It has been
dated to about 35-40,000 BP, making it, along with the
Venus of Hohle Fels, the oldest known uncontested ex-
ample of figurative art.[19]
Much surviving prehistoric art is small portable sculp-
tures, with a small group of female Venus figurines such
as the Venus of Willendorf (24-26,000 BP) found across
central Europe.[20] The Swimming Reindeer of about
13,000 years ago is one of the finest of a number of
Magdalenian carvings in bone or antler of animals in the
art of the Upper Paleolithic, although they are outnum-
bered by engraved pieces, which are sometimes classi-
fied as sculpture.[21] Two of the largest prehistoric sculp-
tures can be found at the Tuc d'Audobert caves in France,
where around 12-17,000 years ago a masterful sculptor
used a spatula-like stone tool and fingers to model a pair
of large bison in clay against a limestone rock.[22]
With the beginning of the Mesolithic in Europe figurative
sculpture greatly reduced,[23] and remained a less com-
mon element in art than relief decoration of practical ob-
jects until the Roman period, despite some works such
8 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

as the Gundestrup cauldron from the European Iron Age Stone stelae, votive offerings, or ones probably commem-
and the Bronze Age Trundholm sun chariot.[24] orating victories and showing feasts, are also found from
temples, which unlike more official ones lack inscriptions
[30]
• Löwenmensch, from Hohlenstein-Stadel, now that would explain them; the fragmentary Stele[31] of the
in Ulmer Museum, Ulm, Germany, the oldest Vultures is an early example of the inscribed type, and
known anthropomorphic animal-human statuette, the Assyrian Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III a large and
Aurignacian era, c. 35-40,000 BP solid late one.[32]
The conquest of the whole of Mesopotamia and much
• Venus of Willendorf, c. 24,000−26,000 BP surrounding territory by the Assyrians created a larger
and wealthier state than the region had known before,
• Magdalenian Horse, c. 17,000 BP Musée
and very grandiose art in palaces and public places, no
d'Archéologie Nationale, France
doubt partly intended to match the splendour of the art
• Creeping Hyena, c. 12-17,000 BP, mammoth ivory, of the neighbouring Egyptian empire. The Assyrians de-
found in La Madeleine, France veloped a style of extremely large schemes of very finely
detailed narrative low reliefs in stone for palaces, with
• Swimming Reindeer c. 13,000 BP, female and male scenes of war or hunting; the British Museum has an out-
swimming reindeer - late Magdalenian period, found standing collection. They produced very little sculpture in
at Montastruc, Tarn et Garonne, France the round, except for colossal guardian figures, often the
human-headed lamassu, which are sculpted in high relief
• The Trundholm sun chariot, perhaps 1800–1500 on two sides of a rectangular block, with the heads effec-
BCE; this side is gilded, the other is “dark”. tively in the round (and also five legs, so that both views
seem complete). Even before dominating the region they
• Venus of Laussel c. 27,000 BP, an Upper Palae- had continued the cylinder seal tradition with designs
olithic carving, Bordeaux museum, France which are often exceptionally energetic and refined.[33]
• A Jōmon statue, Japan
• The Guennol Lioness, 3rd millennium BCE, 3.25
inches (8.3 cm) high
6.2 Ancient Near East • One of 18 Statues of Gudea, a ruler around 2090
BCE
Main articles: Art of Mesopotamia and Persian art
• The Burney Relief, Old Babylonian, around 1800
The Protoliterate period in Mesopotamia, dominated by BCE
Uruk, saw the production of sophisticated works like the • Assyrian relief from Nimrud, from c. 728 BCE
Warka Vase and cylinder seals. The Guennol Lioness
is an outstanding small limestone figure from Elam of
about 3000–2800 BC, part human and part lioness.[25] 6.3 Ancient Egypt
A little later there are a number of figures of large-eyed
priests and worshippers, mostly in alabaster and up to a See also: Art of ancient Egypt and Amarna art
foot high, who attended temple cult images of the deity,
but very few of these have survived.[26] Sculptures from The monumental sculpture of ancient Egypt is world-
the Sumerian and Akkadian period generally had large, famous, but refined and delicate small works exist in
staring eyes, and long beards on the men. Many master- much greater numbers. The Egyptians used the distinc-
pieces have also been found at the Royal Cemetery at Ur tive technique of sunk relief, which is well suited to very
(c. 2650 BC), including the two figures of a Ram in a bright sunlight. The main figures in reliefs adhere to the
Thicket, the Copper Bull and a bull’s head on one of the same figure convention as in painting, with parted legs
Lyres of Ur.[27] (where not seated) and head shown from the side, but
From the many subsequent periods before the ascendency the torso from the front, and a standard set of propor-
of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the 10th century BCE tions making up the figure, using 18 “fists” to go from the
Mesopotamian art survives in a number of forms: cylin- ground to the hair-line on the forehead.[34] This appears
der seals, relatively small figures in the round, and reliefs as early as the Narmer Palette from Dynasty I. However,
of various sizes, including cheap plaques of moulded pot- there as elsewhere the convention is not used for minor
tery for the home, some religious and some apparently figures shown engaged in some activity, such as the cap-
not.[28] The Burney Relief is an unusual elaborate and tives and corpses.[35] Other conventions make statues of
relatively large (20 x 15 inches, 50 x 37 cm) terracotta males darker than females ones. Very conventionalized
plaque of a naked winged goddess with the feet of a bird portrait statues appear from as early as Dynasty II, before
of prey, and attendant owls and lions. It comes from the 2,780 BCE,[36] and with the exception of the art of the
18th or 19th centuries BCE, and may also be moulded.[29] Amarna period of Ahkenaten,[37] and some other periods
6.4 Europe 9

already shows the canonical Egyptian profile view

and proportions of the figure.

• Menkaura (Mycerinus) and queen, Old Kingdom,

Dynasty 4, 2490–2472 BC. The formality of the
pose is reduced by the queen’s arm round her hus-
band.

• Wooden tomb models, Dynasty XI; a high adminis-

trator counts his cattle.

• Tutankhamun’s mask, c. late Eighteenth dynasty,

Egyptian Museum

• The Younger Memnon c. 1250 BC, British Museum

• Osiris on a lapis lazuli pillar in the middle, flanked by

Horus on the left, and Isis on the right, 22nd dynasty,
Louvre

• The ka statue provided a physical place for the ka to

manifest. Egyptian Museum, Cairo

• Block statue of Pa-Ankh-Ra, ship master, bearing a

statue of Ptah. Late Period, ca. 650–633 BC, Cab-
inet des Médailles.

Thutmose, Bust of Nefertiti, 1345 BC, Egyptian Museum of 6.4 Europe

Berlin
6.4.1 Ancient Greece
such as Dynasty XII, the idealized features of rulers, like
other Egyptian artistic conventions, changed little until
after the Greek conquest.[38]
Egyptian pharaohs were always regarded as deities, but
other deities are much less common in large statues, ex-
cept when they represent the pharaoh as another deity;
however the other deities are frequently shown in paint-
ings and reliefs. The famous row of four colossal stat-
ues outside the main temple at Abu Simbel each show
Rameses II, a typical scheme, though here exceptionally
large.[39] Small figures of deities, or their animal person-
ifications, are very common, and found in popular mate-
rials such as pottery. Most larger sculpture survives from
Egyptian temples or tombs; by Dynasty IV (2680–2565
BCE) at the latest the idea of the Ka statue was firmly es-
tablished. These were put in tombs as a resting place for Charioteer of Delphi, ancient Greek bronze sculpture, 5th century
BCE, close up head detail
the ka portion of the soul, and so we have a good number
of less conventionalized statues of well-off administra-
tors and their wives, many in wood as Egypt is one of the Main article: Ancient Greek sculpture
few places in the world where the climate allows wood
to survive over millennia. The so-called reserve heads,The first distinctive style of ancient Greek sculpture de-
plain hairless heads, are especially naturalistic. Early
veloped in the Early Bronze Age Cycladic period (3rd
tombs also contained small models of the slaves, animals,
millennium BCE), where marble figures, usually female
buildings and objects such as boats necessary for the de-
and small, are represented in an elegantly simplified geo-
ceased to continue his lifestyle in the afterworld, and later
metrical style. Most typical is a standing pose with arms
Ushabti figures.[40] crossed in front, but other figures are shown in different
poses, including a complicated figure of a harpist seated
• Facsimile of the Narmer Palette, c. 3100 BC, which on a chair.[41]
10 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

The subsequent Minoan and Mycenaean cultures devel-

oped sculpture further, under influence from Syria and
elsewhere, but it is in the later Archaic period from
around 650 BCE that the kouros developed. These are
large standing statues of naked youths, found in temples
and tombs, with the kore as the clothed female equiva-
lent, with elaborately dressed hair; both have the "archaic
smile". They seem to have served a number of functions,
perhaps sometimes representing deities and sometimes
the person buried in a grave, as with the Kroisos Kouros.
They are clearly influenced by Egyptian and Syrian styles,
but the Greek artists were much more ready to experi-
ment within the style.
During the 6th century Greek sculpture developed
rapidly, becoming more naturalistic, and with much more
active and varied figure poses in narrative scenes, though
still within idealized conventions. Sculptured pediments
were added to temples, including the Parthenon in High Classical high relief from the Elgin Marbles, which origi-
Athens, where the remains of the pediment of around 520 nally decorated the Parthenon, c. 447–433 BCE
using figures in the round were fortunately used as infill
for new buildings after the Persian sack in 480 BCE, and
recovered from the 1880s on in fresh unweathered con-
and the harmonious structure of sculpted figures, and the
dition. Other significant remains of architectural sculp-
pursuit of naturalistic representation as an aim, which had
ture come from Paestum in Italy, Corfu, Delphi and the
not been present before. Excavations at the Temple of
Temple of Aphaea in Aegina (much now in Munich).[42]Zeus, Olympia since 1829 have revealed the largest group
of remains, from about 460, of which many are in the
• Cycladic statue 2700–2300 BC. Head from the fig- Louvre.[43]
ure of a woman, H. 27 centimetres (11 in) The “High Classical” period lasted only a few decades
• Cycladic Female Figurine, c. 2500–2400 BCE, 41.5 from about 450 to 400, but has had a momentous in-
cm (16.3 in) high fluence on art, and retains a special prestige, despite a
very restricted number of original survivals. The best
• Mycenae, 1600−1500 BC. Silver rhyton with gold known works are the Parthenon Marbles, traditionally
horns and rosette on the forehead (since Plutarch) executed by a team led by the most fa-
mous ancient Greek sculptor Phidias, active from about
• Lifesize kouros, c. 590–580 BCE, Metropolitan 465–425, who was in his own day more famous for his
Museum of Art colossal chryselephantine Statue of Zeus at Olympia (c.
432), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, his
• The "Naxian Sphinx" from Delphi, 570–560 BC,
Athena Parthenos (438), the cult image of the Parthenon,
the figure 222 cm (87 in) high
and Athena Promachos, a colossal bronze figure that stood
• Peplos Kore, c. 530 BC, Athens, Acropolis Museum next to the Parthenon; all of these are lost but are known
from many representations. He is also credited as the
• Late Archaic warrior from the east pediment of the creator of some life-size bronze statues known only from
Temple of Aphaea, c. 500 later copies whose identification is controversial, includ-
ing the Ludovisi Hermes.[44]
• The Amathus sarcophagus, from Amathus, Cyprus,
2nd quarter of the 5th century BC Archaic period, The High Classical style continued to develop realism and
Metropolitan Museum of Art sophistication in the human figure, and improved the de-
piction of drapery (clothes), using it to add to the im-
pact of active poses. Facial expressions were usually very
Classical There are fewer original remains from the restrained, even in combat scenes. The composition of
first phase of the Classical period, often called the Severe groups of figures in reliefs and on pediments combined
style; free-standing statues were now mostly made in complexity and harmony in a way that had a permanent
bronze, which always had value as scrap. The Severe style influence on Western art. Relief could be very high in-
lasted from around 500 in reliefs, and soon after 480 in deed, as in the Parthenon illustration below, where most
statues, to about 450. The relatively rigid poses of figures of the leg of the warrior is completely detached from the
relaxed, and asymmetrical turning positions and oblique background, as were the missing parts; relief this high
views became common, and deliberately sought. This made sculptures more subject to damage.[45] The Late
was combined with a better understanding of anatomy Classical style developed the free-standing female nude
6.4 Europe
statue, supposedly an innovation of Praxiteles, and de-
veloped increasingly complex and subtle poses that were
interesting when viewed from a number of angles, as well
as more expressive faces; both trends were to be taken
much further in the Hellenistic period.[46]
The Pergamene style of the Hellenistic period, from the Pergamon
Altar, early 2nd century
Hellenistic The Hellenistic period is conventionally
dated from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC,
and ending either with the final conquest of the Greek
heartlands by Rome in 146 BC or with the final defeat of
the last remaining successor-state to Alexander’s empire
after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, which also marks
the end of Republican Rome.[47] It is thus much longer
than the previous periods, and includes at least two ma-
jor phases: a “Pergamene” style of experimentation, ex-
uberance and some sentimentality and vulgarity, and in
the 2nd century BC a classicising return to a more aus-
tere simplicity and elegance; beyond such generalizations
dating is typically very uncertain, especially when only
later copies are known, as is usually the case. The ini-
tial Pergamene style was not especially associated with
Pergamon, from which it takes its name, but the very
wealthy kings of that state were among the first to collect
and also copy Classical sculpture, and also commissioned
much new work, including the famous Pergamon Altar
whose sculpture is now mostly in Berlin and which exem-
plifies the new style, as do the Mausoleum at Halicarnas-
sus (another of the Seven Wonders), the famous Laocoön
and his Sons in the Vatican Museums, a late example,
and the bronze original of The Dying Gaul (illustrated at
top), which we know was part of a group actually com-
missioned for Pergamon in about 228 BC, from which
the Ludovisi Gaul was also a copy. The group called the
Farnese Bull, possibly a 2nd-century marble original, is
still larger and more complex,[48]
Hellenistic sculpture greatly expanded the range of sub-
jects represented, partly as a result of greater general
prosperity, and the emergence of a very wealthy class
who had large houses decorated with sculpture, although
we know that some examples of subjects that seem best
suited to the home, such as children with animals, were
11
Small Greek terracotta figurines were very popular as ornaments
in the home
in fact placed in temples or other public places. For a
much more popular home decoration market there were
Tanagra figurines, and those from other centres where
small pottery figures were produced on an industrial scale,
some religious but others showing animals and elegantly
dressed ladies. Sculptors became more technically skilled
in representing facial expressions conveying a wide va-
riety of emotions and the portraiture of individuals, as
well representing different ages and races. The reliefs
from the Mausoleum are rather atypical in that respect;
most work was free-standing, and group compositions
with several figures to be seen in the round, like the Lao-
coon and the Pergamon group celebrating victory over
the Gauls became popular, having been rare before. The
Barberini Faun, showing a satyr sprawled asleep, presum-
ably after drink, is an example of the moral relaxation of
the period, and the readiness to create large and expensive
sculptures of subjects that fall short of the heroic.[49]
After the conquests of Alexander Hellenistic culture was
dominant in the courts of most of the Near East, and some
of Central Asia, and increasingly being adopted by Euro-
pean elites, especially in Italy, where Greek colonies ini-
tially controlled most of the South. Hellenistic art, and
artists, spread very widely, and was especially influential
in the expanding Roman Republic and when it encoun-
tered Buddhism in the easternmost extensions of the Hel-
12 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

lenistic area. The massive so-called Alexander Sarcoph- expanding Roman Republic began to conquer Greek ter-
agus found in Sidon in modern Lebanon, was probably ritory, at first in Southern Italy and then the entire Hel-
made there at the start of the period by expatriate Greeklenistic world except for the Parthian far east, official
artists for a Hellenized Persian governor.[50] The wealthand patrician sculpture became largely an extension of
of the period led to a greatly increased production of lux-
the Hellenistic style, from which specifically Roman el-
ury forms of small sculpture, including engraved gems ements are hard to disentangle, especially as so much
and cameos, jewellery, and gold and silverware. Greek sculpture survives only in copies of the Roman
period.[51] By the 2nd century BCE, “most of the sculp-
[52]
• The Riace Bronzes, very rare bronze figures recov- tors working at Rome” were Greek, often enslaved in
ered from the sea, c. 460–430 conquests such as that of Corinth (146 BCE), and sculp-
tors continued to be mostly Greeks, often slaves, whose
• Hermes and the Infant Dionysos, possibly an original names are very rarely recorded. Vast numbers of Greek
by Praxiteles, 4th century statues were imported to Rome, whether as booty or the
result of extortion or commerce, and temples were often
• Two elegant ladies, pottery figurines, 350–300 decorated with re-used Greek works.[53]

• Bronze Statuette of a Horse, late 2nd – 1st century A native Italian style can be seen in the tomb monu-
B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art ments, which very often featured portrait busts, of pros-
perous middle-class Romans, and portraiture is arguably
• The Winged Victory of Samothrace, c. 190 BC, the main strength of Roman sculpture. There are no sur-
Louvre vivals from the tradition of masks of ancestors that were
worn in processions at the funerals of the great families
• Venus de Milo, c. 130 – 100 BC, Greek, the Louvre and otherwise displayed in the home, but many of the
busts that survive must represent ancestral figures, per-
• Laocoön and his Sons, Greek, (Late Hellenistic), haps from the large family tombs like the Tomb of the
perhaps a copy, between 200 BC and 20 AD, White Scipios or the later mausolea outside the city. The fa-
marble, Vatican Museum mous bronze head supposedly of Lucius Junius Brutus is
• Leochares, Apollo Belvedere, c. 130 – 140 AD. Ro- very variously dated, but taken as a very rare survival of
man copy after a Greek bronze original of 330–320 Italic style[54]
under the Republic, in the preferred medium
BC. Vatican Museums of bronze. Similarly stern and forceful heads are seen
on coins of the Late Republic, and in the Imperial pe-
riod coins as well as busts sent around the Empire to be
6.4.2 Europe after the Greeks placed in the basilicas of provincial cities were the main
visual form of imperial propaganda; even Londinium had
Roman sculpture Main article: Roman sculpture a near-colossal statue of Nero, though far smaller than the
[55]
Early Roman art was influenced by the art of Greece and 30 metre high Colossus of Nero in Rome, now lost.

Augustan state Greco-Roman style on the Ara Pacis, 13 BCE

Section of Trajan’s Column, CE 113, with scenes from the Dacian
Wars
that of the neighbouring Etruscans, themselves greatly in-
fluenced by their Greek trading partners. An Etruscan
speciality was near life size tomb effigies in terracotta,
usually lying on top of a sarcophagus lid propped up on
one elbow in the pose of a diner in that period. As the
The Romans did not generally attempt to compete with
free-standing Greek works of heroic exploits from his-
tory or mythology, but from early on produced historical
works in relief, culminating in the great Roman triumphal
columns with continuous narrative reliefs winding around
them, of which those commemorating Trajan (CE 113)
6.4 Europe 13

and Marcus Aurelius (by 193) survive in Rome, where the so-called Otricoli basilica in Lanuvium, Italy,
the Ara Pacis (“Altar of Peace”, 13 BCE) represents the Vatican Museums
official Greco-Roman style at its most classical and re-
fined. Among other major examples are the earlier re- • Commodus dressed as Hercules, c. 191 CE, in the
used reliefs on the Arch of Constantine and the base of late imperial “baroque” style
the Column of Antoninus Pius (161),[56] Campana reliefs
• The Four Tetrarchs, c. 305, showing the new anti-
were cheaper pottery versions of marble reliefs and the
classical style, in porphyry, now San Marco, Venice
taste for relief was from the imperial period expanded to
the sarcophagus. All forms of luxury small sculpture con- • The cameo gem known as the "Great Cameo of
tinued to be patronized, and quality could be extremely France", c. 23 CE, with an allegory of Augustus
high, as in the silver Warren Cup, glass Lycurgus Cup, and his family
and large cameos like the Gemma Augustea, Gonzaga
Cameo and the "Great Cameo of France".[57] For a much
wider section of the population, moulded relief decora-
tion of pottery vessels and small figurines were produced
in great quantity and often considerable quality.[58]
After moving through a late 2nd-century “baroque”
phase,[59] in the 3rd century, Roman art largely aban-
doned, or simply became unable to produce, sculpture
in the classical tradition, a change whose causes remain
much discussed. Even the most important imperial mon-
uments now showed stumpy, large-eyed figures in a harsh
Silver monster on a chape, Scottish or Anglo-Saxon, St Ninian’s
frontal style, in simple compositions emphasizing power Isle Treasure, c. 800?
at the expense of grace. The contrast is famously il-
lustrated in the Arch of Constantine of 315 in Rome,
which combines sections in the new style with roundels in
the earlier full Greco-Roman style taken from elsewhere,
and the Four Tetrarchs (c. 305) from the new capital of
Constantinople, now in Venice. Ernst Kitzinger found in
both monuments the same “stubby proportions, angular
movements, an ordering of parts through symmetry and
repetition and a rendering of features and drapery folds
through incisions rather than modelling... The hallmark
of the style wherever it appears consists of an emphatic
hardness, heaviness and angularity — in short, an almost
complete rejection of the classical tradition”.[60]
This revolution in style shortly preceded the period in
which Christianity was adopted by the Roman state and
the great majority of the people, leading to the end of
large religious sculpture, with large statues now only used
for emperors. However, rich Christians continued to
commission reliefs for sarcophagi, as in the Sarcophagus
of Junius Bassus, and very small sculpture, especially in
ivory, was continued by Christians, building on the style
of the consular diptych.[61]

• Etruscan sarcophagus, 3rd century BCE

• The "Capitoline Brutus", dated to the 3rd or 1st cen-

tury BCE

• Augustus of Prima Porta, statue of the emperor

Augustus, 1st century CE. Vatican Museums
The Gero Cross, c. 965–970, Cologne, Germany
• Tomb relief of the Decii, 98–117 CE
Early Medieval and Byzantine The Early Chris-
• Bust of Emperor Claudius, c. 50 CE, (reworked tians were opposed to monumental religious sculpture,
from a bust of emperor Caligula), It was found in though continuing Roman traditions in portrait busts and
14 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

sarcophagus reliefs, as well as smaller objects such as the

consular diptych. Such objects, often in valuable materi-
als, were also the main sculptural traditions (as far as is
known) of the barbaric civilizations of the Migration pe-
riod, as seen in the objects found in the 6th-century burial
treasure at Sutton Hoo, and the jewellery of Scythian art
and the hybrid Christian and animal style productions of
Insular art. Following the continuing Byzantine tradition,
Carolingian art revived ivory carving, often in panels for
the treasure bindings of grand illuminated manuscripts,
as well as crozier heads and other small fittings.
Byzantine art, though producing superb ivory reliefs and
architectural decorative carving, never returned to mon-
umental sculpture, or even much small sculpture in the
round.[62] However, in the West during the Carolingian
and Ottonian periods there was the beginnings of a pro-
duction of monumental statues, in courts and major
churches. This gradually spread; by the late 10th and 11th
The Brunswick Lion, 1166, the first large hollow casting of a
century there are records of several apparently life-size
figure since antiquity, 1.78 metres tall and 2.79 metres long
sculptures in Anglo-Saxon churches, probably of precious
metal around a wooden frame, like the Golden Madonna
of Essen. No Anglo-Saxon example has survived,[63] and with sculpture include in France Vézelay and Moissac and
survivals of large non-architectural sculpture from before in Spain Silos.[64]
1,000 are exceptionally rare. Much the finest is the Gero
Cross, of 965–70, which is a crucifix, which was evidently Romanesque art was characterised by a very vigorous
the commonest type of sculpture; Charlemagne had set style in both sculpture and painting. The capitals of
one up in the Palatine Chapel in Aachen around 800. columns were never more exciting than in this period,
These continued to grow in popularity, especially in Ger- when they were often carved with complete scenes with
many and Italy. The rune stones of the Nordic world, the several figures.[65] The large wooden crucifix was a Ger-
Pictish stones of Scotland and possibly the high cross re-man innovation right at the start of the period, as were
liefs of Christian Great Britain, were northern sculpturalfree-standing statues of the enthroned Madonna, but the
traditions that bridged the period of Christianization. high relief was above all the sculptural mode of the pe-
riod. Compositions usually had little depth, and needed to
be flexible to squeeze themselves into the shapes of cap-
• Archangel Ivory, 525–550, Constantinople itals, and church typanums; the tension between a tightly
enclosing frame, from which the composition sometimes
• Late Carolingian ivory panel, probably meant for a
escapes, is a recurrent theme in Romanesque art. Figures
book-cover
still often varied in size in relation to their importance
• The Harbaville Triptych, Byzantine ivory, mid-10th portraiture hardly existed.
century Objects in precious materials such as ivory and metal
had a very high status in the period, much more so than
• Detail of Christ on the Gero Cross, Cologne 965– monumental sculpture — we know the names of more
970, the first great example of the revival of large makers of these than painters, illuminators or architect-
sculpture masons. Metalwork, including decoration in enamel, be-
came very sophisticated, and many spectacular shrines
made to hold relics have survived, of which the best
Romanesque Main article: Romanesque art known is the Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathe-
dral by Nicholas of Verdun. The bronze Gloucester can-
From about 1000 there was a general rebirth of artis- dlestick and the brass font of 1108–17 now in Liège are
tic production in all Europe, led by general economic superb examples, very different in style, of metal cast-
growth in production and commerce, and the new style ing, the former highly intricate and energetic, drawing on
of Romanesque art was the first medieval style to be used manuscript painting, while the font shows the Mosan style
in the whole of Western Europe. The new cathedrals and at its most classical and majestic. The bronze doors, a
pilgrim’s churches were increasingly decorated with ar- triumphal column and other fittings at Hildesheim Cathe-
chitectural stone reliefs, and new focuses for sculpture dral, the Gniezno Doors, and the doors of the Basilica di
developed, such as the tympanum over church doors in San Zeno in Verona are other substantial survivals. The
the 12th century, and the inhabited capital with figures aquamanile, a container for water to wash with, appears
and often narrative scenes. Outstanding abbey churches to have been introduced to Europe in the 11th century,
6.4 Europe 15

and often took fantastic zoomorphic forms; surviving ex-

amples are mostly in brass. Many wax impressions from
impressive seals survive on charters and documents, al-
though Romanesque coins are generally not of great aes-
thetic interest.[66]
The Cloisters Cross is an unusually large ivory crucifix,
with complex carving including many figures of prophets
and others, which has been attributed to one of the rel-
atively few artists whose name is known, Master Hugo,
who also illuminated manuscripts. Like many pieces
it was originally partly coloured. The Lewis chessmen
are well-preserved examples of small ivories, of which
many pieces or fragments remain from croziers, plaques,
pectoral crosses and similar objects.

• Baptismal font at St Bartholomew’s Church, Liège,

Baptism of Christ, 1107–1118
• The tympanum of Vézelay Abbey, Burgundy,
France, 1130s
• Facade, Cathedral of Ourense 1160, Spain
• Pórtico da Gloria, Cathedral of Santiago de Com-
postela, Galicia, Spain, c. 12th–13th centuries

Gothic Main article: Gothic art

The Gothic period is essentially defined by Gothic ar-
chitecture, and does not entirely fit with the development
of style in sculpture in either its start or finish. The fa-
cades of large churches, especially around doors, contin-
ued to have large typanums, but also rows of sculpted fig-
ures spreading around them. The statues on the Western
(Royal) Portal at Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145) show an
elegant but exaggerated columnar elongation, but those
on the south transept portal, from 1215 to 1220, show
a more naturalistic style and increasing detachment from
the wall behind, and some awareness of the classical tra-
dition. These trends were continued in the west portal at
Rheims Cathedral of a few years later, where the figures
are almost in the round, as became usual as Gothic spread
across Europe.[67]
In Italy Nicola Pisano (1258–78) and his son Giovanni
developed a style that is often called Proto-Renaissance,
with unmistakable influence from Roman sarcophagi
and sophisticated and crowded compositions, including
a sympathetic handling of nudity, in relief panels on
their pulpit of Siena Cathedral (1265–68), the Fontana
Maggiore in Perugia, and Giovanni’s pulpit in Pistoia of
1301.[68] Another revival of classical style is seen in the
International Gothic work of Claus Sluter and his fol-
lowers in Burgundy and Flanders around 1400.[69] Late
Gothic sculpture continued in the North, with a fashion
for very large wooden sculpted altarpieces with increas-
ingly virtuoso carving and large numbers agitated expres-
sive figures; most surviving examples are in Germany, af-
ter much iconoclasm elsewhere. Tilman Riemenschnei-
der, Veit Stoss and others continued the style well into
French ivory Virgin and Child, end of 13th century, 25 cm high,
curving to fit the shape of the ivory tusk
the 16th century, gradually absorbing Italian Renaissance
influences.[70]
Life-size tomb effigies in stone or alabaster became pop-
ular for the wealthy, and grand multi-level tombs evolved,
with the Scaliger Tombs of Verona so large they had to
be moved outside the church. By the 15th century there
was an industry exporting Nottingham alabaster altar re-
liefs in groups of panels over much of Europe for eco-
nomical parishes who could not afford stone retables.[71]
Small carvings, for a mainly lay and often female mar-
ket, became a considerable industry in Paris and some
other centres. Types of ivories included small devo-
tional polyptychs, single figures, especially of the Virgin,
mirror-cases, combs, and elaborate caskets with scenes
from Romances, used as engagement presents.[72] The
very wealthy collected extravagantly elaborate jewelled
and enamelled metalwork, both secular and religious, like
the Duc de Berry's Holy Thorn Reliquary, until they ran
short of money, when they were melted down again for
cash.[73]
16 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

• West portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 1145)

• South portal of Chartres Cathedral (c. 1215–20)

• West portal at Rheims Cathedral, Annunciation

group

• Nicola Pisano, Nativity and Adoration of the Magi

from the pulpit of the Pisa Baptistery

• The Bamberg Horseman 1237, life-size stone

equestrian statue, the first such antiquity

• Lid of the Walters Casket, with the Siege of the Cas-

tle of Love at left, and jousting. Paris, 1330–1350

• Siege of the Castle of Love on a mirror-case in the

Louvre, 1350–1370; the ladies are losing.

• Central German Pietà, 1330–40

• Claus Sluter, David and a prophet from the Well of

Moses

• Base of the Holy Thorn Reliquary, a Resurrection of

the Dead in gold, enamel and gems

• Section of a panelled altarpiece with Resurrection Michelangelo, The Tomb of Pope Julius II, c. 1545, with statues
of Christ, English, 1450–90, Nottingham alabaster of Rachel and Leah on the left and the right of his Moses.
with remains of colour

• Detail of the Last Supper from Tilman Riemen- Baptistry in 1403, from which the trial models sub-
schneider's Altar of the Holy Blood, 1501–05, mitted by the winner, Lorenzo Ghiberti, and Filippo
Rothenburg ob der Tauber, Bavaria Brunelleschi survive. Ghiberti’s doors are still in place,
but were undoubtedly eclipsed by his second pair for the
other entrance, the so-called “Gates of Paradise”, which
6.4.3 Renaissance
took him from 1425 to 1452, and are dazzlingly confident
classicizing compositions with varied depths of relief al-
lowing extensive backgrounds.[74] The intervening years
had seen Ghiberti’s early assistant Donatello develop with
seminal statues including his Davids in marble (1408–09)
and bronze (1440s), and his Equestrian statue of Gat-
tamelata, as well as reliefs.[75] A leading figure in the later
period was Andrea del Verrocchio, best known for his
equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleoni in Venice;[76]
his pupil Leonardo da Vinci designed an equine sculp-
ture in 1482 The Horse for Milan-but only succeeded in
making a 24-foot (7.3 m) clay model which was destroyed
by French archers in 1499, and his other ambitious sculp-
tural plans were never completed.[77]
The period was marked by a great increase in patron-
age of sculpture by the state for public art and by the
wealthy for their homes; especially in Italy, public sculp-
ture remains a crucial element in the appearance of his-
toric city centres. Church sculpture mostly moved in-
side just as outside public monuments became common.
Portrait sculpture, usually in busts, became popular in
Michelangelo, Pietà, 1499. Italy around 1450, with the Neapolitan Francesco Lau-
rana specializing in young women in meditative poses,
Renaissance sculpture proper is often taken to begin with while Antonio Rossellino and others more often depicted
the famous competition for the doors of the Florence knobbly-faced men of affairs, but also young children.[78]
6.4 Europe 17

The portrait medal invented by Pisanello also often de-

picted women; relief plaquettes were another new small
form of sculpture in cast metal.
Michelangelo was an active sculptor from about 1500 to
1520, and his great masterpieces including his David,
Pietà, Moses, and pieces for the Tomb of Pope Julius II
and Medici Chapel could not be ignored by subsequent
sculptors. His iconic David (1504) has a contrapposto
pose, borrowed from classical sculpture. It differs from
previous representations of the subject in that David is
depicted before his battle with Goliath and not after the
giant’s defeat. Instead of being shown victorious, as Do-
natello and Verocchio had done, David looks tense and
battle ready.[79]

• Lorenzo Ghiberti, panel of the Sacrifice of Isaac

from the Florence Baptistry doors; oblique view
here

• Luca della Robbia, detail of Cantoria, c. 1438,

Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence

• Donatello, David c. 1440s, Bargello Museum,

Florence

• Donatello, Judith and Holofernes, c. 1460, Palazzo

Vecchio, Florence

• Francesco Laurana, female bust (cast)

• Verrocchio, Doubting Thomas, 1467–83,

Orsanmichele, Florence

• Michelangelo, David, c. 1504, Galleria Adriaen de Vries, Mercury and Psyche Northern Mannerist life-
dell'Accademia, Florence size bronze, made in 1593 for Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor.

• Michelangelo, Dying Slave, c. 1513–1516

with eight angles of view, another Mannerist character-
istic, but is indeed mannered compared to the Davids of
6.4.4 Mannerist Michelangelo and Donatello.[81] Originally a goldsmith,
his famous gold and enamel Salt Cellar (1543) was his
Main article: Mannerism first sculpture, and shows his talent at its best.[82] As these
examples show, the period extended the range of secular
subjects for large works beyond portraits, with mytho-
As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was very
logical figures especially favoured; previously these had
largely an attempt to find an original style that would top
mostly been found in small works.
the achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculp-
ture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the Small bronze figures for collector’s cabinets, often mytho-
struggle to achieve this was played out in commissions logical subjects with nudes, were a popular Renaissance
to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Flo- form at which Giambologna, originally Flemish but based
rence, next to Michelangelo’s David. Baccio Bandinelli in Florence, excelled in the later part of the century, also
took over the project of Hercules and Cacus from the creating life-size sculptures, of which two joined the col-
master himself, but it was little more popular than it is lection in the Piazza della Signoria. He and his followers
now, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to devised elegant elongated examples of the figura serpenti-
“a sack of melons”, though it had a long-lasting effect nata, often of two intertwined figures, that were interest-
[83]
in apparently introducing relief panels on the pedestal of ing from all angles.
statues. Like other works of his and other Mannerists it
removes far more of the original block than Michelan- • Stucco overdoor at Fontainebleau, probably de-
gelo would have done.[80] Cellini’s bronze Perseus with signed by Primaticcio, who painted the oval inset,
the head of Medusa is certainly a masterpiece, designed 1530s or 1540s
18 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

• Benvenuto Cellini, Perseus with the head of Medusa, • Franz Anton Bustelli, Rococo Nymphenburg Porce-
1545–1554 lain group

• Giambologna, Samson Slaying a Philistine, about

1562 6.4.6 Neo-Classical

• Giambologna, The Rape of the Sabine Women, Main article: Neoclassical sculpture
1583, Florence, Italy, 13' 6” (4.1 m) high, marble The Neoclassical style that arrived in the late 18th cen-

6.4.5 Baroque and Rococo

Main article: Baroque sculpture

In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new im-

portance, and there was a dynamic movement and en-
ergy of human forms— they spiralled around an empty
central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding
space. Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal view-
ing angles, and reflected a general continuation of the Re-
naissance move away from the relief to sculpture created
in the round, and designed to be placed in the middle
of a large space – elaborate fountains such as Bernini’s
Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (Rome, 1651), or those in
the Gardens of Versailles were a Baroque speciality. The
Baroque style was perfectly suited to sculpture, with Gian
Lorenzo Bernini the dominating figure of the age in works
such as The Ecstasy of St Theresa (1647–1652).[84] Much
Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for
example, concealed lighting, or water fountains, or fused
sculpture and architecture to create a transformative ex-
perience for the viewer. Artists saw themselves as in the
classical tradition, but admired Hellenistic and later Ro-
man sculpture, rather than that of the more “Classical”
periods as they are seen today.[85]
The Protestant Reformation brought an almost total stop Antonio Canova: Psyche Revived by Love’s Kiss, 1787
to religious sculpture in much of Northern Europe, and
though secular sculpture, especially for portrait busts tury gave great emphasis to sculpture. Jean-Antoine
and tomb monuments, continued, the Dutch Golden Houdon exemplifies the penetrating portrait sculpture the
Age has no significant sculptural component outside style could produce, and Antonio Canova's nudes the ide-
goldsmithing.[86] Partly in direct reaction, sculpture was alist aspect of the movement. The Neoclassical period
as prominent in Catholicism as in the late Middle Ages. was one of the great ages of public sculpture, though
Statues of rulers and the nobility became increasingly its “classical” prototypes were more likely to be Roman
popular. In the 18th century much sculpture continued copies of Hellenistic sculptures. In sculpture, the most fa-
on Baroque lines – the Trevi Fountain was only completed miliar representatives are the Italian Antonio Canova, the
in 1762. Rococo style was better suited to smaller works, Englishman John Flaxman and the Dane Bertel Thorvald-
and arguably found its ideal sculptural form in early Euro- sen. The European neoclassical manner also took hold in
pean porcelain, and interior decorative schemes in wood the United States, where its pinnacle occurred somewhat
or plaster such as those in French domestic interiors and later and is exemplified in the sculptures of Hiram Pow-
Austrian and Bavarian pilgrimage churches.[87] ers.

• Jean-Antoine Houdon, Bust of Benjamin Franklin,

• Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Apollo and Daphne in the
Galleria Borghese, 1622–1625
• Bust of Louis XIV, 1686, by Antoine Coysevox
• Pierre Paul Puget, Perseus and Andromeda, 1715,
Musée du Louvre
1778, Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Bertel Thorvaldsen: Jason and the Golden Fleece
(1803)
• John Flaxman, Memorial in the church at Badger,
Shropshire, c. 1780s
6.5 Asia 19

• Hiram Powers, 1851, The Greek Slave, Yale Univer- adopted while others did not spread beyond the Greco-
sity Art Gallery Buddhist area; in particular the standing figure, often with
a relaxed pose and one leg flexed, and the flying cupids
or victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras.
6.5 Asia Greek foliage decoration was also influential, with Indian
versions of the Corinthian capital appearing.[88]
6.5.1 Greco-Buddhist sculpture and Asia
The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in
the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE –
130 BCE), located in today’s Afghanistan, from which
Hellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinent
with the establishment of the small Indo-Greek kingdom
(180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then the
Kushans, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture
flourished in the area of Gandhara, in today’s northern
Pakistan, before spreading further into India, influencing
the art of Mathura, and then the Hindu art of the Gupta
empire, which was to extend to the rest of South-East
Asia. The influence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread
northward towards Central Asia, strongly affecting the
art of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves, and ulti-
mately the sculpted figure in China, Korea, and Japan.[89]

• Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding plantain

One of the first representations of the Buddha, 1st–2nd century
CE, Gandhara
Main article: Greco-Buddhist art
Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-
Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical
Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a
period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between
the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century
BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE.
Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealis-
tic realism of Hellenistic art and the first representations
of the Buddha in human form, which have helped define
the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Bud-
dhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present.
Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hel-
lenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries
after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late
as the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were
leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian
columns, 1st–2nd century CE. Buner, Swat,
Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum
• Fragment of the wind god Boreas, Hadda,
Afghanistan.
• Coin of Demetrius I of Bactria, who reigned circa
200–180 BC and invaded Northern India
• Buddha head from Hadda, Afghanistan, 3rd–4th
centuries
• Gandhara Poseidon (Ancient Orient Museum)
• The Buddhist gods Pancika (left) and Hariti (right),
3rd century, Gandhara
• Taller Buddha of Bamiyan, c. 547 AD., in 1963 and
in 2008 after they were dynamited and destroyed in
March 2001 by the Taliban
• Statue from a Buddhist monastery 700 AD,
Afghanistan
6.5.2 China
Main articles: Chinese art, Chinese ceramics,
Lacquerware, and Chinese jade
Chinese ritual bronzes from the Shang and Western
Zhou Dynasties come from a period of over a thousand
years from c. 1500 BC, and have exerted a continuing
influence over Chinese art. They are cast with complex
patterned and zoomorphic decoration, but avoid the
human figure, unlike the huge figures only recently
discovered at Sanxingdui.[90] The spectacular Terracotta
Army was assembled for the tomb of Qin Shi Huang,
20 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

cave-complexes, and as outside rock reliefs. These were

mostly originally painted. Sculptors of all sorts were re-
garded as artisans and very few names are recorded.[95]
From the Ming dynasty onwards, statuettes of religious
and secular figures were produced in Chinese porcelain
and other media, which became an important export.

• A bronze ding from late Shang dynasty (13th cen-

tury BC-10th century BC)

• A tomb guardian usually placed inside the doors of

the tomb to protect or guide the soul, Warring States
period, ca. 3rd century BCE

• Lifesize calvalryman from the Terracotta Army, Qin

dynasty, ca. 3rd century BC

• Gold stag with eagle’s head, Xiongnu tomb on the

Mongolian frontier, 4th-3rd century BC

• Tomb figure of dancing girl, Han Dynasty (202 BC-

220 AD)

• Bronze cowrie container with yaks, from the Dian

Kingdom (4th century BC - 109 BC) tradition of
A Liao dynasty polychrome wood-carved statue of Guan Yin,
the Western Han
Shanxi Province, China, (907–1125 AD)
• Northern Wei dynasty Maitreya (386–534)

• Sancai pottery, tomb figure of horse and groom,

the first emperor of a unified China from 221–210 BCE,
as a grand imperial version of the figures long placed in
tombs to enable the deceased to enjoy the same lifestyle
in the afterlife as when alive, replacing actual sacrifices
of very early periods. Smaller figures in pottery or wood
were placed in tombs for many centuries afterwards,
reaching a peak of quality in the Tang dynasty.[91] The
tradition of unusually large pottery figures persisted
in China, through Tang sancai tomb figures to later
Buddhist statues such as the near life-size set of Yixian
glazed pottery luohans and later figures for temples and
tombs. These came to replace earlier equivalents in
wood.
Native Chinese religions do not usually use cult images of
deities, or even represent them, and large religious sculp-
ture is nearly all Buddhist, dating mostly from the 4th
to the 14th century, and initially using Greco-Buddhist
models arriving via the Silk Road. Buddhism is also the
context of all large portrait sculpture; in total contrast to
some other areas, in medieval China even painted im-
ages of the emperor were regarded as private. Imperial
tombs have spectacular avenues of approach lined with
real and mythological animals on a scale matching Egypt,
and smaller versions decorate temples and palaces.[92]
Small Buddhist figures and groups were produced to a
very high quality in a range of media,[93] as was relief
decoration of all sorts of objects, especially in metal-
work and jade.[94] In the earlier periods, large quantities
of sculpture were cut from the living rock in pilgrimage
Tang dynasty (618-907)
• Seated Buddha, Tang dynasty ca. 650.
• An agate cup shaped in an animal head, Tang dy-
nasty
• The Leshan Giant Buddha, Tang dynasty, completed
in 803.
• A wooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty (960–
1279)
• Seated Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara (Guanyin), wood
and pigment, 11th century, Chinese Northern Song
dynasty, St. Louis Art Museum
• Chinese jade Cup with Dragon Handles, Song dy-
nasty, 12th century
• Guanyin Bodhisattva in Blanc de Chine (Dehua
porcelain), by He Chaozong, Ming dynasty, early
17th century
• Blue underglaze statue of a man with his pipe, from
Jingdezhen, Ming Wanli period (1573-1620)
• A Chinese guardian lion outside Yonghe Temple,
Beijing, Qing dynasty, ca. 1694
• The giant wooden bodhisattva of Puning Temple,
Chengde, Hebei province, built in 1755 under the
Qianlong Emperor
6.5 Asia 21

6.5.3 Japan Almost all subsequent significant large sculpture in Japan

was Buddhist, with some Shinto equivalents, and after
See also: Japanese art, Japanese sculpture, and List of Buddhism declined in Japan in the 15th century, mon-
National Treasures of Japan (sculptures) umental sculpture became largely architectural decora-
Towards the end of the long Neolithic Jōmon period, tion and less significant.[98] However sculptural work in
the decorative arts was developed to a remarkable level
of technical achievement and refinement in small objects
such as inro and netsuke in many materials, and metal
tosogu or Japanese sword mountings. In the 19th century
there were export industries of small bronze sculptures
of extreme virtuosity, ivory and porcelain figurines, and
other types of small sculpture, increasingly emphasizing
technical accomplishment.

• Dogū with “snow-goggle” eyes, 1000–400 BC.

• 6th century haniwa figure

• Kongo Rishiki (Guardian Deity) at the Central Gate

of Hōryū-ji

• Priest Ganjin (Jianzhen), Nara period, 8th century

• Jōchō, Amida Buddha, Heian Period, 1053, Byōdō-

in, Kyoto

• Tsuba sword fitting with a “Rabbit Viewing the Au-

tumn Moon”, bronze, gold and silver, between 1670
and 1744

• Izumiya Tomotada, netsuke in the form of a dog, late

18th century

Nara Daibutsu, c. 752, Nara, Japan
some pottery vessels were “flame-rimmed” with extrav-
agant extensions to the rim that can only be called
sculptural,[96] and very stylized pottery dogū figures were
produced, many with the characteristic “snow-goggle”
eyes. During the Kofun period of the 3rd to 6th century
CE, haniwa terracotta figures of humans and animals in
a simplistic style were erected outside important tombs.
The arrival of Buddhism in the 6th century brought with it
sophisticated traditions in sculpture, Chinese styles medi-
ated via Korea. The 7th century Hōryū-ji and its contents
have survived more intact than any East Asian Buddhist
temple of its date, with works including a Shaka Trinity
of 623 in bronze, showing the historical Buddha flanked
by two bodhisattvas and also the Guardian Kings of the
Four Directions.[97]
The wooden image (9th century) of Shakyamuni, the
“historic” Buddha, enshrined in a secondary building at
the Murō-ji, is typical of the early Heian sculpture, with
its ponderous body, covered by thick drapery folds carved
in the hompa-shiki (rolling-wave) style, and its austere,
withdrawn facial expression. The Kei school of sculptors,
particularly Unkei, created a new, more realistic style of
sculpture.
• Yamada Chōzaburō, Wind God in repoussé iron, c.
1915
6.5.4 India
See also: Sculpture in South Asia, List of rock-cut tem-
ples in India, and Sculpture of Bangladesh
The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent
is from the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BC),
found in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-
day Pakistan. These include the famous small bronze fe-
male dancer. However, such figures in bronze and stone
are rare and greatly outnumbered by pottery figurines and
stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely de-
picted. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization
there is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era,
apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat con-
troversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad.[99] Thus the
great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone
appears to begin, relative to other cultures, and the de-
velopment of Indian civilization, relatively late, with the
reign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of
Ashoka he erected around India, carrying his edicts and
topped by famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of
22 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

• Ashoka Pillar, Vaishali, Bihar, c. 250 BCE

• Stupa gateway at Sanchi, c. 100 CE or perhaps ear-
lier, with densely packed reliefs
• Buddha from Sarnath, 5–6th century CE
• The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves
• Rock-cut temples at Ellora
• Hindu, Chola period, 1000
• Typical medieval frontal standing statue of Vishnu,
950–1150
• In Khajuraho
• Marble Sculpture of female yakshi in typical curving
pose, c. 1450, Rajasthan
• Gopuram of the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chi-
dambaram, Tamil Nadu, densely packed with rows
of painted statues
• Sculpture of Guardian at the entrance of the Man-
dapam of Sri Jalagandeeswarar Temple, Vellore,
Hindu Gupta terracotta relief, 5th century CE, of Krishna Killing
Tamil Nadu
the Horse Demon Keshi
6.5.5 South-East Asia
[100]
which six survive. Large amounts of figurative sculp-
ture, mostly in relief, survive from Early Buddhist pil-
grimage stupas, above all Sanchi; these probably devel-
oped out of a tradition using wood that also embraced
Hinduism.[101]
The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures
of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected
both native Indian traditions and the Western influences
received through the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara,
and effectively established the basis for subsequent Indian 9th century Khmer lintel
religious sculpture.[101] The style was developed and dif-
fused through most of India under the Gupta Empire (c. The sculpture of the region tends to be characterised
320-550) which remains a “classical” period for Indian by a high degree of ornamentation, as seen in the great
sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,[102] though monuments of Hindu and Buddhist Khmer sculpture (9th
the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later.[103] Later to 13th centuries) at Angkor Wat and elsewhere, the
large-scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, enormous 9th-century Buddhist complex at Borobudur
and generally rather conservative, often reverting to sim- in Java, and the Hindu monuments of Bali.[106] Both
ple frontal standing poses for deities, though the at- of these include many reliefs as well as figures in the
tendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi often have round; Borobudur has 2,672 relief panels, 504 Buddha
sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly de- statues, many semi-concealed in openwork stupas, and
tailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure many large guardian figures.
in high relief. The celebrated bronzes of the Chola dy-
nasty (c. 850–1250) from south India, many designed In Thailand and Laos, sculpture was mainly of Buddha
images, often gilded, both large for temples and monas-
to be carried in processions, include the iconic form
teries, and small figurines for private homes. Traditional
of Shiva as Nataraja,[104] with the massive granite carv-
sculpture in Myanmar emerged before the Bagan period.
ings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava
dynasty.[105] As elsewhere in the region, most of the wood sculptures
of the Bagan and Ava periods have been lost. In later pe-
riods Chinese influence predominated in Vietnam, Laos
• The “dancing girl of Mohenjo Daro", 3rd millen- and Cambodia, and more wooden sculpture survives from
nium BCE (replica) across the region.
6.7 Africa 23

• Apsara and Gandarva pedestal, Trà Kiệu, Cham art, Figures of animals in the round were often acceptable for
Vietnam, c.7th–8th century works used in private contexts if the object was clearly
practical, so medieval Islamic art contains many metal an-
• Relief sculpture from Borobudur temple, Indonesia, imals that are aquamaniles, incense burners or supporters
c. 760–830 for fountains, as in the stone lions supporting the famous
one in the Alhambra, culminating in the largest medieval
• Vairocana Buddha from Borobudur temple,
Islamic animal figure known, the Pisa Griffin. In the
Indonesia, c. 760–830
same way, luxury hardstone carvings such as dagger hilts
• Bronze Avalokiteshvara torso from Chaiya, and cups may be formed as animals, especially in Mughal
Southern Thailand, Srivijayan art, c. 8th century art. The degree of acceptability of such relaxations of
strict Islamic rules varies between periods and regions,
• Bronze Avalokiteshvara from Bidor, Perak, with Islamic Spain, Persia and India often leading relax-
Malaysia, c. 8th-9th century ation, and is typically highest in courtly contexts.[108]

• Vishnu from Prasat Rup Arak, Kulen, Khmer art,

• The Mshatta Facade, from a palace near Damascus,
Cambodia, c. 800-875
740s
• Dragon head palace decoration from the Lý dynasty,
• The Pisa Griffin, 107 cm high, probably 11th cen-
Vietnam, c. 1009–1225
tury
• Buddha in Ananda Temple, Bagan, Myanmar, c.
• Part of a 15th-century ceramic panel from
1105
Samarkand with white calligraphy on a blue
• Stone bas-relief of apsaras from Bayon temple, arabesque background.
Cambodia, c. 1200 • Mughal dagger with hilt in jade, gold, rubies and
• Prajnaparamita Singhasari art, East Java, Indonesia, emeralds. Blade of damascened steel inlaid with
c. 13th century gold.

• Phra Achana, Wat Si Chum, Big Buddha image in

Sukhothai, Thailand, c. 14th century 6.7 Africa

• “the Buddha calling the earth to witness”, The Bud-

dha’s hands are in the bhūmisparsa mudrā (subduing
Māra) position. Ho Phra Kaeo temple, Vientiane,
Laos

6.6 Islam

Ivory with traces of paint, 11th–12th century, Egypt

Islam is famously aniconic, so the vast majority of sculp-

ture is arabesque decoration in relief or openwork, based
on vegetable motifs, but tending to geometrical abstract
forms. In the very early Mshatta Facade (740s), now
mostly in Berlin, there are animals within the dense
arabesques in high relief, and figures of animals and men
in mostly low relief are found in conjunction with decora-
tion on many later pieces in various materials, including Mask from Gabon
metalwork, ivory and ceramics.[107]
24 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

the same region make pieces of wood with broad, flat

surfaces and arms and legs are shaped like cylinders. In
Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing charac-
teristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward
and display patterns of circles and dots.
Populations in the African Great Lakes are not known for
their sculpture.[109] However, one style from the region is
pole sculptures, carved in human shapes and decorated
with geometric forms, while the tops are carved with
figures of animals, people, and various objects. These
poles are, then, placed next to graves and are associ-
ated with death and the ancestral world. The culture
known from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive build-
ings than sculpture but the eight soapstone Zimbabwe
Birds appear to have had a special significance and were
mounted on monoliths. Modern Zimbabwean sculptors in
Two Chiwara c. late 19th early 20th centuries, Art Institute of soapstone have achieved considerable international suc-
Chicago. Female (left) and male Vertical styles cess. Southern Africa’s oldest known clay figures date
from 400 to 600 AD and have cylindrical heads with a
mixture of human and animal features.
Historically, with the exception of some monumental
Egyptian sculpture, most African sculpture was created in • Nok terracotta, 6th century BC–6th century CE
wood and other organic materials that have not survived
from earlier than a few centuries ago; older pottery figures • Ife head, terracotta, probably 12–14th centuries CE
are found from a number of areas. Masks are important
elements in the art of many peoples, along with human • Yoruba bronze head sculpture, Ife, Nigeria c. 12th
figures, often highly stylized. There is a vast variety of century
styles, often varying within the same context of origin de-
pending on the use of the object, but wide regional trends • Sculpture of a 'Queen Mother' from Benin, 16th
are apparent; sculpture is most common among “groups century.
of settled cultivators in the areas drained by the Niger and
Congo rivers" in West Africa.[109] Direct images of deities • 16th century ivory mask from Benin
are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or
• One of the Benin Bronzes, 16th–18th century, Nige-
were often made for religious ceremonies; today many
ria.
are made for tourists as “airport art”.[110] African masks
were an influence on European Modernist art, which was
• Mask from Burkina Faso, 19th century
inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depic-
tion. • Mambila figure, Nigeria
The Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in
close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced
monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to the 6.8 The Americas
north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are
from the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and See also: Sculpture of the United States, Visual arts by
500 AD in modern Nigeria, with clay figures typically indigenous peoples of the Americas, Pre-Columbian art,
with elongated bodies and angular shapes. Later West Northwest Coast art, and Inuit art
African cultures developed bronze casting for reliefs to
decorate palaces like the famous Benin Bronzes, and very
Sculpture in what is now Latin America developed in
fine naturalistic royal heads from around the Yoruba town
two separate and distinct areas, Mesoamerica in the north
of Ife in terracotta and metal from the 12th–14th cen- and Peru in the south. In both areas, sculpture was
turies. Akan goldweights are a form of small metal sculp-
initially of stone, and later of terracotta and metal as
tures produced over the period 1400–1900, some appar- the civilizations in these areas became more technolog-
ently representing proverbs and so with a narrative ele-
ically proficient.[112] The Mesoamerican region produced
ment rare in African sculpture, and royal regalia included
more monumental sculpture, from the massive block-like
impressive gold sculptured elements.[111] works of the Olmec and Toltec cultures, to the superb low
Many West African figures are used in religious rituals reliefs that characterize the Mayan and Aztec cultures. In
and are often coated with materials placed on them for the Andean region, sculptures were typically small, but
ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of often show superb skill.
6.9 Moving toward modern art 25

6.8.1 Pre-Columbian

• Olmec Baby Figure 1200-900 BCE

• Olmec Jadeite Mask 1000–600 BCE

• Olmec Colossal Head No. 3 1200–900 BCE

• La Mojarra Stela 1 2nd century CE

• Chalchiuhtlicue from Teotihuacán 200–500 CE

• Teotihuacan mask 200–600 CE

• Teotihuacan- Detail of the Temple of the Feathered

Serpent 200–250 CE

• A funerary urn in the shape of a “bat god” or a

jaguar, Oaxaca, 300–650 CE

• Moche portrait vessel with stirrup spout, Peru, 100

BCE-700 CE

• K'inich Janaab Pakal I of Palenque, Maya, 603–683

• Ahkal Mo' Naab III Of Palenque, 8th century

• Upakal K'inich 8th century AD, Palenque

St. James panel, from reredos in Cristo Rey Church, Santa Fe,
• Jaina Island type figure (Mayan) 650–800 New Mexico, c. 1760

• Classic Veracruz culture face 600–900

was carved by peasant habitant labourers. Later, artists
• Atlante from Tollan-Xicocotitlan also known as
trained in the Western academic tradition followed Eu-
Tula 1000
ropean styles until in the late 19th century they began to
• Double-headed serpent, Turquoise, red and white draw again on indigenous influences, notably in the Mex-
mosaic on wood, Aztec (possibly) Mixtec, c. 1400– ican baroque grotesque style known as Churrigueresque.
1521, Aboriginal peoples also adapted church sculpture in vari-
ations on Carpenter Gothic; one famous example is the
Church of the Holy Cross in Skookumchuck Hot Springs,
6.9 Moving toward modern art British Columbia.
The history of sculpture in the United States after Eu-
6.9.1 North America ropeans’ arrival reflects the country’s 18th-century foun-
dation in Roman republican civic values and Protestant
In North America, wood was sculpted for totem poles, Christianity. Compared to areas colonized by the Span-
masks, utensils, War canoes and a variety of other uses, ish, sculpture got off to an extremely slow start in the
with distinct variation between different cultures and re- British colonies, with next to no place in churches, and
gions. The most developed styles are those of the Pacific was only given impetus by the need to assert national-
Northwest Coast, where a group of elaborate and highly ity after independence. American sculpture of the mid-
stylized formal styles developed forming the basis of a to late-19th century was often classical, often romantic,
tradition that continues today. In addition to the famous but showed a bent for a dramatic, narrative, almost jour-
totem poles, painted and carved house fronts were com- nalistic realism. Public buildings during the last quarter
plemented by carved posts inside and out, as well as mor- of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century
tuary figures and other items. Among the Inuit of the far often provided an architectural setting for sculpture, es-
north, traditional carving styles in ivory and soapstone are pecially in relief. By the 1930s the International Style
still continued.[113] of architecture and design and art deco characterized by
The arrival of European Catholic culture readily adapted the work of Paul Manship and Lee Lawrie and others be-
local skills to the prevailing Baroque style, producing came popular. By the 1950s, traditional sculpture educa-
enormously elaborate retablos and other mostly church tion would almost be completely replaced by a Bauhaus-
sculptures in a variety of hybrid styles.[114] The most fa- influenced concern for abstract design. Minimalist sculp-
mous of such examples in Canada is the altar area of ture replaced the figure in public settings and architects
the Notre Dame Basilica in Montreal, Quebec, which almost completely stopped using sculpture in or on their
26 6 HISTORY OF SCULPTURE

designs. Modern sculptors (21st century) use both classi-

cal and abstract inspired designs. Beginning in the 1980s,
there was a swing back toward figurative public sculpture;
by 2000, many of the new public pieces in the United
States were figurative in design.

• Gutzon Borglum and his son, Lincoln Borglum,

Mount Rushmore, 1927–1941. L-R, George Wash-
ington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and
Abraham Lincoln.

• Robert Gould Shaw Memorial by Augustus Saint-

Gaudens, 1884–1897, plaster version

• Lee Lawrie, The Sower, 1928 Art Deco relief on

Beaumont Tower, Michigan State University

• Daniel Chester French, Abraham Lincoln (1920) in

the Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D.C.

• The K'alyaan Totem Pole of the Tlingit Kiks.ádi

Clan, erected at Sitka National Historical Park to
commemorate the lives lost in the 1804 Battle of
Sitka

• Frederic Remington, The Bronco Buster, limited

edition #17 of 20, 1909. Auguste Rodin, The Thinker, 1902, Musée Rodin, Paris

• Paul Manship, Dancer and Gazelles, 1916,

Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington,
D.C.
• Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney, The Scout, 1924,
commemorating Buffalo Bill in Cody, Wyoming
6.10 19th–early 20th century, early Mod-
ernism and continuing realism
• Jan Štursa, Before the Bath, 1906, National Gallery
in Prague
• Constantin Brâncuși, Portrait of Mademoiselle
Pogany 1912, White marble; limestone block,
Philadelphia Museum of Art. Exhibited at the 1913
Armory Show
• Amedeo Modigliani, Female Head, 1911/1912,
Tate

• François Rude, a Romantic Jeanne d' Arc, 1852, • Aristide Maillol, The Night, 1920, Stuttgart
Louvre
Modern classicism contrasted in many ways with the clas-
• Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux, Ugolino and His Sons, sical sculpture of the 19th century which was charac-
1857–1860, Metropolitan Museum of Art terized by commitments to naturalism (Antoine-Louis
Barye)—the melodramatic (François Rude) sentimen-
• Edgar Degas, Little Dancer of Fourteen Years, cast tality (Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux)-- or a kind of stately
in 1922 from a mixed-media sculpture modeled ca. grandiosity (Lord Leighton). Several different directions
1879–80, Bronze, partly tinted, with cotton in the classical tradition were taken as the century turned,
• Auguste Rodin The Burghers of Calais 1889, Calais, but the study of the live model and the post-Renaissance
France tradition was still fundamental to them. Auguste Rodin
was the most renowned European sculptor of the early
• Alfred Gilbert, the so-called Eros, 1893, the world’s 20th century.[115][116] He is often considered a sculp-
first aluminium statue, Piccadilly Circus, London tural Impressionist, as are his students including Camille
Claudel, and Hugo Rheinhold, attempting to model of
• Detail of the grave of Cyprian Kamil Norwid in a fleeting moment of ordinary life. Modern classicism
Wawel Cathedral, Kraków by Czesław Dźwigaj showed a lesser interest in naturalism and a greater inter-
• Sculpture on the Discoveries Age and Portuguese est in formal stylization. Greater attention was paid to the
navigators in Lisbon, Portugal rhythms of volumes and spaces—as well as greater atten-
tion to the contrasting qualities of surface (open, closed,
• Antoine Bourdelle, Day and Night, marble, 1903, planar, broken etc.) while less attention was paid to story-
Musée Bourdelle, Paris telling and convincing details of anatomy or costume.
 27

throughout eastern Europe and parts of the Middle East.

By the year 2000, the European classical tradition retains
a wide appeal to the public but awaits an educational tra-
dition to revive its contemporary development.
Some of the modern classical became either more dec-
orative/art deco (Paul Manship, Jose de Creeft, Carl
Milles) or more abstractly stylized or more expressive
(and Gothic) (Anton Hanak, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Ernst
Barlach, Arturo Martini)—or turned more to the Renais-
sance (Giacomo Manzù, Venanzo Crocetti) or stayed the
same (Charles Despiau, Marcel Gimond).

7 Modernism

Gaston Lachaise, Floating Figure 1927, bronze, no. 5 from an

edition of 7, National Gallery of Australia
Paul Gauguin, 1894, Oviri (Sauvage), partially glazed
stoneware, 75 x 19 x 27 cm, Musée d'Orsay, Paris
Main article: Modern sculpture

Modernist sculpture movements include Cubism,

Greater attention was given to psychological effect than to
Geometric abstraction, De Stijl, Suprematism,
physical realism, and influences from earlier styles world-
Constructivism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Futurism,
wide were used.
Formalism Abstract expressionism, Pop-Art,
Early masters of modern classicism included: Aristide Minimalism, Land art, and Installation art among
Maillol, Alexander Matveyev, Joseph Bernard, Antoine others.
Bourdelle, Georg Kolbe, Libero Andreotti, Gustav Vige-
land, Jan Stursa, Constantin Brâncuși. As the century
progressed, modern classicism was adopted as the na-
tional style of the two great European totalitarian em-
pires: Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia, who co-opted the
work of earlier artists such as Kolbe and Wilhelm Lehm-
bruck in Germany[117] and Matveyev in Russia. Over
the 70 years of the USSR, new generations of sculptors
were trained and chosen within their system, and a dis-
tinct style, socialist realism, developed, that returned to
the 19th century’s emphasis on melodrama and natural-
ism. Henry Moore, Reclining Figure, 1951, Fitzwilliam Museum,
Classical training was rooted out of art education in West- Cambridge
ern Europe (and the Americas) by 1970 and the classi-
cal variants of the 20th century were marginalized in the In the early days of the 20th century, Pablo Picasso rev-
history of modernism. But classicism continued as the olutionized the art of sculpture when he began creating
foundation of art education in the Soviet academies until his constructions fashioned by combining disparate ob-
1990, providing a foundation for expressive figurative art jects and materials into one constructed piece of sculp-
28
David Smith, CUBI VI, (1963), Israel Museum, Jerusalem.
ture; the sculptural equivalent of the collage in two-
dimensional art. The advent of Surrealism led to things
occasionally being described as “sculpture” that would
not have been so previously, such as “involuntary sculp-
ture” in several senses, including coulage. In later years
Picasso became a prolific potter, leading, with interest
in historic pottery from around the world, to a revival of
ceramic art, with figures such as George E. Ohr and sub-
sequently Peter Voulkos, Kenneth Price, and Robert Ar-
neson. Marcel Duchamp originated the use of the "found
object" (French: objet trouvé) or readymade with pieces
such as Fountain (1917).
Similarly, the work of Constantin Brâncuși at the begin-
ning of the century paved the way for later abstract sculp-
ture. In revolt against the naturalism of Rodin and his
late-19th-century contemporaries, Brâncuși distilled sub-
jects down to their essences as illustrated by the elegantly 7.1 Gallery of modernist sculpture
refined forms of his Bird in Space series (1924).[118]
Brâncuși’s impact, with his vocabulary of reduction and
abstraction, is seen throughout the 1930s and 1940s, and
exemplified by artists such as Gaston Lachaise, Sir Jacob
Epstein, Henry Moore, Alberto Giacometti, Joan Miró,
Julio González, Pablo Serrano, Jacques Lipchitz[119] and
by the 1940s abstract sculpture was impacted and ex-
panded by Alexander Calder, Len Lye, Jean Tinguely,
and Frederick Kiesler who were pioneers of Kinetic art.
Modernist sculptors largely missed out on the huge boom
in public art resulting from the demand for war memori-
als for the two World Wars, but from the 1950s the pub-
lic and commissioning bodies became more comfortable
7 MODERNISM
with Modernist sculpture and large public commissions
both abstract and figurative became common. Picasso
was commissioned to make a maquette for a huge 50-
foot (15 m)-high public sculpture, the so-called Chicago
Picasso (1967). His design was ambiguous and somewhat
controversial, and what the figure represents is not clear;
it could be a bird, a horse, a woman or a totally abstract
shape.
During the late 1950s and the 1960s abstract sculptors
began experimenting with a wide array of new materials
and different approaches to creating their work. Surre-
alist imagery, anthropomorphic abstraction, new mate-
rials and combinations of new energy sources and var-
ied surfaces and objects became characteristic of much
new modernist sculpture. Collaborative projects with
landscape designers, architects, and landscape architects
expanded the outdoor site and contextual integration.
Artists such as Isamu Noguchi, David Smith, Alexander
Calder, Jean Tinguely, Richard Lippold, George Rickey,
Louise Bourgeois, and Louise Nevelson came to charac-
terize the look of modern sculpture.
By the 1960s Abstract expressionism, Geometric abstrac-
tion and Minimalism, which reduces sculpture to its most
essential and fundamental features, predominated. Some
works of the period are: the Cubi works of David Smith,
and the welded steel works of Sir Anthony Caro, as well as
welded sculpture by a large variety of sculptors, the large-
scale work of John Chamberlain, and environmental in-
stallation scale works by Mark di Suvero. Other Min-
imalists include Tony Smith, Donald Judd, Robert Mor-
ris, Anne Truitt, Giacomo Benevelli, Arnaldo Pomodoro,
Richard Serra, Dan Flavin, Carl Andre, and John Safer
who added motion and monumentality to the theme of
purity of line.[120]
During the 1960s and 1970s figurative sculpture by mod-
ernist artists in stylized forms was made by artists such
as Leonard Baskin, Ernest Trova, George Segal, Marisol
Escobar, Paul Thek, Robert Graham in a classic articu-
lated style, and Fernando Botero bringing his painting’s
'oversized figures’ into monumental sculptures.
• Henri Matisse, The Back Series, bronze, left to right:
The Back I, 1908–09, The Back II, 1913, The Back
III 1916, The Back IV, c. 1931, all Museum of Mod-
ern Art, New York City
• Otto Gutfreund, Cellist, 1912–13
• Alexander Archipenko, La Vie Familiale (Family
Life), 1912
• Joseph Csaky, Tête, ca.1920 (front and side view),
limestone, 60 cm, Kröller-Müller Museum, Otterlo,
Holland
7.3 Minimalism 29

• Jacob Epstein, Day and Night, carved for the

London Underground's headquarters, 1928.

• Käthe Kollwitz, The Grieving Parents, 1932, World

War I memorial (for her son Peter), Vladslo German
war cemetery

• Jacques Lipchitz, Birth of the Muses, (1944–1950)

• Barbara Hepworth, Monolith-Empyrean, 1953

• John Chamberlain, S, 1959, Hirshhorn Museum and

Sculpture Garden, Washington, DC.

• Henry Moore, Three Piece Reclining figure No.1,

1961, Yorkshire
Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Umbrellas 1991, Japan [121]
• Marcel Duchamp, Fountain 1917; 1964 artist-
authorized replica made by the artist’s dealer, Arturo art or 'earth art' environmental scale sculpture works ex-
Schwarz, based on a photograph by Alfred Stieglitz. emplified by artists such as Robert Smithson, Michael
Porcelain, Tate Modern, London Heizer, James Turrell (Roden Crater). Eva Hesse, Sol
• Pablo Picasso, Public Sculpture, 1967, Chicago, Illi- LeWitt, Jackie Winsor, Keith Sonnier, and Bruce Nau-
nois man, among others were pioneers of Postminimalist
sculpture.
• Isamu Noguchi, Heimar, 1968, at the Billy Rose Also during the 1960s and 1970s artists as diverse as
Sculpture Garden, Israel Museum, Jerusalem, Israel Eduardo Paolozzi, Chryssa, Claes Oldenburg, George Se-

• George Rickey, Four Squares in Geviert, 1969, ter- gal, Edward Kienholz, Nam June Paik, Wolf Vostell,
race of the New National Gallery, Berlin, Germany, Duane Hanson, and John DeAndrea explored abstraction,
Rickey is considered a Kinetic sculptor imagery and figuration through video art, environment,
light sculpture, and installation art in new ways.
• Alexander Calder, Crinkly avec disc rouge, 1973, Conceptual art is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s)
Schlossplatz, Stuttgart involved in the work take precedence over traditional
aesthetic and material concerns. Works include One
• Louise Nevelson, Atmosphere and Environment XII,
and Three Chairs, 1965, is by Joseph Kosuth, and An
1970–1973, Philadelphia Museum of Art
Oak Tree by Michael Craig-Martin, and those of Joseph
• Sir Anthony Caro, Black Cover Flat, 1974, steel, Tel Beuys, James Turrell and Jacek Tylicki.
Aviv Museum of Art

• Joan Miró, Woman and Bird, 1982, Barcelona, 7.3 Minimalism

Spain
• Tony Smith, Free Ride, 1962, 6'8 x 6'8 x 6'8 (the
• George Segal, Street Crossing, 1992, permanently in- height of a standard US door opening), Museum of
stalled on a public sidewalk at Montclair State Uni- Modern Art, New York
versity, in Montclair, New Jersey
• Larry Bell, Untitled 1964, bismuth, chromium, gold,
• Mark di Suvero, Aurora, 1992–1993 and rhodium on gold-plated brass; Hirshhorn Mu-
• Louise Bourgeois, Maman, 1999, outside Museo seum and Sculpture Garden
Guggenheim • Richard Serra, Fulcrum 1987, 55 ft high free stand-
ing sculpture of Cor-ten steel near Liverpool Street
station, London
7.2 Contemporary movements
• Donald Judd, Untitled, 1991, Israel Museum Art
Site specific and environmental art works are represented Garden, Jerusalem
by artists: Andy Goldsworthy, Walter De Maria,[122]
Richard Long, Richard Serra, Robert Irwin,[123] George
Rickey and Christo and Jeanne-Claude led contempo- 7.3.1 Postminimalism
rary abstract sculpture in new directions. Artists created
environmental sculpture on expansive sites in the 'land • Bruce Nauman, Human/Need/Desire, 1983, Neon
art in the American West' group of projects. These land sculpture
30 10 NOTES

• Richard Long, South Bank Circle, 1991 Tate Liver- 8 Conservation

pool, England

• Jean-Yves Lechevallier, Fettered wing. 1991

• Anish Kapoor, Turning the World Upside Down,

Israel Museum, 2010

• Damien Hirst, The Physical Impossibility of Death in

the Mind of Someone Living. 1991

• Rachel Whiteread, Holocaust Monument 2000

Judenplatz, Vienna

• Guardians of Time, light sculpture by Manfred

Kielnhofer at the Light Art Biennale Austria 2010

• The Spire of Dublin officially titled the Monument Visible damage due to acid rain on a sculpture
of Light, stainless steel, 121.2 metres (398 feet), the
world’s tallest sculpture
7.3.2 Contemporary genres
Spiral Jetty by Robert Smithson, in 2005
Sculptures are sensitive to environmental conditions such
as temperature, humidity and exposure to light and
ultraviolet light. Acid rain can also cause damage to cer-
tain building materials and historical monuments. This
results when sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts
with the calcium compounds in the stones (limestone,
sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which
then flakes off.
At any time many contemporary sculptures have usually
been on display in public places; theft was not a problem
as pieces were instantly recognisable. In the early 21st
century the value of metal rose to such an extent that theft
of massive bronze sculpture for the value of the metal
became a problem; sculpture worth millions being stolen
and melted down for the relatively low value of the metal,
a tiny fraction of the value of the artwork.[125]

Some modern sculpture forms are now practiced out-

doors, as environmental art and environmental sculpture, 9 See also
often in full view of spectators. Light sculpture, street
art sculpture and site-specific art also often make use of
the environment. Ice sculpture is a form of ephemeral
10 Notes
sculpture that uses ice as the raw material. It is popular
[1]
in China, Japan, Canada, Sweden, and Russia. Ice sculp-
tures feature decoratively in some cuisines, especially in [2] “Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity”
Asia. Kinetic sculptures are sculptures that are designed September 2007 to January 2008, The Arthur M. Sackler
to move, which include mobiles. Snow sculptures are Museum
usually carved out of a single block of snow about 6 to
15 feet (1.8 to 4.6 m) on each side and weighing about [3] See for example Martin Robertson, A shorter history of
Greek art, p. 9, Cambridge University Press, 1981, ISBN
20–30 tons. The snow is densely packed into a form af-
978-0-521-28084-6
ter having been produced by artificial means or collected
from the ground after a snowfall. Sound sculptures take [4] NGA, Washington feature on exhibition.
the form of indoor sound installations, outdoor installa-
tions such as aeolian harps, automatons, or be more or less [5] The Ptolemies began the Hellenistic tradition of ruler-
near conventional musical instruments. Sound sculpture portraits on coins, and the Romans began to show dead
politicians in the 1st century BC, with Julius Caesar the
is often site-specific. Art toys have become another for-
first living figure to be portrayed; under the emperors por-
mat for contemporary artists since the late 1990s, such as
traits of the Imperial family became standard. See Bur-
those produced by Takashi Murakami and Kid Robot, de- nett, 34-35; Howgego, 63-70
signed by Michael Lau, or hand-made by Michael Leavitt
(artist).[124] [6] Article by Morris Cox
 31

[7] Cook, 147; he notes that ancient Greek copyists seem to [36] Smith, 21–24
have used many fewer points than some later ones, and
copies often vary considerably in the composition as well [37] Smith, 170–178; 192–194
as the finish.
[38] Smith, 102–103; 133–134
[8] “Flash animation of the lost-wax casting process”. James
[39] Smith, 4–5; 208–209
Peniston Sculpture. Retrieved 2008-11-30.
[40] Smith, 89–90
[9] Ravi, B. (2004). “Metal Casting – Overview” (PDF). Bu-
reau of Energy Efficiency, India. [41] images of Getty Villa 85.AA.103
[10] British Museum - The Lycurgus Cup [42] Cook, 72, 85–109; Boardman, 47–59
[11] V&A Museum, Sculpture techniques: modelling in clay, [43] Cook, 109–119; Boardman, 87–95
accessed August 31, 2012
[44] Lapatin, Kenneth D. S., Phidias, Oxford Art Online, ac-
[12] Rawson, 140–144; Frankfort 112–113; Henig, 179–180 cessed August 24, 2012
[13] Rawson, 134–135 [45] Cook, 119–131
[14] Burford, Alison, “Greece, ancient, §IV, 1: Monumental [46] Cook, 131–141
sculpture: Overview, 5 c)" in Oxford Art Online, accessed
August 24th, 2012 [47] Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age, p. xiii.
Green P. ISBN 978-0-7538-2413-9
[15] Olsen, 150–151; Blunt
[48] Cook, 142–156
[16] Jewish virtual library, History of Jewish sculpture
[49] Cook, 142–154
[17] P.Mellars, Archeology and the Dispersal of Modern Hu-
mans in Europe: Deconstructing the Aurignacian, Evolu- [50] Cook, 155–158
tionary Anthropology, vol. 15 (2006), pp. 167–182.
[51] Strong, 58–63; Hennig, 66-69
[18] de Laet, Sigfried J. (1994). History of Humanity: Prehis-
tory and the beginnings of civilization. UNESCO. p. 211. [52] Hennig, 24

[19] Cook, J. (2013) Ice Age art: arrival of the modern mind,
The British Museum, ISBN 978-0714123332
[20] Sandars, 8−16, 29−31
[21] Hahn, Joachim, “Prehistoric Europe, §II: Palaeolithic 3.
Portable art” in Oxford Art Online, accessed August 24,
2012; Sandars, 37−40
[22] Kleiner, Fred (2009). Gardner’s Art through the Ages: The
Western Perspective, Volume 1. p. 36.
[23] Sandars, 75–80
[24] Sandars, 253−257, 183−185
[25] Frankfort, 24–37
[26] Frankfort, 45–59
[53] Henig, 66–69; Strong, 36–39, 48; At the trial of Verres,
former governor of Sicily, Cicero's prosecution details his
depredations of art collections at great length.
[54] Henig, 23–24
[55] Henig, 66–71
[56] Henig, 73–82;Strong, 48–52, 80–83, 108–117, 128–132,
141–159, 177–182, 197–211
[57] Henig, Chapter 6; Strong, 303–315
[58] Henig, Chapter 8
[59] Strong, 171–176, 211–214
[60] Kitzinger, 9 (both quotes), more generally his Ch 1;
Strong, 250–257, 264–266, 272–280

[27] Frankfort, 61–66 [61] Strong, 287–291, 305–308, 315–318; Henig, 234–240

[28] Frankfort, Chapters 2–5 [62] Robinson, 12, 15

[29] Frankfort, 110–112 [63] Dodwell, Chapter 2

[30] Frankfort, 66–74 [64] Calkins, 79–80; 90–102

[31] Frankfort, 71–73 [65] Calkins, 107–114

[32] Frankfort, 66–74; 167 [66] Calkins, 115–132

[33] Frankfort, 141–193 [67] Honour and Fleming, 297–300; Henderson, 55, 82-84

[34] Smith, 33 [68] Olson, 11–24; Honour and Fleming, 304; Henderson, 41

[35] Smith, 12–13 and note 17 [69] Snyder, 65-69

 32 11 REFERENCES

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[108] Piotrovsky and Rogers, 23, 33-37
[72] Calkins, 193-198
[109] Honour & Fleming, 557
[73] Cherry, 25-48; Henderson, 134-141
[110] Honour & Fleming, 559–561
[74] Olson, 41–46, 62–63
[111] Honour & Fleming, 556–561
[75] Olson, 45–52, and see index

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[115] Elsen, Albert E. (2003). Rodin’s Art: The Rodin Col-
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[94] Rawson, Chapters 4 and 6
[121] NY Times, Umbrella Crushes Woman
[95] Rawson, 135

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[100] Harle, 22–24 bronze sculpture for the value of the metal.
[101] Harle, 26–38

[102] Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the period

11 References
[103] Harle, 124
• Boucher, Bruce, Italian Baroque Sculpture,
[104] Harle, 301-310, 325-327
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[105] Harle, 276–284 0500203075

• Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italy, 1450–1660,
1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0198810504
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cal Art, 1993, OUP, ISBN 0198143869
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versity of California/British Museum, 1991, ISBN
0520076281
• Calkins, Robert G.; Monuments of Medieval Art,
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• Cherry, John. The Holy Thorn Reliquary, 2010,
British Museum Press (British Museum objects in
focus), ISBN 0-7141-2820-1
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1972), ISBN 0140218661
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tive, 1982, Manchester UP, ISBN 0-7190-0926-X
• Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the
Ancient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed
1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), ISBN
0140561072
• Harle, J.C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian
Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press
Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
• Henderson, George. Gothic, 1967, Penguin, ISBN
0-14-020806-2
• Henig, Martin (ed), A Handbook of Roman Art,
Phaidon, 1983, ISBN 0714822140
• Paine, Robert Treat, in: Paine, R. T. & Soper A,
The Art and Architecture of Japan, 3rd ed 1981,
12 External links
Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN
0140561080
• Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of
Art, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions), Macmillan,
London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. pa-
perback. ISBN 0333371852
• Howgego, Christopher, Ancient History from Coins,
Routledge, 1995, ISBN 041508993X
• Kitzinger, Ernst, Byzantine art in the making: main
lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art,
3rd–7th century, 1977, Faber & Faber, ISBN
0571111548 (US: Cambridge UP, 1977)
• Olson, Roberta J.M., Italian Renaissance Sculpture,
1992, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), ISBN
978-0-500-20253-1
• Rawson, Jessica (ed). The British Museum Book of
Chinese Art, 2007 (2nd edn), British Museum Press,
ISBN 9780714124469
33
• Piotrovsky M.B. and Rogers, J.M. (eds), Heaven on
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3791330551
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34 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text

• Sculpture Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture?oldid=747391620 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Magnus Manske, Kpjas,

MichaelTinkler, Zundark, Koyaanis Qatsi, 0, Andre Engels, XJaM, Rmhermen, William Avery, SimonP, Merphant, Daniel C. Boyer,
Heron, Montrealais, Sfdan, Branko, Olivier, Edward, Patrick, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Palnatoke, SGBailey, Theanthrope, Arping-
stone, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Ireneshusband, Glenn, AugPi, Kwekubo, Andres, Cimon Avaro, David Stewart, TonyClarke, Lee M, Focus
mankind~enwiki, BRG, Denny, Genie, Nikola Smolenski, Norwikian, Hike395, Emperorbma, Guaka, Tpbradbury, Imc, Hyacinth, Rei,
Philopp, Warofdreams, Jusjih, Camerong, Jamesday, Adam Carr, UninvitedCompany, Dimadick, Paul W, Robbot, AlainV, Pigsonthewing,
Altenmann, Naddy, Modulatum, Rajivshetty, Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Rursus, Sheridan, Hadal, Borislav, Mushroom, Giftlite,
DocWatson42, Barbara Shack, Mat-C, Inter, Fudoreaper, Kenny sh, Zigger, Marcika, Wouterhagens, Ssd, Leonard G., Ptk~enwiki, Gad-
fium, Andycjp, Quadell, Piotrus, Jossi, Mihoshi, Joe Rodgers, Tail, Rsaum, Zfr, Neutrality, Bbpen, Ukexpat, Kevyn, Karl Dickman, Blue-
mask, Ryuu, Alkivar, Moverton, Discospinster, Helohe, Vsmith, Eric Shalov, Notinasnaid, Carptrash, Dbachmann, Bender235, Kaisershat-
ner, Furius, El C, Art LaPella, Migozared, Thuresson, Prsephone1674, Bobo192, Iamunknown, Jeffmedkeff, Viriditas, Vortexrealm, Srl,
Morenus, Man vyi, Kjkolb, Naturenet, Ranveig, Sherurcij, Rd232, Andrewpmk, Manos, SlimVirgin, Wtmitchell, Rebroad, Dhanak~enwiki,
Clubmarx, Evil Monkey, Duff, BDD, Versageek, Mnd, Johntex, Brookie, Postrach, Fontgirl, Feezo, Roylee, Vashti, Woohookitty, Holdspa,
Kosher Fan, Pol098, JeremyA, Mandarax, DavidParfitt, Graham87, Sparkit, Jalada, BD2412, Opie, Melesse, Jmahler, Search4Lancer,
Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Lockley, Quiddity, Omnieiunium, Vegaswikian, Docether, Mikecron, SchuminWeb, Loggie, Nihiltres, Alhutch,
Gurch, Mhking, Bgwhite, Vibeway, EamonnPKeane, YurikBot, Wavelength, Deeptrivia, Efrarodz, RussBot, Splash, Manop, David Wood-
ward, Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, Royalbroil, Veledan, Grafen, Welsh, U1825, Howcheng, Aaron Brenneman, Nucleusboy, Nephron,
Vastu, BOT-Superzerocool, CLW, 1717, Deepak~enwiki, Wames, Wknight94, Crisco 1492, Phgao, Closedmouth, Nikitchenko, Leonar-
doRob0t, Tyrenius, JLaTondre, RenamedUser jaskldjslak904, Paul D. Anderson, Persept, Paganpan, Roke, DVD R W, That Guy, From
That Show!, Yvwv, Attilios, True Pagan Warrior, SmackBot, Derek Andrews, InverseHypercube, TestPilot, Unyoyega, Delldot, Paxse, Ces-
sator, Nscheffey, Ema Zee, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Schmiteye, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Skookum1, Fplay, Mountshang,
Tree Biting Conspiracy, Rosemania, RayAYang, TheLeopard, CSWarren, Colonies Chris, Florian Adler, Ulises Sarry~enwiki, Smallbones,
Frap, Chlewbot, Ahudson, OrphanBot, Yidisheryid, TKD, TedE, Jon Awbrey, EdGl, BinaryTed, Maelnuneb, Zzorse, Bejnar, Pekiro, Ceoil,
Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Askorahn, Mathboy965, Michael Bednarek, Adam7davies, Tlesher, Mr. Lefty, Morshem, SeanEB, Special-T,
PRRfan, Ratcatcher~enwiki, Waggers, TastyPoutine, Ryulong, MTSbot~enwiki, Jose77, Shandilya a, DabMachine, Iridescent, Paul venter,
IvanLanin, Shubhox, Tawkerbot2, MarylandArtLover, JForget, Daisy2, Blackash, CmdrObot, Ming the Merciless, IMattUK, Funnyfar-
mofdoom, Aqbrophy, Mblumber, 663highland, Gogo Dodo, B, Viridae, Kzipser, Pustelnik, Trev M, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, MarkBuckles,
N5iln, Smile a While, Picus viridis, JustAGal, Bob the Wikipedian, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Edwilde, Siangla, Ste4k, Mod-
ernist, Darklilac, Canadian-Bacon, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, MER-C, The Transhumanist, Nthep, Arch dude, PhilKnight, Naquash82, Simon
Burchell, Cynwolfe, Twospoonfuls, Freshacconci, Henry M. Trotter, Magioladitis, VoABot II, MartinDK, Sujit kumar, Hullaballoo Wol-
fowitz, JNW, Danadoo007, JaGa, Khalid Mahmood, Arnold Reisman, GCM, Oicumayberight, WriterArtistDC, Jon Haydn, MartinBot,
Schmloof, Bus stop, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Gunkarta, Lilac Soul, Abecedare, Numbo3, Elkost, Johnbod, Koven.rm, ShambhalaFesti-
val, Balthazarduju, Chibi.akutenshi, Ipigott, The Transhumanist (AWB), NewEnglandYankee, Danr2k6, 83d40m, NeoAlastor, ILoveFutu-
rama, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, SlightlyMad, Spiesr, Mhilesthonenash, Vinsfan368, Hartvisarts, Tkgd2007, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot,
Funandtrvl, Redtigerxyz, Solaris ah, Macedonian, StellaMT, Larry R. Holmgren, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Technopat, Ridernyc, Kar-
mos, Blunjean, SeattleChronic, Sankalpdravid, Beyond silence, Yilloslime, GustavOlafson~enwiki, Seb az86556, BotKung, Jeremy Bol-
well, Maxim, Mazarin07, Uannis~enwiki, Orestek, OhMyDeer, Canvasguru, Symane, PericlesofAthens, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel,
MissMJ, Artincontext, SieBot, StAnselm, Spartan, Paltamas, Matthew Yeager, Nixchix, Gravitan, Flyer22 Reborn, Undead Herle King,
Oxymoron83, Olson1111, Lightmouse, Macy, Coldcreation, StaticGull, Nergaal, Randy Kryn, Vonones, Explicit, ImageRemovalBot, Mar-
tarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Binksternet, The Thing That Should Not Be, PaulYoung123, Sevilledade, Razimantv, Mild Bill Hiccup,
Niceguyedc, Shovon76, Riverdale78, Excirial, Alexbot, Updatedinformation, Lindamulder, Abrech, Vkutah, X1MAN1x, Tnxman307,
Redthoreau, Dekisugi, Rerter 2, SchreiberBike, Theramin, Crusty 7, Aitias, Rossen4, Nathann sc, Design Glass, XLinkBot, Puneetminda,
Stickee, P30Carl, MystBot, Balalajka~enwiki, Deineka, Addbot, Lithoderm, Piesoul, Granado granado~enwiki, Oureffort, CanadianLin-
uxUser, Download, CarsracBot, OffsBlink, VASANTH S.N., Tide rolls, Jafd88, 123dylan456, Albert galiza, Angrysockhop, Midday-
express, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Taxisfolder, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, MacTire02, Tempodivalse, AnomieBOT, Galoubet, Ulric1313,
Materialscientist, Adamengland, Maxis ftw, GB fan, Elena25gheorghe, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Luggnagg, TinucherianBot II, Capricorn42, Re-
search Method, Moostyrio, 4twenty42o, Wikifishwki, Kak Language, Timmyshin, 3Dwiki, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), Sionk, J04n,
GrouchoBot, Sabrebd, Léna, GhalyBot, Moxy, Glic16, Sesu Prime, Mantokun, Angelus Delapsus, FrescoBot, Publicarch, Rodinmuseum,
VS6507, Craig Pemberton, Xapis7, Netteran, Grandiose, Enki H., OgreBot, Citation bot 1, Ganyisto, Pinethicket, Hard Sin, Alonso de
Mendoza, Fumitol, SergeWoodzing, Art&concepts, Jauhienij, Kostius, Robvanvee, FoxBot, Russianh, Notpietru, DrDouglasLewis FAAR,
Theo10011, Germantas, Jeffrd10, Canuckian89, Carminowe of Hendra, PleaseStand, Reach Out to the Truth, Stonescholar, Artwerkgal,
The Utahraptor, Soupysoap, All Classics Ltd, GiovanniVegaz, Coolbeans53, EmausBot, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Brendan Jamison,
Sophie, Kronberger4, Look2See1, Dewritech, Ibbn, Faolin42, GoingBatty, Tommy2010, Werieth, QuentinUK, Catalaalatac, Artprince2,
Law2giver, Netha Hussain, Averaver, OnePt618, Teladrin, Brandmeister, EdDrass, Donner60, Monica1989, Subrata Roy, Xcalizorz, Poop
sandwich, Trailmix42, Ewangowan, ClueBot NG, Wikigold96, JetBlast, Thangmdk, CherryX, Jdcollins13, Snotbot, ABGreer, Cntras, Cu-
bistpainter, Erikoo152, Reify-tech, Helpful Pixie Bot, Eleventh1, HMSSolent, BG19bot, Funfood, PhnomPencil, Georgiamillerisawsome,
Mark Arsten, Mwd200, Princessbiba, Sbblr geervaanee, Daytonarolexboston, Bigstatues, DPL bot, Snow Blizzard, Rttavi, Davidfurch-
gott, Squeamish Ossifrage, Vvven, David.moreno72, Mogenskbh, Anaartfan, Pumsy, ChrisGualtieri, Mesoamerican, Pho-logic, Khazar2,
Jeanelle82, Kiransubbaiah, Tow, Meiloorun, Dr Ajay Balachandran, EmperorOfSiberia, Dexbot, Mogism, Postq, Lugia2453, WilliamDigi-
Col, I812, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Hillbillyholiday, Radarm, CsDix, Civilsuper, Echopapa echoromeo, Heredotos, Lactasamir, Cheru-
binirules, JW SxS, Ginsuloft, Arina 23, Tony Fair, SwansonGallery, Neuralia, Gencogulan, Sculptor shf, Mariean2net, Julius072901,
Riddleh, Filedelinkerbot, Mrs.Siri, Trackteur, DDupard, KH-1, Gonzales John, Charmalade1, Friends of sculpture, WadeMacD, Kaspar-
Bot, Peter Richard Obama, Naenae23, KlaasZ4usV, Srednuas Lenoroc, Anddme, Csldigicol, Starwars az, GOVI13143, Torihamilton16,
Www.ibn.live, Steel sculpture, Invisible Guy, Smdreilich, Freakiejason, Rhdzxjtsr, Gulumeemee and Anonymous: 572
13.2 Images 35

13.2 Images
• File:26_colonna_traiana_da_estt_05.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/26_colonna_traiana_da_
estt_05.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:MatthiasKabel
• File:Adam_Kraft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Adam_Kraft.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: PetrusSilesius
• File:Angel_Of_The_North.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Angel_Of_The_North.JPG License:
Public domain Contributors: taken by The Halo Original artist: The Halo
• File:Ara_Pacis_Relief_Pax.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Ara_Pacis_Relief_Pax.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Manfred Heyde
• File:Braunschweiger_Loewe_Original_Brunswick_Lion.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/
Braunschweiger_Loewe_Original_Brunswick_Lion.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Brunswyk
• File:Chihuly_glass_in_boat,_morning,_Palm_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_297500.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/0/08/Chihuly_glass_in_boat%2C_morning%2C_Palm_House_-_geograph.org.uk_-_297500.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Eric Baker
• File:Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Chiwara_Chicago_sculpture.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Helen Cook
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Detalle_crucificado_Luján_Pérez,_1793.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Detalle_
crucificado_Luj%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez%2C_1793.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jafd88
• File:Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Devries-mercuriocrop.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Ricardo André Frantz (User:Tetraktys), 2006 - crop of File:Devries-mercurio&psique5b.jpg Original artist:
Adriaen de Vries (1556-1626)
• File:Dying_gaul.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Dying_gaul.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
[1] Original artist: antmoose
• File:Fregio_della_gigantomachia_02.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Fregio_della_
gigantomachia_02.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: sailko
• File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Gandhara_Buddha_%28tnm%29.
jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Gaston_lachaise_floating_figure.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Gaston_lachaise_floating_
figure.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Creator:Gaston Lachaise upload by Cfitzart
at en.wikipedia
• File:Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Gerokreuz_full_20050903.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Elya assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:HenryMoore_RecliningFigure_1951.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/HenryMoore_
RecliningFigure_1951.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell'antichità_08_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_28-5-2006.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Istanbul_-_Museo_archeologico_-_Mostra_sul_colore_nell%27antichit%C3%
A0_08_-_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_28-5-2006.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Krishna_Killing_the_Horse_Demon_Keshi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Krishna_
Killing_the_Horse_Demon_Keshi.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: originally posted to Flickr as Krishna Killing the Horse
Demon Keshi Original artist: Claire H.
• File:Lammasu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Lammasu.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Trjames (Own work) Original artist: ?
• File:Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_Yin_statue.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Liao_Dynasty_-_Guan_
Yin_statue.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Bodhisattva Guanyin Original artist: Rebecca Arnett from Castleton, Vermont, USA
• File:Linteau_Musée_Guimet_1097_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Linteau_Mus%C3%A9e_
Guimet_1097_01.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vassil
• File:Masque_blanc_Punu-Gabon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Masque_blanc_Punu-Gabon.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ji-Elle
• File:Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/
Mesopotamia_male_worshiper_2750-2600_B.C.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Rosemaniakos
from Bejing (hometown)
• File:Michelangelo’{}s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/
Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Edited version of (cloned object out of
background) Image:Michelangelo’{}s Pieta 5450 cropncleaned.jpg) Original artist: Stanislav Traykov
• File:Miyasaka_Hakuryu_II_-_Tigress_with_Two_Cubs_-_Walters_71909.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/8/8c/Miyasaka_Hakuryu_II_-_Tigress_with_Two_Cubs_-_Walters_71909.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Walters Art Museum: <a href='http://thewalters.org/' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Nuvola filesystems folder home.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/20px-Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_
folder_home.svg/30px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/
36 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

8/81/Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg/40px-Nuvola_filesystems_folder_home.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='128' data-file-

height='128' /></a> Home page <a href='http://art.thewalters.org/detail/6305' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-
file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Miyasaka Hakuryu II (Japanese, active mid 19th
century)
• File:Moses_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Moses_San_Pietro_in_
Vincoli.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Prasenberg (transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Leoboudv using
CommonsHelper). Original artist: Michelangelo
• File:Moáis.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Mo%C3%A1is.jpg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: This file was derived from Moai Rano raraku.jpg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg'
class='image'><img alt='Moai Rano raraku.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_Rano_raraku.
jpg/50px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg' width='50' height='67' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_
Rano_raraku.jpg/75px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Moai_Rano_raraku.
jpg/100px-Moai_Rano_raraku.jpg 2x' data-file-width='1944' data-file-height='2592' /></a>
Original artist: Aurbina
• File:NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/NaraTodaijiDaibutsu0212.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:National_gallery_in_washington_d.c.,_pisanello,_medaglia_di_giovanni_di_bisanzio_recto.JPG Source: https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/National_gallery_in_washington_d.c.%2C_pisanello%2C_medaglia_di_giovanni_di_
bisanzio_recto.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work (my camera) Original artist: sailko
• File:Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nofretete_Neues_Museum.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Philip Pikart
• File:Panel_hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Panel_
hunters_Louvre_OA_6265-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Marie-Lan Nguyen (2006) Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:Paul_Gauguin,_1894,_Oviri_(Sauvage),_partially_glazed_stoneware,_75_x_19_x_27_cm,_Musée_d'Orsay,_Paris.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Paul_Gauguin%2C_1894%2C_Oviri_%28Sauvage%29%2C_partially_
glazed_stoneware%2C_75_x_19_x_27_cm%2C_Mus%C3%A9e_d%27Orsay%2C_Paris.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Coldcreation photographed this sculpture by Paul Gauguin at the Musée d'Orsay, Paris, 17 April 2013 Original artist: Paul Gauguin, Oviri,
photograph by Alex Mittelmann, aka, Coldcreation
• File:Pollution_-_Damaged_by_acid_rain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Pollution_-_Damaged_
by_acid_rain.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nino Barbieri
• File:Psyché.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Psych%C3%A9.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Eric Pouhier (May 2007) Original artist: Antonio Canova (Italian, 1757–1822)
• File:Refugees_medal_DSCF9937.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Refugees_medal_DSCF9937.
JPG License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Johnbod
• File:Rome-Basilique_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli-Moise_MichelAnge.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/
d0/Rome-Basilique_San_Pietro_in_Vincoli-Moise_MichelAnge.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jean-
Christophe BENOIST
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