INTRODUCTION

Ocean water is made up of 96.5% water (H20, an oxide

of hydrogen) and 3.5% solids. The main chemical
ingredient in these solids is salt (sodium chloride,
NaCl), a simple chemical compound found in the tissue
of all living organisms. Other chemicals include
Magnesium, Sulfate, Calcium, Potassium, Carbon,
Bromine, Boron, Strontium, Fluorine and ions of
Nitrogen. Since most scientists agree that life began in
the sea, it is not surprising that a number of these
chemicals (Magnesium, Sulfate, Calcium, Potassium,
Carbon and the Nitrogen ions) are essential to life.

Physical Properties

Density: One of the most important physical properties

of ocean water is its weight, or density. This depends
on two things – temperature and salinity.

The density of ocean water ranges from 1.026 to l.028

grams per centimeter.

High-salinity seawater is denser than low-salinity

seawater. Cold seawater is denser than warm seawater.
Salinity

Salinity is the amount of salt that’s dissolved in an

ocean's water – and it's different in different places.

The salinity of ocean water varies between 3.0 and 3.7

percent, so it averages out at about 3.5%.

Temperature

The temperature of ocean water is highest at the

Equator (where it is warmed by the Sun) and coldest
toward the poles.

There are three temperature zones in the oceans.

• The Surface Zone (which begins at the Earth's

surface and goes down to about 400 meters) is 22
degrees Celsius on average.

• The Thermo cline (begins at about 400 meters and

extends down to about 800 meters). Temperatures
drop rapidly from warm surface conditions to frigid
deep-water conditions.

• The Deep Zone (which starts at about 800 meters

and extends down to the ocean floor). Temperatures
hover just above the freezing point of water (0-4
degrees Celsius).
Petroleum (crude oil) properties

Chemical Properties

Petroleum is a complex mixture of paraffinic,

naphthenic and aromatic hydrocarbons ranging in
carbon number from C1 to >C60. Petroleum typically
also contains smaller amounts of heteroatom
compounds, metals and hydrogen sulfide.

Among these compounds, cyclic (aromatic)

hydrocarbons that low boiling point are more
dangerous, such as benzene, toluene and xylene.
Naphthalene and Phenanthrene are more poisonous for
fishes than the mentioned compounds. Aromatic
compounds are more soluble in water than saturated
hydrocarbons; therefore creatures may become
poisoned without direct contact with the oil by the
polluted water. Fortunately these compounds are
volatile; their harmful effects will decrease with time.

Physical Properties

Petroleum is not a uniform substance since its physical

properties vary from oilfield to oilfield and can even
vary within wells at the same oilfield. At one extreme,
it is a light, mobile, straw-colored liquid. At the other
extreme, it is a highly viscous, semi-solid, black
substance. The lower molecular weight components of
petroleum possess moderate to high water solubility
while higher molecular weight fractions tend to form
emulsions in water.

Oil Spill Behavior

When oil is spilled in the ocean, it initially spreads in

the water, depending on its relative density and
composition. The oil slick formed may remain cohesive,
or may break up in the case of rough seas. Waves,
water currents, and wind force the oil slick to drift
over large areas, impacting the open ocean, coastal
areas, and marine and terrestrial habitats in the path
of the drift.

Oil that contains volatile organic compounds partially

evaporates, becoming denser and more viscous. A small
percentage of oil may dissolve in the water. The oil
residue also can disperse almost invisibly in the water
or form a thick mousse with the water. Part of the oil
waste may sink with suspended particulate matter, and
the remainder eventually congeals into sticky tar balls.
Over time, oil waste weathers and disintegrates by
means of photolysis
Effects of Oil Spills on Marine Ecosystems

Environmental Effects

The impacts of oil pollution on marine ecosystem can be

categorized into long term and short term effects.
Suffocation cause by oil spills and oil poisoning are
among the first group. Because oil floats on top of
water, less light penetrates into the water, limiting the
photosynthesis of marine plants and phytoplankton. Oil
spills reduce oxygen absorption of the water, causing
oxygen dissolution under oil spills to be even less than
the deep sea levels.

Suspended oil can gain weight by bonding with minerals

and settle on the sea floor and harm the ecosystem.
Also causes sediments adherence to the sea floor,
destabilizing plants. Usually it has been observed that
sediments begin to move after oil settles on the sea
floor.
Oil Spills Kill Birds

Oil-covered birds are practically a universal symbol of

the environmental damage wreaked by oil spills. Any oil
spill in the ocean is a death sentence for sea birds.
Some species of shore birds may escape by relocating
if they sense the danger in time, but sea birds that
swim and dive for their food are sure to be covered in
oil. Oil spills also damage nesting grounds, which can
have serious long-term effects on entire species. They
can even disrupt migratory patterns by contaminating
areas where migrating birds normally stop.

By coating the feathers, oil not only makes it

impossible for birds to fly but also destroys their
natural waterproofing and insulation, leaving them
vulnerable to hypothermia or overheating. As the birds
frantically try to preen their feathers to restore their
natural protections they often swallow some of the oil,
which can severely damage their internal organs and
lead to death.
Oil Spills Kill Marine Mammals

Oil spills frequently kill marine mammals such as

whales, dolphins, seals and sea otters. The deadly
damage can take several forms. The oil sometimes clogs
the blowholes of whales and dolphins, making it
impossible for the animals to breathe properly and
disrupting their ability to communicate. Oil coats the
fur of otters and seals, leaving them vulnerable to
hypothermia.

Even when marine mammals escape the immediate

effects, an oil spill can cause damage by contaminating
their food supply.

Oil Spills Kill Fish

Oil spills often take a deadly toll on fish, shellfish and

other marine life, particularly if large numbers of fish
eggs or larvae are exposed to the oil.

Oil Spills Destroy Wildlife Habitat and Breeding

Grounds
The long-term damage to various species, and to the
habitat and nesting or breeding grounds those species
depend upon for their survival, is one of the most far-
reaching environmental effects caused by oil spills.

The severity of environmental damages caused by a

particular oil spill depends on many factors, including
the amount of the oil spilled, the type and weight of
the oil, the location of the spill, the species of wildlife
in the area, the timing or breeding cycles and seasonal
migrations, and even the weather at sea during and
immediately after the oil spill. But one thing never
varies: oil spills are always bad news for the
environment.

Oil Compound’s Effect on Animals

It's been proven that oil compounds will harm marine

organisms even in low concentrations. Organisms
accumulate oil compounds in their body through water,
sediments and their food.

Oil compounds increase disease sensitivity in fishes and

prevent growth of the phytoplankton. It's been
estimated in oil spilled areas; about 70 years are
required for marine life to completely restore.
Decomposition of oil materials is done by bacteria but
it's slow, especially in cold waters.

Experience has shown that in these assisted conditions

animals restoration process will begin in a few months,
but in natural process it takes one or two years. It has
been observed that oil materials in sediments and
cavities of sea floor will persist for 15 or more years.

The Dangers of Arctic Oil Drilling

The Arctic's extreme weather and freezing

temperatures, its remote location and the presence of
moving sea ice severely increase the risks of oil drilling,
complicate logistics and present unparalleled
difficulties for any clean-up operation. Its fragile
ecosystem is particularly vulnerable to an oil spill and
the consequences of an accident would have a profound
effect on the environment and local fisheries.

The Arctic is home to four million people. It also

houses a diverse range of unique wildlife: hundreds of
species of seabirds, millions of migrating birds; 17
different species of whale live there. Mammals
including Polar Bears, Arctic Foxes and various species
of seal inhabit the Arctic at different points
throughout the year. The impact of a spill on these
communities and already vulnerable animal species
would be devastating and long-lasting.

The US Geological Survey estimates that around 13%

of the world's undiscovered oil could lie under the area
north of the Arctic Circle Due to climate change, the
Arctic sea ice is melting at an alarming rate each
summer, allowing creeping industrialisation as
companies and governments scramble for the region’s
natural resources.

However, drilling in the Arctic presents, as even Cairn

Energy admits, "significant challenges". Alongside the
logistical nightmare of operating in such a hostile and
remote region, oil rigs face an ever-present risk from
huge icebergs and have to employ fleets of ships to
drag them out of the way. Some of the icebergs are so
big, though, that oil rigs are forced to stop drilling and
move out of their way.
The Arctic drilling season is limited to a narrow window
of a few months during the summer. In this short
period of time, complete the huge logistical response
needed to cap a leaking well would be almost impossible.
If relief wells are left unfinished over the winter, oil
could continue to gush out for up to two years. Yet
despite these incredible risks oil companies continue to
recklessly lobby governments to relax Arctic drilling
safety rules.

In the Arctic´s freezing conditions, oil is known to

behave very differently than in lower latitudes. It
takes much longer to disperse in cold water and
experts suggest that there is no way to contain or
clean-up oil trapped underneath large bodies of ice.
Toxic traces would linger for a longer period, affecting
local wildlife for longer, be transported large distances
by ice floes and leave a lasting stain on this pristine
environment.

The oil industry cannot guarantee the safety of Arctic

drilling and is recklessly putting profit before the
environment. As Cairn's recent operations prove, the
immense technical, economic and environmental risks of
drilling in the Arctic just aren't worth it.
Reference

 http://etap.org/demo/Earth_Science/es5/instru
ction4tutor.html

 http://www.epa.gov/chemrtk/hpvis/hazchar/Cate
gory_Crude%20Oil_March_2011.pdf

 http://bushehrport.pmo.ir/en/maritimeenvironme
nt/coastalmarine

 http://environment.about.com/od/petroleum/a/oi
l_spills_and_environment.htm

 http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/cam
paigns/climate-change/arctic-impacts/The-
dangers-of-Arctic-oil/