(Ayuste’s Group)

1) A COMPLETE GUT AND SEGMENTATION

Complete Gut
● One-way flow of food; from mouth to anus
● A gut tube within another body tube; designed to be adaptive as most of the
common animal phyla have this structure (e.g. coelomate deuterostome and
coelomate lophotrochozoan protostome)
Blind/Incomplete Gut
● Species with this kind of gut structure has only one opening for the enter and exit
of foods (e.g. diploblasts and some triploblasts)
Segmentation aka “Metamerism”
● Another common feature of metazoans
● Serial repetition of similar body segments (metamere or somite)
● Segmental arrangement in earthworms and other annelids where metamerism is
most clearly represented includes both external and internal structures of several
systems
● Repetition of muscles, blood vessels, nerves, and setae of locomotion
● Segmentation in humans and many animals are obscured due to evolutionary
changes but observable during development
● Permits greater body mobility & complexity of structure and function
● Occurs mostly on phylum CHORDATA, ANNELIDS and ARTHROPODA

2) BODY CAVITIES AND GERM LAYERS

Body Cavity
● Internal spaces (e.g. gut cavity, digestive tract)
● Animals have a second cavity; fluid-filled and protects the gut from forces exerted
on the body
● In sponges, the blastocoel (fluid-filled cavity) in blastula are cavities but not
considered guts because it has no external opening; after the formation of the
blastula, the cells reorganize to form an adult sponge (spongoel in sponges is
where water and nutrients flow)
● Development in animals other than sponges proceeds from a blastula to gastrula
 3) DEVELOPMENTAL ORIGINS OF BODY PLANS IN TRIPLOBLASTS
TRIPLOBLASTIC ANIMALS- FROM ZYGOTE TO BLASTULA

Most Common Pathways:

Radial Cleavage
● Blastopore becomes an anus and a new opening makes the mouth
● Coelom forms by ENTEROCOELY (mesoderm is formed in a developing
embryo, in which the coelom forms from pouches "pinched" off of the digestive
tract aka embryonic gut or archenteron)
● Regulative cleavage
● Animals with these features are called DEUTEROSTOMES (e.g. sea urchins,
humans, frogs and chordates
Spiral Cleavage
● Blastopore becomes the mouth
● Coelom forms by SCHIZOCOELY (occurs when a coelom is formed by splitting
the mesodermal embryonic tissue)
● Mosaic cleavage
● Animals with these features are called LOPHOTROCHOZOAN PROTOSTOMES
(e.g. mollusks and segmented worms)
● Ecdysozoans may be coelomates (has body cavities and complete peritoneum
lining) or pseudocoelomates (fluid-filled cavity); e.g. insects, crabs and
nematodes

OVERALL PATTERN OF EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT

 4) ANIMAL SYMMETRY
Animal Symmetry
● Balance proportions or correspondence in size and shape of parts on opposite
side of a median plane
● Spherical, Radial and Bilateral Symmetry
Spherical Symmetry
● Any plane passing through the center that divides a body into equivalent, or
mirrored halves
Radial Symmetry
● Applies to forms that can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes
passing through the longitudinal axis
Bilateral Symmetry
● Applies to animals that can be divided along a sagittal plane into two mirrored
portions- right and left halves
Planes of Symmetry
● Anterior: head end
● Posterior: tail end
● Dorsal: back side
● Ventral: belly side
● Medial: midline
● Lateral: sides
● Sagittal: dividing the animal into left and right parts the exact division in the
middle is midsagittal
 ● Transverse: aka cross section cuts through the animal horizontally

5) METHODS OF MESODERM FORMATION

Acoelomate Plan
● Mesodermal cells completely fill the blastocoel, leaving a gut cavity as the only
blood cavity
● Region between the ectodermal epidermis and the endodermal digestive tract is
filled with a spongy mass of space-filling cells, the parenchyma
Pseudocoelomate Plan
● Mesodermal cells line the outer edge of the blastocoel, leaving two body cavities; a
persistent blastocoel and a gut cavity
● The blastocoel is now called a psuedocoelom
Coelomate Body Plan
● True coelom is formed
● Develops via a schizocoelous or an enterocoelus plan
● In the schizocoelous plan, mesodermal cells fill the blastocoel, forming a solid
band of tissue around the gut cavity.
 (Jomarie’s Group)
Hierarchical Organization of Animal Complexity
1. Protoplasmic Grade of Organization
● Characterizes unicellular organisms
● All the like functions are confined within the boundaries of a single cells
● Within the cell, protoplasm is differentiated into organelles capable of
performing specialized functions
● Division of labor is seen among the cell organelles
2. Cellular Grade of Organization
● Aggregation of cells
● Exhibited in sponges
● Nerve cells and sensory cells are absent
● Division of labor is evident
3.Cell-Tissue Grade of Organization
● Exhibit tissue grade of organization
● 4 major groups
○ Anthozoa
○ Cubozoa
○ Hydrozoa
○ Scyphozoa
● Simplest organisms and is made up of 2 cell layers (ectoderm and
endoderm
● Has cells called Cnidocytes
● Cells that has similar functions are joined to form tissues
4. Tissue-Organ Grade of Organization
● Aggregation of tissues into organs
● Organs
○ Composed of more than 1 tissues
○ Specialized function of tissues
○ 1 type of tissue performs organ’s tissues = stroma
5. Organ-System Grade of Organization

● Organ System
○ Highest grade of organization
● Organization
○ Working of organs as one unit to perform function/s
 (Chai’s Group)
EXTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS
NONCELLULAR COMPONENTS OF METAZOAN ANIMALS
● 2 IMPORTANT NONCELLULAR COMPONENTS
○ Body fluids
 ○ Extracellular structural elements
BODY FLUID
● 2 FLUID COMPARTMENTS
○ Intracellular space (within the body’s cells)
○ Extracellular space (outside the cells; e.g. blood plasma, lymph, interstitial
fluid (tissue fluid)
■ Many invertebrates have open systems, however, with no true
separation of blood plasma from interstitial fluid
EXTRACELLULAR STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
● Supportive materials of organisms
● Provide mechanical stability and protection
○ Connective tissue (well developed in vertebrates but present in all
metazoa)
○ Cartilage (mollusks and chordates)
○ Bone (vertebrates)
○ Cuticle (arthropods, nematodes, annelids and others)
● In some instances, they also act as storage depot of materials for exchange
between cells and interstitial fluid
● Serve as a medium for extracellular reactions
Epithelial Tissues
● Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines of organs and cavities.
○ Functions
■ Functions as a some type of barrier and protective function and that
is certainly the case
■ Helps to protect against microorganisms.
■ Epithelial tissue functions to absorb, secrete, and excrete
substances
■ Epithelial tissue also has a sensory function as it contains sensory
nerves in areas such as the skin, tongue, nose, and ears
○ Classifications
■ Simple Squamous Epithelium
● Single layer ;Composed of flattened cells that forms
continuous lining of blood capillaries, lungs and other
surface
● Allows passage of materials by diffusion and filtration
■ Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
● Short and box like cells; found in organs that are specialized
for secretion and absorption
■ Simple Columnar Epithelium
 ● Looks like a simple cuboidal but they are taller and they
have a elongated nuclei
● Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other
substances; ciliated type propels mucus
■ Stratified Squamous Epithelium
● Consist of more than one layer
● Specialized to withstand the mechanical stresses which
protects underlying tissues in areas prone to abrasion
■ Transitional Epithelium
● stretches readily and permits distension of excretory system.
Connective Tissues
● Serves various binding and supportive functions
● Composed of relatively few cells, many extracellular fibers, and a ground
Substance
● The internal structure of a connective tissue is called extracellular matrix
● Connective tissue: proper and specialized connective tissue
○ Two Types of Proper Connective Tissue
■ Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
● Holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other
underlying tissues
● Contains Fibroblasts and Macrophages
● Fiber types include collagen and elastic fibers
■ Dense Connective Tissue
● Forms tendons, ligaments and
Fasciae
● Arranged as sheets or bands of tissue surrounding skeletal
muscle
● Extremely long, tightly packed together, little ground
substance
○ Types of Specialized Connective Tissues
■ Cartilage
● Semirigid form of connective tissue composed of a firm
matrix containing (chondrocytes)
● Cushion between bones and easily damaged
● Chondrocytes are located in lacunae
● Composed of collagen and/or elastic fibers
● Lacks blood supply
● Hyaline cartilage – found on joint surfaces, contains no
nerves or blood vessels
■ Bone
 ● Strongest of vertebrae connective tissues
● Rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton
● Composed of calcified matrix containing salts around
collagen fibers
● Lacunae contain bone cells, called osteocytes
● Tiny network of channels called canaliculi
● Continuous remodeling
MUSCULAR TISSUE
● Most abundant tissue in the body of most animals. Originates in mesoderm.
Its unit is the muscle fiber, specialized for contraction
○ 2 TYPES OF STRIATED MUSCLE
■ SKELETAL MUSCLE
● Occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates
● Composed of extremely long, cylindrical fibers
● Voluntary muscle (vertebrates)
● May be controlled by both stimulatory and inhibitory nerve
activity (invertebrate)
■ CARDIAC MUSCLE
● Found only in vertebrate heart Shorter cell
● Only one nucleus per cell Involuntary muscle
● Obliquely striated muscle - a third striated muscle type
■ SMOOTH MUSCLE
● Occurs in both invertebrates and vertebrates
● Cells are long and tapering, each contains a single, central
nucleus
● Most common type of muscle in invertebrates
● Serves as body-wall musculature and surrounds ducts and
sphincters
● Surrounds blood vessels, intestine and uterus. Involuntary
muscle
● Sarcoplasm - unspecialized Cytoplasm of muscles
Myofibrils - contractile elements within fiber
NERVOUS TISSUE
● Reception of stimuli and conduction of impulses from one region to another.
○ TWO BASIC TYPES OF NERVOUS TISSUE
■ Neuron
● Basic functional unit of the nervous system
■ Neuroglia
 ● A variety of non- nervous cells that insulate neuron
membranes and serve various supportive functions.

(Jena’s Group)
SKELETAL SYSTEM
SKELETAL SYSTEM
● Supportive system
● Surface for muscle attachment
● Protection for vulnerable body organs
 ● Framework of the body
● Blood Production
○ Types of Skeletons
■ HYDROSTATIC SKELETONS
● Found in soft-bodied animals
● Consists a fluid-filled cavity called coelom
○ Worms
■ Septa- separate body into different
compartments
■ Setae- hair-like bristles that anchor the
segments
○ Arenicola
● Muscular hydrostats- composed of incompressible tissues
that remain at constant volume
○ Elephant’s trunk
○ Tongues of mammals
■ RIGID SKELETONS
● Consist of rigid elements (inflexible)
● Muscles are jointed and so they are attached
● Two types: Exoskeleton & Endoskeleton
○ EXOSKELETON
■ Promotes loco motor functions
■ Provide sites for muscle attachment
■ Provide counter forces for muscle movements
○ ENDOSKELETON
■ Must be periodically molted to make way for an
enlargement replacement
■ Differs in complexity, shape and function

NOTOCHORD
● Semi rigid supportive axial cord
● Composed of large and vacuolated cells
● Surrounded by layers of elastic and fibrous collagen sheaths
● Stiffening device

CARTILAGE
● Connective tissue
● Soft pliable tissues that resists compression
○ Jawless fishes and Elasmobranchs

Types of Cartilage
 ● Hyaline
○ Clear glassy appearance located in many joint surfaces
○ Composed of cartilage cells called chondrocytes
○ Surrounded by firms, complex protein-carbohydrate gel interlaces with
meshwork of collagen fibers
○ Forms cartilaginous skeletons
● Elastic
○ Similar to Hyaline cartilage but the
fiber is predominantly elastic
○ More flexible

● Fibrous
○ Numerous collagen fiber bundles
are present
○ Often arranged in herringbone
pattern

BONE
● Living and growing tissue
● Two principle components:
○ Collagen – protein that provides framework
○ Calcium Phosphate – mineral that strengthens and hardens the
framework

Types of Bones
● Endochondral/ Replacement Bone
○ Develops from cartilage
○ Cartilage is destroyed in the process of calcification
○ The cartilage is the reabsorbed, leaving the bone in its place
● Intramembranous Bone
○ Develops directly from sheets of embryonic cells
○ In tetrapod vertebrates, it is restricted mainly to bones of the face, cranium
and clavicle; the remainder of the skeleton is endochondral bone
● Spongy/ Cancellous Bone
 ○ Consists of an ope (interlacing framework of bony tissue) oriented to give
maximum strength under normal stresses and strains that the bone
receives
○ Filled with red bone marrow
○ Found in the ends of long bones, as well as the pelvic bones, ribs, skull
and vertebrae
● Compact Bone
○ Bone usually develop first as spongy bone, but some bones, through
further deposition of bone matrix, become compact
○ Dense, appearing solid
○ Found in long bones in arms, legs or other bones in which strength is
needed
○ Forms shell around spongy bone

Main Divisions of Vertebrate Skeleton

● AXIAL SKELETON
○ Skull
○ Vertebral Column
○ Sternum
○ Ribs
● APPENDICULAR SKELETON
○ Limbs
○ Pectoral
○ Pelvic Girdles
Vertebral Column
● Main stiffening axis of the postcranial skeleton
● Preserves body shape during muscle contraction
○ First 2 Cervical Vertebrae: Atlas (supports the globe of the head) and Axis
(permits the head to turn from side-to-side; contains the odontoid process
where the atlas rotates)

Ribs
● Separates the muscle segments
● Improves the effectiveness of muscle contractions
● Facilitates our breathing
 (Alth’s Group)

INTEGUMENT

Integument
● Outer covering of the body; protective wrapping including the skin, hair, setae,
scales feathers, and horns
● It belongs to the tissue group epithelium
● Separates the body from the environment for certain purposes: bacteria
prevention, protection from predation, protection against UV rays (sun),
thermoregulation, and can also be used in mating

Invertebrate Integument
● Many unicellular eukaryotes have only the delicate plasma membrane for
external covering, such as a paramecium, other developing protective pellicle
○ Pellicle
■ Protective covering of some protozoa
■ A semi-rigid structure that transmits the force of cilia or flagella to
the entire body of the protozoan as it moves
 ○ Cuticle
■ It is the non-cellular, hardened or membranous protective covering
of many invertebrates
■ Consists of chitin and proteins in rigid plates that a flexible
membrane links together
○ Epidermis
■ Rests on the basement membrane
■ A single layer of ectodermal epithelium
● Examples:
○ Snails, slugs, oysters, and clams are protected by a hard shell made of
calcium carbonate secreted by the mantle, a heavy fold of tissue that
surrounds the mollusc's internal organs
○ Spiders, insects, lobsters and shrimp have bodies covered by an external
skeleton, the exoskeleton, which is strong, impermeable, and allows some
arthropods to live on land
○ The exoskeleton is composed of layers of protein and a tough
polysaccharide called chitin, and can be a thick hard armor or a flexible
paper-thin covering

Vertebrate Integument and Derivatives

● Epidermis
○ Thin and appears simple in structure
○ Gives rise to most derivatives of the integument
○ Is a stratified squamous epithelium
○ Undergoes frequent mitosis to renew layers that lie above
○ Keratinization - when keratin accumulates in the interior of the cells
■ keratin replaces all metabolically active cytoplasm
● Dermis
○ Dense connective-tissue layer
○ Contains blood vessels, collagenous fibers, nerves, pigment cells, fat cells
and fibroblasts
○ Other cells present provide a first line of defense if the outer epidermal
layer is broken

Animal Coloration
● Integumentary color is usually produced by pigments
● In many insects and some vertebrates, especially birds, certain colors are
produced by the physical structure of the surface tissue which reflects certain
light wavelengths and eliminate others; colors produced this way are called
structural color and they are responsible for the metallic hues in the animal
kingdom
● Pigments (biochromes) are more common than structural colors. this is an
extremely varied group of large molecules that reflect light rays
 ● In crustaceans and ectothermic vertebrates, these pigments are contained in
large cells with branching processes called chromatophores
○ Mature chromatophores are grouped into subclasses based on their
colour (more properly "hue") under white light: melanophores
(black/brown), xanthophores (yellow), leucophores (white), and
cyanophores (blue)
● The most widespread of animal pigments are the melanins, a group of polymers
responsible for earth-colored shades most animals wear. These are found in
melanophores
● Most vertebrates are incapable of synthesizing their own carotenoid pigments
but must obtain them from plants
● Two entirely different classes of pigments called ommochromes and pteridines
are usually responsible for the yellow pigment in molluscs and arthropods
● Green colors are rare; they are usually produced by yellow pigment overlying
blue structural color
● Iridophores, another type of chromatophore, contain crystals of guanine or
some other purine rather than pigment. They produce a silvery or metallic effect
by reflecting light

Injurious Effects of Sunlight

● The main risk factor for sunburn, premature skin aging, skin damage, and skin
cancer is exposure to UV light from the sun. More than 90 percent of skin
cancers are caused by sun exposure
● Most land Animals are protected from such damage by special body coverings
while humans do not have any
● The risk for skin damage and skin cancer is higher in people with lighter skin.
However, people who have darker skin also must protect their skin from the sun
to reduce lifetime exposure to harmful UV rays and help prevent skin damage
and skin cancer. Lifetime exposure to the sun, which is associated with an
increased risk for skin cancer, often is higher in older people and in men
 (Wynona’s Group)

COMPLEXITY AND BODY SIZE

Cope’s Rule
● Discovered by Edward Cope, a paleontologist in the 19th century
● The observation of the animal size growing larger as time passes by
● Not all organisms grow larger over time

Why the size of animals increased over the years and the advantages of being
large.
● improved ability to hunt prey or to survive predation
● greater reproductive success
● increased intelligence
expanded size range of acceptable food
● decreased annual mortality
● extended individual longevity
● increased heat retention per unit volume

Why is the surface area to volume ratio bigger in smaller animals and vice versa?
What are its implications?
● SURFACE AREA = the outside part or uppermost layer of the body
● VOLUME = amount of space that a substance or object occupies (internal
contents of the body)
● As animal becomes larger, the body surface increases much more slowly than
body volume because surface area has the square of the body length. Whereas
volume (and therefore mass) increases as the cube of body length (e.g. polar
bears and foxes)
 ○ Polar Bear
■ great deal of central mass and very few appendages. (They don’t
have large ears)
■ SMALL SA:Vol RATIO
■ Internal volume is greater than their surface area
○ Fox
■ have very large ears (appendages), and are very lean (not fat)
■ = BIG SA:Vol RATIO
■ = Bigger ears increase surface area, leaner body decreases
internal volume

Surface area of a large animal may be inadequate to provide enough respiratory

gas exchange and nutrients for cells located deep within the body.
● The larger the animal, the lesser is the body surface
● Body surface (volume ratio) - responsible for taking in oxygen; less body surface
prevents attaining oxygen and nutrients

TWO SOLUTIONS
● To Fold or invaginate the body surface
○ allowing body surface to become large without an increase in internal
complexity (e.g. flatworms)
● To develop internal transport system
○ shuttle nutrients, gases, and waste products between cell and the external
environment (e.g. Circulatory System)

Large size buffers an animal against environmental fluctuations; it provides

greater protection against predation and enhances offensive tactics; and it
permits a more efficient use of metabolic energy.
● Advantages
○ Can adapt to environmental fluctuations (e.g. Scarce - large animals have
more reserved resources or nutrients in their body)
○ Overpower predators
○ Lower relative energy demands for further traveling
● Disadvantages
○ Needs more food
○ Can’t hide from predators
Tamara’s group

ANIMAL MOVEMENT
- Is an important characteristic of animals

- Occurs in many forms, from the streaming of cytoplasm to the movement of

skeletal muscle

- Depend on contractile proteins

§ Fundamental mechanism

§ Allow relaxation and contraction

§ Composed of ultrafine fibrils arranged to contract when powered

by ATP

Actomyosin System

- Most important protein in the contractile system

- Universal biochemical system found from protozoa to vertebrates

- Performs various roles

- Composed of Actin and Myosin

* Cilia and Flagella – composed of other proteins thus, are exceptions to this rule

AMEBOID

- Crawling movement used by some types of cells and unicellular organisms that
have no set structures for mobility

- Amebas and other unicellular forms

Withdrawal of Pseudopodia (false feet)

Ameboid Crawling

- Movement depends on Actin, Actin-binding proteins and other regulatory

proteins

- Locomotion – assisted by MEMBRANE-ADHESION PROTEINS that attach

temporarily to the substrate, enabling the cell to crawl forward

Pseudopod Extends

- Hydrostatic pressure forces actin subunits in the flowing endoplasm into the
pseudopod
 - Assemble into a polymer network of Actin filaments

- Formation of gel-like ectoplasm

At the trailing edge of the gel where the network disassembles…

- Actin filaments interact in the presence of calcium ions, with Myosin

- Creates a contractile force that pulls the cell forward behind the extending
pseudopod

CILIARY

- Small, hair-like, motile processes

- Extends from surfaces of cells of animals

- Distinctive feature of ciliate unicellular eukaryotes (except for nematodes)

- Occurs in all major animal groups

- Involved in Cellular Communication = Organ placement within the developing

embryo

Ciliary Movement

- Microtubules behave as “Sliding filaments” that move past one another

- During CILIARY FLEXION, dynein arms link to adjacent microtubules, swivel

and release in repeated cycles

Parts of the Cillium

- BASAL BODY – gives rise to the peripheral circle of microtubules

- PERIPHERAL CIRCLE – 9 double microtubules arranged around 2 single

microtubules in the center

- MICROTUBULES – each is composed of a spiral array of protein subunits

called TUBULIN

- The microtubule doublets are connected to each other and to the central pair by
a complex system of MICROTUBULE-ASSOCIATED PROTEINS (MAPs)

- DYNEIN – pair of arms extending from each doublet and acts as a bridge
between doublets

FLAGELLUM

- Whip-like structure
 - Longer than a cilium

- Present singly or in small numbers at one end of the cell

- Occur in single celled eukaryotes

- Same basic internal structure as cilia

Exceptions in Structure

- Sperm tails in Flatworms only have one central microtubule

- Sperm tails in Mayflies have no central microtubule

Muscle Performance
Slow Oxidative Fibers

- Important in maintaining posture in terrestrial vertebrates

- Often called as Red Muscle

§ Because they contain extensive blood supply

§ A high density of mitochondria for supplying ATP via aerobic

metabolism

§ Also abundant in storing myoglobin which supplies additional

stored oxygen

Fast Fibers

1. Fast Glycolytic Fiber

- Lacks an efficient blood supply

- Has a low density of mitochondria and myoglobin

- Often called White Muscle

2. Fast Oxidative Fiber

- Has an extensive blood supply

- High density of mitochondria and myoglobin

- Also known as Intermediate Fibers

Muscle Movement

Types of Vertebrate Muscles:

 1. Skeletal Muscle

- Transversely striated

- Long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells

- For the movements of the trunk, respiratory organs, eyes, mouthparts, other
strutures

- Ex: Biceps brachii

2. Cardiac Muscle

- Transversely striated

- Closely opposed but separated uninucleate cells joined by intercalated discs

- For the involuntary autonomic and hormonal control of the heart (regulate heart
beat)

3. Smooth muscle

- Not transversely striated

- Smaller, tapering strands (getting smaller), each containing a single nucleus

- Controlled by autonomic and hormones as well. Muscles encircling cavities and

tubular structures of the body

- Ex: Alimentary canals, blood vessels, ducts, and cavities

Types of Invertebrate Muscles:

- Almost similar to vertebrate’s smooth and striated muscles

- There are instances where both functional and structural features are combined

1. Adductor Muscles of Molluscs

- Rapid contracting striated muscles function in the closing of bivalves (2 shells)

when disturbed (can also be used for swimming)

- Smooth muscles - capable of slow, long-lasting contractions. Used to keep the

valves shut for hours or even days.

2. Fast Flight Muscles of Insects

- The opposite of the slow, long-lasting contractions in bivalves

- Fibrillar Muscles – found in the wings of insects, contracts at 1000 beats per
second
 -- far greater than vertebrate skeletal muscles
- Muscles shorten only slightly every downbeat of the wing

- Since it’s elastic, it recoils which means it doesn’t need much neural signals
(One signal = 20-30 contractions)

STRIATED/SKELETAL MUSCLE
- Made of muscle bundles or fascicles

- Fascicles are held together by fascia (connective tissue)

- Each muscle bundle/fascicle contains a number of muscle fibers inside. Each

muscle fiber is lined by the sarcolemma

- Muscle fibers contains Myofibrils (parallelly arranged filaments)

- Myofibrils are stacked inside sarcomeres (contractile units)

- Myofibrils contain Actin and Myosin (both contractile proteins)

- Troponin – complex of three globular proteins

- controls the contraction

Control of Contraction

- Calcium binds with Troponin in the Actin which makes the Myosin attach itself to
the Actin then contraction (pulling/slide) occurs

Neuromuscular Junction
- Reason why movement is occurring in us

Steps of Neuromuscular Junction:

1. The neurotransmitter ACH (acetyl choline) is inside the axon terminal. It binds
with calcium.

2. Acetyl choline exits the neurotransmitter via exocytosis and is now transferred to
the synaptic cleft.

3. Acetyl choline attaches itself to a receptor (in the muscle) thus, making sodium
and calcium enter the muscle freely.

4. Calcium and sodium travels around the muscle via the gap junctions (in the
muscle).

5. An action is produced.
EXCITATION CONTRACTION COUPLING
- Tropomyosin - is a protein involved in skeletal muscle contraction. It helps
control when a muscle contracts and when it doesn't.

- Actin - participates in many important cellular processes (Ex: muscle

contraction, cell motility, cell division, etc. and establishment and maintenance of cell
junctions and cell shape)

- T-tubules - conduct impulses from the surface of the cell (SARCOLEMMA)

down into the cell and, specifically, to another structure in the cell called the
SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM

- Troponin - attached to the protein tropomyosin and lies within the groove
between actin filaments in muscle tissue

- Myosin - function as a motor that drives filament sliding.

Unstimulated Muscle

- Shortening does not occur because thin tropomyosin strands surrounding the
actin filaments lie in a position that prevents the myosin heads from attaching to
actin

Energy for Contraction

- Muscle contraction – requires large amounts of energy; ATP

3 Main Sources:

1. Glucose - transported to the muscle in the blood where it is catabolized during

aerobic metabolism to produce ATP

2. Glycogen – supplies glucose molecules for ATP production

Advantages (of Glycogen):

· Relatively abundant

· Quickly mobilized

· Can provide energy during anaerobic and aerobic conditions

3. Creatine phosphate – high energy phosphate compound that stores bond

energy during rest
 Ø Some muscle types rely heavily on glucose and oxygen supplies transported
to muscle via circulatory system

Ø During exercise, blood flow to the muscles, although greatly increased above
resting levels, can’t supply oxygen to the mitochondria rapidly enough to
complete oxidation of glucose.

Ø The contractile machinery then receives its energy largely by Anaerobic

glycolysis

Anaerobic glycolysis

- A process that doesn’t require oxygen; without this, all forms of heavy muscle
muscular exertion are impossible

Main points:

- Glucose is degraded to lactic acid with release of energy

- Lactic acid accumulates in the muscle and diffuses rapidly into the general
circulation

- Anaerobic pathway is a self-limiting one, since continued exertion leads to

exhaustion

- The muscles incur an oxygen debt because accumulated lactic acid must be
converted to pyruvic acid, which is fed into the Krebs cycle via conversion of
Acetyl-CoA

- After a period of exertion, oxygen consumption remains elevated until all

lactic acid has been oxidized.

Vince’s Group

Developmental Origins of Body Plans in Triploblasts

Triplobalstic
● Body wall develops from 3 germ layers- ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm
● Mesogloea is absent
● Coelom is present
Diploblastic
 ● Body wall develops from 2 germ layers- ectoderm and endoderm
● Mesogloea is present
● Coelom is absent
Radial Cleavage

DEUTEROSTOMES (sea urchins and

chordates)

-Blastopore becomes an anus

-The coelom forms via enterocoely

-Cleavage is regulative

Spiral Cleavage

● Cell division has occurred where cells are not aligned directly over each other but
at an angle.
● blastopore becomes the mouth
● The body may become acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, or coelomate. If a
coelomate is present, it is made via schizocoely.

ECDYSOZOANS

INSECTS, CRABS, NEMATODES

● Presence of special hormone called ecdysteroids, which controls the process

called ecdysis or metamorphosis.
● Bilaterally symmetrical.
● Builds cuticle as their exoskeleton.
LOPHOTROCHOZOANS
 ● Sexually reproduced by releasing their gametes to the environment
● Every member of this group are tripoblastic and shows billateral symmetry
The characteristic features of the group lophotrochozoa are the presence of a
trochophore larvae and feeding a structure called lophophore

ALL HAS TROCHOPORE LARVA WHICH ENABLES THEM TO MOVE OR SWIM.

a horseshoe-shaped structure bearing ciliated tentacles around the mouth in certain

small marine invertebrates.

Lophotrochozoa is subdivided into six subgroups;

(a) Flatworms (Platyhelminthes, which includes turbellarians, trematodes, and

cestodes),

(b) Nemerteans (ribbon worms), Mollusks (chitons, gastropods such as snails, slugs,
nudibranchs, bivalves like clams and oysters, cephalopods like squids and octopus),

(c) Annelids (polychaetes like sandworms and tubeworms, oligochaetes including

earthworms and freshwater worms, hirudinids, which includes leeches)
(d) Lophophorates (branchipods, phoronids, and bryozoans), and

(e) Rotifera (wheel animals)