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You are reading project material titled: Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By
Secondary School Students

Abstract
The study employed a survey designed. A sample of 800 students which were randomly
selected served us the study sample. Data were collected using the questionnaire.
Mean and standard derivation were used to analyze the data. It was found out that lack
of interest and inadequate personnel and facilities were serious impediments to
acquisition of computer education. Finally, recommendations were made that enough
trained personnel should be recruited and posted to schools to teach computer studies.

Table of Content
Title Page
Approval Page
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table Of Contents

Chapter One
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background Of The Study
1.2 Statement Of The Problem
1.3 Purpose Of The Study
1.4 Significance Of The Study
1.5 Scope Of The Study
1.6 Research Question
1.7 Chapter 11
1.8 Review Of Related Literature
1.9 Conceptual Frame Work
1.10 Computer Literacy
1.11 Importance Of Computer In Education
1.12 Summary Of The Literature Review
Chapter Two:
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 L Development Of The (Ube) In Nigeria
2.2 The Need For The (Ube) Scheme
2.3 The Objectives Of (Ube) Programme In Nigerian Educational Sector
2.4 Major Issues And Matters Arising From The (Ube) Scheme
2.5 Appreciating The (Ube)
2.6 Problems Of Ube Programme In Nigeria Education
2.7 Problems Associated With The Implementation Process Of The (Ube) Scheme
2.8 Possible Measures In Ensuring The Success Of The (Ube) Programme
2.9 Summary Of Literature Review

Chapter Three:
3.0 Research Methodology
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Area Of The Study
3.3 Population Of The Study
3.4 Sample And Sampling Techniques
3.5 Instrument Of Data Collection
3.6 Validation Of The Instrument
3.7 Reliability Of The Instrument
3.8 Method Of Data Collection
3.9 Method Of Data Analysis

Chapter Four:
4.0 Results
4.1 Analysis Of Research Question

Chapter Five:
5.0 Summary Conclusions And Recommendations
5.1 Summary Of Procedure Used
5.2 Summary Of Principal Findings
5.3 Conclusions
5.4 Recommendations
5.5 Suggestion For Further Study
Reference

Chapter One
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INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study:
A well developed scientific and technological base are conditional to any national
human and material development. Nigeria has been classified as a developing nation
and has continued to make a break through by emphasizing much on science and
technology thereby making inclusive of computer education in the curriculum of the
junior and senior secondary schools.
During the ministerial council meeting of the national council on Education in 1987, the
Federal Government of Nigeria deiced to introduce computer education into the nation’s
secondary school system. This was followed by the inauguration of the National
committees on computer Education the same year. The functions of the committee
among others included, planning for dynamic policy on computer education and literacy
in Nigeria as well as devising clear strategies and terminologies to be used by the
federal and state governments in the introducing computer Education.
The general objective of the policy are:
1. To bring about a computer literate society in Nigeria.
2. To enable the present school children to appreciate and use the computer in various
aspect of life and in future employment. The modalities for achieving stated objectives
include;
1). Training teachers and associated personal
2). Provision of hardware facilities
3). Curriculum development.
4). Software developments and evaluation.
5). Maintenance of hardware.
The above enumerated strategies can promote or impede the acquisition of computer
knowledge. Functionalities of the strategies would promote acquisition while deficiency
in implementation would constitute an impediment to the acquisition of computer
knowledge. According to Francisca (2003) the polices are poorly implemented due to
poor training and orientation of key implements (teachers). Through constant practice,
workshop and seminars, the teachers will be equipped in relevant knowledge needed in
computer which are appropriate for effective teaching and learning of computer
education. Computer requires practices and only the teachers that knows the practices
can teach it very well.
Impediments with regard to the stated strategies the non availability of Hardware
facilities in acquisition of computer education. Okon (1992) reported on the declining
standard of teaching which is done without exposing the students to any form of
practical experiences. The acquisition of computer education with the hardware facilities
is just like going to school without pen and Books. In the 1990 National Conference on
Curriculum development computer education was not inclusive in the issues discussed
which now made the acquisition of computer education very difficult in the secondary
school because it was not included early in the curriculum.
Proper teaching and learning with regard to computer education in the state secondary
schools have been known to have suffered some set backs. There set backs have been
generated by certain conditions such as:
1. Inadequate Provision of Facilities
2. Lack of Trained Personnel
3. Financial Constraint
4. Organizational Constraint (time frame for teaching computer in school; periods
allocated to computer).
On Inadequate Provision of Facilities Ajavero (1998) noted that absence of facilities in
acquisition of knowledge creates problems and confusion to the learner instead of
making changes in the learners’ life. Ezike (1991) added that computer science
laboratory is a room where hardwares and softwares are programmed, practicalzed,
ordered, grouped, recorded, rearranged, constructed among many other activities but
the question is how facilitated is the room that could be boast the acquisition of
computer for without facilities, the acquisition of computer is not effective.
On lack of Trained Personnel Abiodum (2007), reveled that hence computer is “Cabage
in cabage out” There is need that computer teachers are well trained otherwise they will
cabage wrong thing into the children, and the children will as well Cabage out the
Wrong thing. Francisca (2003), said that many of the laudable curriculum we have in
use are poorly implements due to poor training and orientation of key implementers
(teachers) of these curricula. The teachers through constant workshop and seminars
should be well equipped in the relevant methodologies and knowledge that are
appropriate for effective teaching of computer.
On financial constraint Ukeje (1991), stressed on the need for the government to
finance educational section, computer education needs more financial support more
than other subjects in the school; if computer science subject is not supported
financially it totally impedes its acquisitions.
On organizational constraints computer knowledge are acquired in the computer
training centers and not in school which attracts less attentions to the periods allocated
for its lesson in the school. In schools computer science is not included in the school
time table that is why Jude (2007), maintained that computer education is still limited in
the federal colleges.

Statement of the Problem

Computer knowledge acquisition deals with the knowledge and ability to use computer
and related technology efficiently with a range of skills covering levels from elementary
use to programming and advanced problem solving. In Enugu North local Government
Area, there are scarcity of computer science teaches, the people of the Area, sees
computer knowledge acquisition as a game of learning computer in a Computer Centre
and not in the school systems. There are problems associated with the acquisition of
computer education in secondary schools, which are; inadequate provision of facilities,
lack of trained personnel, financial constraints, and organizational constraints. It was on
this ground that the researchers choose to write on the impediments to the acquisition
of computer education by secondary school students in Enugu North Local Government
Area, Enugu state.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose underlying this study is to find out the impediments to the acquisition
of computer knowledge, specifically the students aim to:
1. Find out the extent to which inadequate facilities impede the acquisition of computer
education in secondary schools.
2. Find out the extent to which lack of trained personnel impede the acquisition of
computer education in secondary schools.
3. Find out the extent to which financial constraints impede the acquisition of computer
education in secondary schools.
4. Find out the extent to which organizational constraints impede the acquisition of
computer education in secondary schools.

Significance of the Study

The study is very essential to the extent that it will be beneficial to the following;
1. The students: The study will enable the students to understand that computer
education is not for play but for real imprecation of understanding, knowledge and social
improvements.
2. The teachers: The study will enable the teachers to understand that there
impediments in the acquisition of computer education in secondary schools.
3. Government: The study will disclose the impediments in the acquisition of computer
education in secondary schools which now make the government to provide solutions to
such impediments and improve the acquisition of computer education in secondary
schools.

Scope of the Study

The study focuses on the impediments to the acquisition of computer education by
secondary school students in Enugu North Local Government Area, Enugu State. The
impediments were based on the lack of adequate facilities, lack of trained personnel,
financial constraints and organizational constraints.

Research Question
1. To what extent does lack of adequate facilities impede the acquisition of computer
Education in secondary schools?.
2. To what extent does a financial constraint impede the acquisition of computer
Education in secondary schools?
3. Does lack of trained personnel impede the acquisition of computer Education in the
secondary schools?
4. To what extent does an organizational constraint impede the acquisition of computer
Education in secondary schools?

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Chapter Two
Chapter two of this Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By
Secondary School Students” research work is available. Order Full Work to download.
Chapter Two of “Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By Secondary
School Students Contains: Literature Review, Development Of The (Ube) In Nigeria,
The Need For The (Ube) Scheme, The Objectives Of (Ube) Programme In Nigerian
Educational Sector, Major Issues And Matters Arising From The (Ube) Scheme,
Appreciating The (Ube), Problems Of Ube Programme In Nigeria Education, Problems
Associated With The Implementation Process Of The (Ube) Scheme, Possible
Measures In Ensuring The Success Of The (Ube) Programme And Summary Of
Literature Review.
Chapter Three
Chapter three of this Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By
Secondary School Students” academic work is available. Order Full Work to download.
Chapter Three of “Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By
Secondary School Students Contains: Research Methodology, Research Design, Area
Of The Study, Population Of The Study, Sample And Sampling Techniques, Instrument
Of Data Collection, Validation Of The Instrument, Reliability Of The Instrument, Method
Of Data Collection, Method Of Data Analysis .
Chapter Four
Chapter four of this Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By
Secondary School Students project work is available. Order Full Work to download.
Chapter Four of Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By Secondary
School Students Contains: Results And Analysis Of Research Question.
Chapter Five
Chapter five of this Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By
Secondary School Students material is available. Order Full Work to download. Chapter
Five of Impediments To The Acquisition Of Computer Education By Secondary School
Students Contains: Summary Of Principal Findings ,Conclusions, Recommendations,
Suggestion For Further Study And Reference.
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1. Discuss in detail the validity and reliability of tools for qualitative research.

Answer: There has been considerable debate among qualitative researchers for decades, but a
common and unified approach to describing the criteria for quality has not emerged clearly. It may
be that there is no one method that can be identified, as the nature of qualitative research makes it
difficult to reach agreement on criteria for assessing its quality. Currently, there are six broad
positions, which can be adopted with respect to the criteria for trustworthiness. A researcher will
generally select from one or more of these positions in making the claim of trustworthiness. Position
1 — using the criteria of quantitative research. This position argues that the process of quantitative
reliability and validity remain appropriate concepts for ensuring rigour in qualitative research. It
emphasizes procedural precision and the use of „verification strategies integral and self-correcting
during the conduct of inquiry itself‟ (Morse et al. 2002 p 1). To a certain extent, meta-synthesis suits
this position. Position 2 — parallel methodological criteria. This position argues that qualitative
research requires a different set of criteria for evaluating trustworthiness. Commonly cited are those
of Guba and Lincoln (1989) who developed criteria which have a parallel relationship to those used
in quantitative research. These are: „credibility with internal validity‟, „audit ability (dependability) with
reliability‟, „fittingness (transferability) with external validity‟ and „conformability with objectivity‟.
Position 3 — multiple criteria. This position argues one list of criteria per qualitative research
approach. For example, it has been proposed that the trustworthiness of an ethnographic report can
be evaluated by the application of three criteria: veracity, objectivity and Develop an interview for
curriculum developers to explore the “existing curriculum of secondary level in public school
as tool for socio-economic development”.perspicacity (Stewart 1998). In grounded theory various
forms have been suggested. McCann and Clark (2003) highlight the differences between the criteria
proposed by Glaser of „fit‟, „work‟, „relevance‟ and „modifiability‟. Position 5 — each study develops
suitable, justifiable criteria. Growing in popularity is the flexibility for researchers to develop their own
list of criteria for trustworthiness of a study. The choice is justified because of the qualitative
research approach used and also on other grounds, such as philosophical, ethical and political
reasons. Some common criteria selected are described below.

•An audit (decision trail), where care is taken to record the decisions made, particularlyregarding
design planning, sampling, data collection methods and analysis decisions. Sandelowski (1986)
described this as a „decision trail‟ which, it is claimed, provides evidence of the trustworthiness of the
study for the reader. This represents a fundamental shift in responsibility for evaluating
trustworthiness from the researcher to the reader (Rolfe 2006).

•Member (participant) checking, where researchers seek to claim trustworthiness bychecking the
descriptions, categories, concepts or theory produced with the participants for approval and
acceptance. This can be problematical as participants rarely think abstractly and conceptually about
aspects of their life reported to or observed by researchers.

•Peer analysis checking, where peers check either the acceptability of data analysis or of
theresearch process overall. This is sought during the life of the study (e.g. using a supposedly
independent peer-coder, or using a panel of „expert‟ peers to evaluate emerging interpretations or
application of the research approach). Position 4 — fresh and universal criteria. There are unique
„general‟ criteria for evaluating the rigour of qualitative research (all approaches). These criteria are
yet to be identified and agreed on, although there have been numerous suggestions as to what the
criteria should be. For instance, Morse and Richards (2002) suggest generic criteria grouped under
the headings of: „asking the right question‟, „ensuring an appropriate design‟, „making trustworthy
data‟, „verification or completion‟ and „solid theory- building‟, if that is an aim.
Definition of Interview The interview is a data collection method wherein a direct, in-depth
conversation between interviewer and respondent takes place. It is carried out with a purpose like a
survey, research, and the like, where both the two parties participate in the one to one interaction.
Under this method, oral-verbal stimuli are presented and replied by way of oral-verbal responses. It
is considered as one of the best methods for collecting data because it allows two way exchange of
information, the interviewer gets to know about the respondent, and the respondent learns about the
interviewer. There are two types of interview:

•Personal Interview: A type of interview, wherein there is a face to face question-answer session
between the interviewer and interviewee, is conducted.

•Telephonic Interview: This method involves contacting the interviewee and askingquestions to
them on the telephone itself. Key Differences between Questionnaire and Interview The
difference between questionnaire and interview can be drawn clearly on the following grounds: 1.A
form consisting of a series of written or printed multiple choice questions, to bemarked by the
informants, is called questionnaire. A formal conversation between the Position 6 — no criteria is
necessary. There is also a post-modern position that rejects the need for criteria to be selected or
stated by a researcher in regard to trustworthiness of a qualitative research study or its product. Part
of the rationale for this position is that the findings in qualitative research are „both a process and a
product in which the researcher is deeply and unavoidably implicated‟ (Sandelowski & Barroso
2002). The findings are therefore a subjective construction in which the knowledge, beliefs and
activities of the researcher‟s play a significant role. The findings are „unique social interactions‟ and,
for this reason, qualitative research can never be truly „generalisable‟. The research and its reported
product are accepted or rejected by the reader of the report or user of the product according to their
own subjective criteria. interviewer and respondent wherein the two participates in the question-
answer session is called interview

2.The questionnaire method of collecting data involves emailing questionnaire torespondents in a

written format. On the contrary, interview method is one wherein theinterviewer communicates to the
respondent orally. 3.The questionnaire is objective while the nature of the interview is subjective.
4.As question are written in a proper manner in a questionnaire, the order cannot bechanged. Unlike
interview, wherein the order of questions can be changed as per needsand preferences. 5.The
collection of data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical, asmoney is spent only
on the preparation and mailing of the questionnaire to therespondent. In contrast, an interview is a
little expensive method, because, to providedata either the respondents have to come to the
interviewer or the interviewer has tovisit the respondents individually. 6.Questionnaire method is
more time consuming than an interview, as in an interview, theresponses are spontaneous, while the
informant takes his own time to reply, in the caseof the questionnaire. 7.In questionnaire method, a
single questionnaire is mailed to many respondents.However, only one person at a time can be
interviewed in a case interview. 8.The probability of non-responses is very high in case of the
questionnaire, as manypeople avoid answering it and so they return the questionnaire with providing
theirresponses. On the other hand, the chances of non-responses are almost nil in case of
aninterview, because of direct interaction between interviewer and respondent. In an interview,
open-ended questions are asked by the interviewer to the respondent. As against this, closed-ended
questions are asked through a questionnaire. The questionnaire provides fact-based information to
the respondents. Conversely, analytical information can be gathered through interviews. 9.In the
questionnaire, it is not known, as to who replies it, which is not in the case of aninterview.
Conclusion

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Q.2. Differentiate between sample and sampling. Discuss the importance of probable and
non-probable sampling techniques in qualitative and quantitative research?

Answer: Sample variance refers to variation of observations (the data points) in a single sample.
Sampling variance refers to variation of a particular statistic (e.g. the mean) calculated in sample, if
to repeat the study (sample-creation/data-collection/statistic-calculation) many times. Due to central
limit theorem, though, for some statistics you don‟t have to repeat the study many times in reality,
but can deduce sampling variance from a single sample if the sample is representative (this is
asymptotic approach). Or you could simulate repetition of the study by a single sample (this is
bootstrapping approach). An additional note on “sample variance”. Two may be mixed in one term:

•Estimate of population variance based on this sample. This is what we usually use, ithas
denominator (degrees of freedom) n-1.

•Variance of this sample. It has denominator n. Definition of Probability Sampling

in statistics, probability sampling refers to the sampling method in which all the members of the
population has a pre-specified and an equal chance to be a part of the sample This technique is
based on the randomization principle, wherein the procedure is so designed, So, whatever method
you use for your research project, to collect information, it must fulfil your requirements. As both the
methods have their pros and cons, it cannot be said which method is best, i.e. while questionnaire
method takes more time, interview method requires high investment. So, you can choose any of the
two, considering your needs and expectations from the data collected. Which guarantees that each
and every individual of the population has an equal selection opportunity. This helps to reduce the
possibility of bias. Statistical inferences can be made by the researchers using this technique, i.e.
the result obtained can be generalised from the surveyed sample to the target population. The
methods of probability sampling, are provided below:

•Simple Random Sampling

•Stratified Sampling

•Cluster Sampling

•Systematic Sampling Definition of Non-Probability Sampling When in a sampling method, all the
individuals of the universe are not given an equal opportunity of becoming a part of the sample, the
method is said to be Non-probability sampling. Under this technique as such, there is no probability
attached to the unit of the population and the selection relies on the subjective judgment of the
researcher. Therefore, the conclusions drawn by the sampler cannot be inferred from the sample to
the whole population. The methods of non-probability sampling are listed below:

•Convenience Sampling

•Quota Sampling

•Judgment or Purposive Sampling

•Snowball Sampling Key Differences between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling The
significant differences between probability and non-probability sampling 1.The sampling technique,
in which the subjects of the population get an equalopportunity to be selected as a representative
sample, is known as probabilitysampling. A sampling method in which it is not known that which
individual from thepopulation will be chosen as a sample, is called nonprobability sampling. 2.The
basis of probability sampling is randomization or chance, so it is also known asRandom sampling.
On the contrary, in non-probability sampling randomizationtechnique is not applied for selecting a
sample. Hence it is considered as Non-random sampling. 3.Probability sampling is used when the
research is conclusive in nature. On the otherhand, when the research is exploratory, nonprobability
sampling should be used. 4.The results generated by probability sampling, are free from bias while
the results ofnon- probability sampling are more or less biased. 5.As the subjects are selected
randomly by the researcher in probability sampling, sothe extent to which it represents the whole
population is higher as compared to thenonprobability sampling. That is why extrapolation of results
to the entire populationis possible in the probability sampling but not in non-probability sampling.
6.Probability sampling test hypothesis but nonprobability sampling generates it.

Conclusion While probability sampling is based on the principle of randomization where every entity
gets a fair chance to be a part of the sample, non-probability sampling relies on the assumption that
the characteristics are evenly distributed within the population, which make the sampler believe that
any sample so selected would represent the whole population and the results drawn would be
accurate. In probability sampling, the sampler chooses the representative to be part of the sample
randomly, whereas, in non-probability sampling, the subject is chosen arbitrarily, to belong to the
sample by the researcher. The chances of selection in probability sampling, are fixed and known. As
opposed to non-probability sampling, the selection probability is zero, i.e. it is neither specified not
known.

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Q.3. Develop a research proposal on following topic “Comparison of 18th grade students
achievements in mathematics at elementary level in Rawalpindi and Islamabad.

Answer: Education is a basic need of every society. A better education system can enhance the
The purpose of higher education is not simply to impart knowledge in certain branches of
knowledge; it has deeper meaning and objectives. The purpose may be multidimensional and may
be termed as personal, social, economical, and cultural (Moore & Farris, 1991). Education and
particularly higher education cannot be divorced from its milieu and social context. Religious, moral,
historical, and cultural ethos permeates through the fabric of the educational system of a country
(Best, 1994). Allen (1988) found “In the time of rapid social, scientif ic, and technological improveme
nt of a country. The human resource development of a country depends upon the quality of
education imparted in country (Mohanthy, 2000). Higher education caters to the education in the
colleges and universities. Allen (1988) observed “It is academically consider suitable to present
distinctive feature of two stages for the purpose of clarity of concepts and avoiding duplication”
Higher education is admittedly a separate stage quite distinct from primary, secondary, elementary,
and higher secondary stage. (Best, 1994) Higher education is recognized today as a capital
investment and is of paramount importance for economic and social development of the country
(Barnet, 1990). Institutions of higher education have the primary responsibility for equipping
individuals with advanced knowledge and skills required for positions of responsibility in government,
business, and other professions (Mughal & Manzoor, 1999). Quality higher education is a source of
great potential for the socio economic and cultural development of the country. Stone, Horejs, &
Lomas (1997) found “The nation can be transformed into a developed nation within the life time of a
single generation.” Factors such as the distinctive nature of higher education institutions,
international mobility of students, and teachers accessibility of computer based learning pursuit of
research and scholarship, globalization of economy, and emerging challenges of the 21st century
have a direct impact on the future development of higher education. (Mughal & Manzoor, 1999). 9

international, political, and economical changes, the universities in South Asia and in developing
countries are being transformed. Public expectations about access to higher education direct
concern about role that universities can play in innovation and economic development” The
applications of principles of market economies to the university systems of all countries have created
a new context for higher education (Rao, 2003). Challenges in Higher Education South Asian
countries are facing a critical period in their history, and on that account, everybody concerned with
education has a responsibility for knowing what he is trying to do in bring up the next generation and
why he is trying to do it (Mohanthy, 2000). Higher education is faced with very severe challenges in
the shape of various economic, social, political, and moral changes, and its future depends on the
response made by its people to these challenges (Rao, 2003). Hayes (1987) found “The problems
plaguing the educational system of Pakistan and South Asian countries are multidimensional like
population explosion, lack of resources, non participation of the private sector, scarcity of qualified
man power, inconsistency in the policies of various regimes, political instability, inefficient
educational management system, wastage of resources, and poor implementation of policies and
programme etc.” The major challenges in higher education include: he people in Rawalpindi and
Islamabad are neither deficient in talent nor in moral qualities in comparison to any other nation of
the world, but about two centuries of foreign rule and blind imitation of western attitudes and
methods, unsuited to the genius and spiritual conditions of its people, have spoiled some of the
virtues and have brought a bad name to their intellectual capacities (Siddiq, 1978). Hassan (1990)
observed “Pakistan is unfortunately really backward in education as in certain other spheres of
intellectual activities but luckily people are not inherently incompetent or morally incurable.” It is
however necessary that the diagnosis about maladies should be correct and the measures for curing
these maladies should be appropriate in the light of that diagnosis (Abdullah, 1992).

Quantity Equity The major break through was evident in the democratic countries of the world
where franchise was given to all adults irrespective of caste, creed, sex, and economic or social
status (Barnet, 1990). Qureshi (1997) stated “The ideal of equity was severely constrained by exiting
in qualities in the distribution of property and productive resources, low level of education and
awareness among the people, and strong influences exercised by individual and group to further
their own sectional interest rather than total social interest.” “The philosophy of social justice is very
much akin to the principle of equity. It is a welcome development over the concept of inherent
inequality which was sought to be explained by biological differences among individuals” (Bayli,
1987). 1.The philosophy of equality of men being applied to political process, distribution ofproperty,
and productive resources is viewed as the source of inequities in society. This approach helped the
development of capabilities among men through equal distribution of higher educational
opportunities both in quality and quantity. Despite the constraints of resources, the quantitative
expansion has been highly spectacular

in the post independence period. The institutions have not only been multiplied, the student
enrollments at colleges and universities have registered exceptionally high rate of growth (Aeth,
1975). “The numbers of new entrants is now more than the total number of students in higher
education prior to independence” (Iqbal, 1981). “The demand of higher education has thus increased
by leaps and bonds. In spite of quality control as well as consolidation, it will continue to grow
constantly for a long time to come” (Adeeb, 1996). “The quantitative expansion is evident due to
increasing aspiration of the people and social, economical, and political forces influencing the
development of higher education. In the post independence period, the role of higher education has
been very well recognized in the development of science and technology, as well as various arenas
of human advancement” (Mohanthy, 2000). 2.There is the philosophy of inequality as a natural
hereditary, biological phenomena,without any scientific rational evidence. This concept is rooted in
sectional interest rather than in societal interest. Quality The scope of the idea of quality is severely
limited by two widely prevailing views. 1.Quality is a selective phenomenon and only few can attain
it. 2.Quality for quality sake or with regards to specific area rather than quality as mutuallyexclusive
and emphasize selectively at the expense of equity. Attempts to realize specific objectives of quality
tend to narrow down the scope and discourage efforts to attain quality in various walks of life. Allen
(1988) determined that “Various programs have been developed and are being implemented for the
last two decades for improving the quality of teachers and their proficiency in discharging their duties
and responsibilities.” “The higher education commission has been providing financial assistance for
these programs of faculty improvement which enable teachers to keep abreast with the latest
development in their subject and conduct research studies as well as interact with experts in their
own subject‟s area and related field” (Hassan, 1990). “These programs aim at improving the
professional competence of teachers so that they can impart high quality instructions and contribute
significantly to raising the standard of higher education in developing countries” (Quddus, 1990). The
growing numbers of colleges and universities have provided access to higher education to the
people in various parts and sections of developing countries in South Asia. “But the enrollments of
students especially female students is relatively very small” (Varghese, 1980). Development of
society not only depends upon quantity of goods and services produced, but also on their quality. “It
again leads to quality of life of the people and the quality of the society in general” (Hayes, 1987). It
is rightly said that the philosophical basis of quality is the innate characteristics of a human being to
attain a higher standard and the need of excellence for attaining a higher stage in the development
(Quddus, 1990). Suggestions to meet the Challenges 1.Stress is laid on the need for improving
the quality of education at every stage so that aproper foundation can be laid for advanced study in
science, engineering, agriculture, and those other areas which are most closely allied to the national
economic development and reconstruction of the nation as a whole.

2.multidimensional, flexible, and dynamic education system, which serves people according to their
ability and aptitude and is responsive to their economic, social political and cultural needs. 3.The
new system of higher education should be flexible enough to offer a variety ofcourses, formal and
non formal, full time and part time, correspondence and media based to fit every individual as well as
the economic needs of the country 4.Economic conditions of the people cannot be ignored in all
matters in which thequestion of equal opportunities to all is involved. In an atmosphere of economic
depression as it is today in Pakistan how could one expect from our youth to be able to develop their
potential qualities in desired way. 5.The test of qualities must be made reliable upon examination
and more effective; theteaching method must be made more rational and natural; and last of all, the
teachers must be kept fully satisfied. It is well known, that a foreign medium of instruction and
examination is seriously hampering the progress of education. Pakistan will have to determine its
policy with regards to this question also. 6.There is great question of availability of qualified
university teachers, suitably equippedlibraries, and fully developed plants and laboratories. It is a
matter of common knowledge that our resources in all these areas are very merger. Any
unnecessary addition to the To begin from the top without reforming the lower stages is against the
law of nature; it is against the law of evolutionary progress. Before any restrictions are imposed on
the higher education, the earlier stages should be improved so as to produce better students for the
higher stage. A critical point to be considered by educational planner is the adaptation of a number
of the universities at present would therefore mean nothing, but more ill-fed and ill-equipped
institutions with no specially or individuality of purpose.

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Q.4. Write the characteristics of a research report. What is a reference in research report?
Read APA Manual 6th edition and enlist the rules of references for research report.

Characteristic # 1. Simplicity: The language shall be as simple as possible so that a report is

easily understandable. Jargons and technical words should be avoided. Even in a technical report
there shall be restricted use of technical terms if it has to be presented to laymen. Characteristic #
2. Clarity: The language shall be lucid and straight, clearly expressing what is intended to be
expressed. For that the report has to be written in correct form and following correct steps.
Characteristic # 3. Brevity: A report shall not be unnecessarily long so that the patience of the
reader is not lost and there is no confusion of ideas. But, at the same time, a report must be
complete. A report is not an essay. Characteristic # 4. Positivity: As far as possible positive
statements should be made instead of negative ones. For example, it is better to say what should be
done and not what should not be done. Characteristic # 5. Punctuation: Higher education
institutions must be responsive to the challenges of the rapidly changing and challenging new world:
expectation of society and growing demands of the rising

student population. This policy therefore looks forward to a new beginning in higher education in
South Asian developing countries.

Punctuations have to be carefully and correctly used otherwise the meaning of sentences may be
misunderstood or misrepresented. Characteristic # 6. Approach: Characteristic # 7. Readability:
Characteristic # 8. Accuracy: A report shall be accurate when facts are stated in it. It shall not be
biased with personal feelings of the writer. Characteristic # 9. Logical Sequence: The points in a
report shall be arranged with a logical sequence, step by step and not in a haphazard manner. A
planning is necessary before a report is prepared. Characteristic # 10. Proper Form: A report must
be in the proper form. Sometimes there are statutory forms to follow. Characteristic # 11.
Presentation: A report needs an attractive presentation. It depends on the quality of typing or
printing as well as quality of paper used. Big companies make very attractive and colourful Annual
Reports. APA Manual 6th edition and enlist the rules of references for research report: There
are two types of approaches: (a) Person—When a report is written based on personal enquiry or
observations, the approach shall be personal and the sentences shall be in the first person and in
direct speech, (b) Impersonal—When a report is prepared as a source of information and when it is
merely factual (e.g. a report on a meeting), the approach shall be impersonal and the sentences
shall be in the third person and in indirect speech. The keynote of a report is readability. The style of
presentation and the diction (use of words) shall be such that the readers find it attractive and he is
compelled to read the report from the beginning to the end.‟ Then only a report serves its purpose. A
report on the same subject matter can be written differently for different classes of readers.

•Your references should begin on a new page. Title the new page “References” andcenter the title
text at the top of the page.

•All entries should be in alphabetical order.

•The first line of a reference should be flush with the left margin. Each additional lineshould be
indented (usually accomplished by using the TAB key.)

• •The reference section should be double-spaced.

• •Titles of books, journals, magazines, and newspapers should appear in italics.

•The exact format of each individual reference may vary somewhat depending onwhether you are
referencing an author or authors, a book or journal article, oran electronic source. It pays to spend
some time looking at the specific requirementsfor each type of reference before formatting your
source list. A Few More Helpful Resources If you are struggling with APA format or are looking for
a good way to collect and organize your references as you work on your research, consider using a
free APA citation machine. These online tools can help generate an APA style referenced, but
always remember to double-check each one for accuracy.

Purchasing your own copy of the official Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association is a great way to learn more about APA format and have a handy resource to check your
own work against. Looking at examples of APA format can also be very helpful. While APA format
may seem complex, it will become easier once you familiarize yourself with the rules and format. The
overall format may be similar for many papers, but your While earlier versions of APA format
required only one space after each sentence, the new sixth edition of the style manual now
recommends two spaces. All sources cited should appear both in-text and on the reference page.
Any reference that appears in the text of your report or article must be cited on the reference page,
and any item appearing on your reference page must be also included somewhere in the body of
your text. instructor might have specific requirements that vary depending on whether you are writing
an essay or a research paper. In addition to your reference page, your instructor may also require
you to maintain and turn in an APA format bibliography.

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Q.5. Discuss questionnaires as a research tool covering the following concept. Its …any
written instruments that present respondents with a series of questions or statements towhich they
are to react either by writing out their answers or selecting from among existing answers. (Brown 6)
The questionnaire may be self administered, posted or presented in an interview format. A
questionnaire may include check lists, attitude scales, projective techniques, rating scales and a
variety of other research methods. As an important research instrument and a tool for data
collection, a questionnaire has its main function as measurement (Oppenheim 100). It is the main
data collection method in surveys and yield to quantitative data. Also, due to provision for open
endedness, the instrument may be used to generate qualitative and exploratory data (Dornyei 101)
Measurement specification will depend on several factors. The nature of the population to be
surveyed is the major concern. The kind of survey may be factual or analytical. If factual, then
complications are less. If analytical, the survey may be hugely value laden as to reduce accuracy.
However, it is possible to objectify the subjectivity by designing more complex research questions.
The kind of respondents would also play a big role in determining how the survey will be conducted.
For instance, there may be slight differences on how to conduct a survey with chief executives of
flourishing multinational corporations, as opposed construction different forms and
administration of questionnaires. Answer: A questionnaire is a set of systematically structured
questions used by a researcher to get needed information from respondents. Questionnaires have
been termed differently, including surveys, schedules, indexes/indicators, profiles, studies,
opinionnaires, batteries, tests, checklists, scales, inventories, forms, inter alia. They are to the aged
in a remote set up. Survey into phenomena that is subject to seasonal fluctuation would also vary
with one that does not fluctuate. Behavioural questions: deals with both past and present deeds of
the respondent; Attitudinal questions: comprises of world views. It covers people‟s opinions,
attitudes, beliefs and values. Elements of a Standard questionnaire
1.Title: this identifies the domain of the investigation. The respondent is initially oriented to the
investigation. It should be captivating enough to attract attention and enthusiasm. 2.General
introduction: this has a description of the purpose of study as well as theorganisation(s) involved.
The respondent is assured of anonymity/confidentiality ofinformation volunteered, making clear that
there are no wrong or right answers.Honest answers are also requested. 3.Specific instructions: this
offers succinct demonstration on how to carry on with the business of responding to the
questionnaire. 4.Questionnaire items: is the main part of the questionnaire schedule, to be clearly
separated from the aforementioned parts. Value laden surveys need complex questions so as to
reduce biasness. Such deal with subjects like social representation, opinion, attitudes, stereotypes,
awareness, brand images, precepts and values. Due to their multifaceted nature, they warrant
questions that are equally multifaceted. Responses from such subjects are often influenced by the
environment, and hence tentative. Findings are difficult to validate since they reflect the state of the
mind at a given time in a specific environment. Three types of data about a respondent may be
accessed by use of questionnaire instrument. Factual questions: These include demographic
information, socio-economic status, education, etc. 5.Additional information: includes the full contact
information of the researcher/administrator. May include a promise that a copy of the summary of the
final reportwould be send to the respondent on request. 6.”Thank you” may end the questionnaire.
1.MAIN METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION Mail questionnaires and standardized interviews A
mail questionnaire is one that has been sent to a respondent by a researcher, and the respondent
would answer at his own time, basing on his own understanding. It is not as controlled as with the
case of a standardized interview. Mail questionnaires however have their own advantages. 1.The
researcher incurs low cost of collecting data. Just designing a questionnaire andsending it to a
respondent; 2.Analysing and processing the data is less expensive in terms of both time andmaterial
resources; 3.There is no likelihood of interviewer bias as the interviewee would be interpreting
thequestions his own way; 4.The questionnaire can be handled by a geographically distant
correspondent. A number of disadvantages abound. 1.There is no follow-up mechanism; Before
coming up with a questionnaire, a researcher has to come up with a precise operational statement
on the variables. The instruments to be used have to be well identified and variables well defined.
Several considerations have to be made before designing the questions. These considerations are
discussed below. The case here is the consideration of a questionnaire. This includes a
standardized formal interview, the postal, self-administered questionnaire and the group
administered

questionnaire. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses, and this should help in coming up
with an appropriate one to suit a specific survey need. 2.No control n how questions are being
answered. Questions may be passed on toanother person; 3.Response rate is low; 4.Some
questions may be left unanswered; 5.Not suitable for a low literacy society, the old, of small children;
6.Not suitable for the visually impaired persons; 7.No data (ratings or assessments) based on
observation. Self-administered questionnaires Self administered questionnaires are presented to
respondents, but the researcher is available to make little clarifications. He does not, however,
interpret the questions for the respondents as this may increase interviewer bias. There is some
degree of personal contact as the two parties would be interacting. The advantage with this is that
response rate is high and clarification are made where need arises. Group-administered
questionnaires This is presented to respondents in a group. The group may be one of students or
labourers, where they are supposed to respond as a group. These questionnaires will be
administered by the researcher, and may be in form of a film being shown, and then the respondents
are asked questions to respond. Is such cases, the size and literacy of the group is a vital
consideration. Each respondent may be required to respond, and in case of a film, it may only make
the responses flow. The respondents will be answering by following a certain pattern as the film
progresses. Questions may be read out aloud as respondents answer on their own. As opposed to
mail questionnaires, interview schedules have a higher response rate and provide an opportunity for
both the interviewer and the interviewee clarifying their points. Follow-ups are possible as ratings
and assessments can be taken from observation. There may be no problem with disabled or less
literate respondents. The major disadvantage is the huge time and material resources need for the
purpose.

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