International Dairy Journal 11 (2001) 413–422

Low fat cheese technology$

Vikram V. Mistry*
Minnesota-South Dakota Dairy Foods Research Center, Dairy Science Department, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007-0647, USA

Abstract

Low fat cheeses are usually characterized as having poor body, flavor, and functional properties because of high moisture and low
salt. Procedures developed for manufacturing low fat cheeses include processing techniques, starter culture selection, and use of
additives. Fat removed in manufacturing low fat cheese is largely replaced with moisture and the ratio of moisture in fat free
substance of cheese is similar to that of a full fat cheese. Lower cook temperatures and times, high draining and milling pH, and
washing of curd are used. Considerations include use of slow cultures (to prevent excessive acid formation and bitter flavors),
adjunct cultures, and enzymes. Homogenization of cream improves body and texture and functional properties of low fat cheeses,
and increases yield when used for up to 50% reduction in fat. Stabilizers, fat-replacers, and sweet buttermilk have also been used to
improve the quality of low fat cheeses. r 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Low fat cheese; Processing techniques; Cheese sensory; Cheese functionality

1. Introduction in the market place. As a consequence, consumer

In the past 15 years the commercialization of low fat
cheese1 production around the world has significantly
accelerated. Even though the concept of low fat cheese
manufacture is not a new idea per se, the emphasis on
control of caloric intake, especially in developed
countries, in the past 20 years has largely been
responsible for the growth in low fat cheese markets.
In the United States for example, the recommended
caloric intake from fat is not more than 30%. Guidelines
for the reduction in consumption of fat and, specifically,
consumption of low fat products exist in other countries
as well (Holund & Truswell, 1999). In Sweden the target
is consumption of no more than 30 g of fat per day
(Borg, 1991). The dietary guidelines and desire for
consumption of low fat products have influenced trends
$
Published with the approval of director of the South Dakota
Agricultural Experiment Station as Publication Number 3177 of the
Journal Series.
This research was sponsored, in part, by the Minnesota-South
Dakota Dairy Foods Research Center, Brookings, SD and Dairy
Management Inc., Rosemont, IL.
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-605-688-5731; fax: +1-605-688-
6276.
E-mail address: vikram mistry@sdstate.edu (V.V. Mistry).
1
Low fat cheese in this paper refers to any cheese that has less fat
than a corresponding reference cheese.
purchases of low fat cheeses have increased, and trends
and characteristics have also been studied (Bellisle,
Rolland-Cachera, Deheeger, Pereziosi, & Hercberg,
1994; Gould, Cornick, & Cox, 1994; Solheim & Lawless,
1996) and used in part to develop cheese varieties and
marketing strategies. In the United States in 1998
reduced fat and low fat cheeses accounted for approxi-
mately 20% of supermarket sales of cheese, and in
Sweden low fat cheese consumption doubled over a
three-year period, according to Borg (1991).
In contrast to this, it is believed that the sales of low
fat cheeses may have reached a maximum (Lamoureux,
1999) partly because of a combination of consumer
expectations and technological limitations. Fat is not
only of nutritional significance in cheese, but also
contributes to sensory and functional properties. Low
fat cheeses, especially hard varieties, are usually
characterized as having rubbery body and flavor notes
that are atypical of corresponding full fat varieties.
Functional properties of low fat cheeses also are not
adequate. Soft, unripened varieties have had more
commercial success.
These limitations present interesting challenges to the
manufacturers of low fat cheeses. Many research
developments around the world have contributed to
improvements in the quality of low fat cheeses; over 50
patents have been issued worldwide involving the

0958-6946/01/$ - see front matter r 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 5 8 - 6 9 4 6 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 7 7 - 2
414 V.V. Mistry / International Dairy Journal 11 (2001) 413–422

manufacture of low fat cheeses in the past 20 years. The
major objective in developing these procedures is to
produce low fat cheeses that are similar in characteristics
to their full fat counterparts. Legal standards of identity
have also been developed (Table 1).
2. Characteristics of low fat cheeses
The term low fat cheese generally refers to cheeses
whose fat content is lower than it’s corresponding full
fat variety. As a result, there is a major shift in the
compositional balance of the various components of
cheese compared with its full fat counterpart. Specifi-
cally, as the fat content of cheese is lowered, moisture
content increases and protein plays a greater role in
texture development. To counter this the moisture in
nonfat substance of cheese is generally equal to that
in full fat cheese (Mistry & Anderson, 1993) (Table 2).
Consequently, the content of salt in the moisture phase
of cheese is lowered. This change in the microenviron-
ment is largely responsible for the shifts in the functional
and sensory characteristics of the cheese (Banks,
Hunter, & Muir, 1993; Bryant & Ustunol, 1995) as well
as in its microbiology and biochemistry (Nauth &
Ruffie, 1995b). The greater the reduction in fat the more
severe these shifts are.
2.1. Flavor
Ripened, low fat cheeses generally have flavor that is
atypical for the variety. In low fat Cheddar cheese the
lack of and an imbalance of flavor has been associated
Table 1
Fat-related terms used for cheesesa
with lowered levels of fatty acids such as butanoic and
hexanoic acids and methyl ketones (Banks, Brechany, &
Christie, 1989). The difference in the rate of release of
flavor compounds from cheese during chewing is also a
factor in flavor perception (Delahunty, Piggott, Conner,
& Paterson, 1996). For example, 2-butanone and 2-
heptanone are released at a higher rate in reduced fat
cheeses (Delahunty et al., 1996). Therefore, the total
flavor perception is different. Another factor in the lack
of flavor is the interaction between starter bacterial cells
and milk fat globules. Laloy, Vuillemard, El-Soda, and
Simard (1996) demonstrated that fat free and 50%
reduced fat Cheddar cheeses had fewer starter cells than
full fat cheeses. They suggested that the bacterial
population in curd was directly related to the fat content
of cheese.
Bitterness develops early in the aging process and is a
common defect in aged low fat cheeses, partly because
of low salt content and high moisture. These composi-
tional factors along with manufacturing procedures that
are typically used for low fat cheese making (discussed
below) induce excessive growth of starter organisms
(Ardo,. 1993) and proteolysis (Mistry & Kasperson,
1998). Hydrophobic compounds produced by proteo-
lysis are perceived with greater intensity of bitterness in
low fat cheeses than in full fat cheeses because these
compounds are adsorbed by fat (Olson & Johnson,
1990). Bitterness in low fat Cheddar cheese may be
lowered by increasing the salt in moisture phase of
cheese to >4.5% to control microbial activity, but this
also makes the cheese harder (Mistry et al., 1998).
Milk fat contains short chain fatty acids that when
released through the activity of lipase contribute to the
overall cheese flavor. When fat content is lowered these
fatty acids are present in lower amounts and the cheese
may be perceived as lacking flavor. The greater the
reduction in fat the more intense these effects will be.

Regulations in the United States

Fat-free: Less than 0.5 g fat per reference amount and per
labeled serving size and no added fat or oil ingredient
Low fat: Maximum 3 g total fat per serving for serving size of Table 2
more than 30 g or more than 2 tablespoons. 3 g or less of fat per Composition of low fat cheesesa
50 g product if serving size is 30 g or less or 2 tablespoons or less Cheese Fat Fat in dry matter Moisture MNFSb
Light or lite: If less than 50% of the calories come (%) (%) (%) (%)
from fat: minimum 33 1/3% reduction in calories per
reference amount or minimum 50% reduction in fat per Cheddar 33.2 51.8 35.9 53.7
reference. If more than 50% of the calories come from 19.8 35.8 44.7 55.7
fat: minimum 50% reduction in fat per reference amount 13.2 25.1 47.5 54.7
Reduced fat: Minimum 25% reduction in total fat per 8.2 16.8 51.1 55.7
reference amount
Mozzarella 24.0 44.0 45.5 59.9
Codex general standard for cheese (A-6) 22.5 42.0 46.4 59.9
High fat: >60% fat on dry basis 2.1 4.8 56.6 57.8
Full fat: 45–60% fat on dry basis
Medium fat: 25–45% fat on dry basis Swiss 34.8 55.0 36.7 56.3
Low fat: 10–25% fat on dry basis 27.6 46.1 40.1 55.4
Skim: o10% fat on dry basis a
From Mistry and Anderson (1993).
a b
From: Kosikowski and Mistry (1997). Moisture in nonfat substance of cheese.
 V.V. Mistry / International Dairy Journal 11 (2001) 413–422 415

The simple act of washing curd during manufacture of

low fat cheeses for increasing moisture content and
removing lactose will also lead to bland flavor (Johnson,
Steele, Broadbent, & Weimer, 1998). Furthermore, in
ripened cheeses such as low fat Cheddar, an imbalance
in flavor during ripening is also observed along with the
development of bitterness (Muir, Banks, & Hunter,
1992). Methanethiol, for example, is an important flavor
compound in some cheeses (Fox, Law, McSweeny, &
Wallace, 1993). Dimos, Urbach, and Miller (1996),
found that in low fat Cheddar cheese of 7% fat, the
concentration of methanethiol was about half that
found in full fat Cheddar during ripening. This was
suggested as being responsible for the perceived flavor
defects in low fat Cheddar. Milo and Reineccius (1997)
attributed meaty-broth flavor defect in low fat Cheddar
cheese to furaneol, homofuraneol, and methional.

2.2. Body and texture

The compositional parameters mentioned above have

also a significant influence on the body and texture of
low fat cheeses, which are especially evident in the hard
and semi-hard ripened varieties (Banks et al., 1993).
These cheeses are typically characterized as weak and
rubbery (Kosikowski & Mistry, 1997) and the greater
the fat reduction, the more severe the defects (Banks
et al., 1989).
Texture development in cheese occurs due to the
breakdown of as1-casein during ripening (Lawrence,
Creamer, & Gilles, 1987). Furthermore, milk fat
normally provides a typical smoothness to a full fat
cheese by being evenly distributed within the casein Fig. 1. Scanning electron micrographs of full fat (A) and low fat (B)
matrix of cheese. When fat is removed, as in low fat Cheddar cheese. Full fat cheese has a more open structure than low fat
cheeses, casein plays a greater role in texture develop- cheese.
ment (Fig. 1). In low fat variants there is inadequate
breakdown of casein and, therefore, the cheese appears
to have a relatively firm texture. The extent of hydrolysis Cottage cheese is manufactured by first forming curd
depends on the moisture and salt content of the cheese from skim milk (Kosikowski et al., 1997). A cream
(Mistry et al., 1998). Higher pH of whey at draining and dressing is then added to adjust the fat content. The curd
lower cook temperatures normally employed in low fat absorbs a small amount of dressing, hence low fat
cheese manufacture lead to a lower retention of Cottage cheese can be rubbery in the absence of
chymosin in cheese and lower plasmin activity. This is adequate quantities of cream dressing.
also partly the reason for a lower extent of protein Though Mozzarella cheese is not considered a ripened
breakdown during ripening. Another outcome of these cheese, a small degree of casein breakdown is required
manufacturing conditions is the relatively higher level of for body and texture development and functionality.
calcium retention in cheese, which imparts firmness to For example, when fat content was reduced to below
cheese. For example, Nauth and Ruffie (1995b) reported 15%, proteolysis during storage decreased and the
that calcium content was approximately 30% higher in a hardness of cheese increased, which in turn also
33% reduced fat Cheddar cheese than in its full fat adversely affected its functionality (Rudan, Barbano,
equivalent. Yun, & Kindstedt, 1999).
Low fat versions of unripened varieties such as
Cream, Cottage, Mozzarella, and others also possess 2.3. Functionality
certain unique characteristics that are not desirable to
the consumer. These qualities are related to composi- Functionality applies to cheeses that are used as
tional differences between full and low fat cheeses. ingredients. Functional properties of interest include
416 V.V. Mistry / International Dairy Journal 11 (2001) 413–422
melting, oiling off, shreddability, and appearance.
These properties are largely influenced by the
microenvironment of the cheese, including total compo-
sition and extent of proteolysis (Kindstedt, 1991;
Kindstedt & Guo, 1997). Cheese making procedures,
i.e., use of low fat milk, specialized cultures, etc.,
directly influence these. A common immediate
consequence is a significant change in appearance.
For example, for the hard varieties and others such as
Mozzarella, lowering fat content imparts a dull translu-
cency to the surface, especially along the edges, of
the cheese due to fat-related changes in light scattering
(Kosikowski et al., 1997). Upon heating, low fat
Mozzarella cheese undergoes a large increase in
whiteness, which decreases upon cooling (Metzger,
Barbano, Rudan, Kindstedt, & Guo, 2000). These
changes apparently are caused by gels that are
formed by casein and casein proteolysis products during
heating (Metzger et al., 2000). Such a color change may
not be as apparent in higher fat, softer unripened
cheeses.
Low fat Mozzarella cheeses typically have poor
meltability (Fife, McMahon, & Oberg, 1996; Tunick
et al., 1993), limited free oil formation during melting
and, as a result, excessive browning when baked on
pizza (Rudan, Barbano, Guo, & Kindstedt, 1998b). The
cheese may also form an undesirable film on the surface
when melted on pizza. Rudan and Barbano (1998a)
proposed the use of a hydrophobic surface coating to
control low fat Mozzarella cheese characteristics during
baking.
Such alterations in functional characteristics are also
applicable to other low fat cheeses such as Process,
Cheddar, Gouda, and other varieties. Low fat and fat
free Cream cheese have been developed (Meilinger,
Brown, & Bohanan, 1995). These products have
smoothness that is similar to conventional Cream cheese
but are not suitable for baking because of the high
moisture content and burning that may occur during
baking.
Described above are certain individual quality criteria
for low fat cheese. The greater the fat reduction the
more severe are these effects. In a practical sense it is
important, therefore, to consider all the criteria together
and their interactions.
Table 3
Recoveries of fat and nitrogen in low fat cheese making
Study Type of cheese Casein : fat ratio in milk
Anderson et al., 1993 Cheddar 1.51
Metzger and Mistry, 1994 Cheddar 1.58
Mistry et al., 1996 Cheddar 1.92
Rudan et al., 1999 Mozzarella 6.89
Rudan et al., 1999 Mozzarella 1.50
2.4. Yield of cheese
The composition of milk for manufacturing low fat
cheeses differs markedly from that of full fat cheeses in a
number of ways. The total fat content of milk is
obviously lower, therefore, the percentage total protein
in milk is slightly higher. The net result is lower total
solids in the milk. The ratio of casein to fat will also be
much higher in milk for low fat cheese making. While it
is true that fat in cheese is replaced by moisture, the total
yield of cheese (kg cheese per kg milk) is lower for low
fat cheeses because the total amount of fat removed is
not equal to the amount of moisture added (Table 2).
Rudan et al. (1999) demonstrated that the yield of
Mozzarella cheese of 5% fat was 30% lower than that of
a cheese of 25% fat.
Fat and nitrogen recoveries in cheese are also
important in cheese yield. The percentages of expected
recoveries depend on variety and are affected by a
number of cheese making factors. For Mozzarella fat
recovery is 85% (Rudan et al., 1999) and Cheddar it is
93% (Kosikowski et al., 1997). Nitrogen recoveries for
many hard cheeses are near 75%. Nitrogen recoveries
for low fat cheese making are not affected to the same
degree as fat (Table 3). As the targeted fat content of
cheese is lowered, the percentage fat recovered in cheese
is lowered and may be controlled partly by adjusting the
casein to fat ratio in milk (Table 3). At an optimum
rennet curd firmness at cutting, fines losses, and hence
fat losses, are reduced.
3. Technology of low fat cheese manufacturing
Procedures developed for manufacturing low fat
cheeses involve three broad approaches that include
(a) processing techniques, (b) starter culture selection,
and (c) use of additives such as stabilizers and fat
replacers. Combinations of these procedures are also
used.
3.1. Processing techniques
Research on the development of processing techni-
ques for low fat cheeses commenced over 50 years ago.
Fat in cheese (%) Fat recovery (%) Nitrogen recovery (%)
18.5 83.9 71.7
17.7 87.8 72.9
16.6 93.1 74.5
4.1 78.6 73.8
16.5 84.1 73.9
 V.V. Mistry / International Dairy Journal 11 (2001) 413–422
The reasons for producing such cheeses ranged from
increasing cheese yield (Thomany, 1941) to fat reduction
for nutritional purposes (Yamamoto, Asao, & Chiku-
ma, 1953; Yamamoto, Chikuma, & Yoshino, 1954;
Irving, Bulloch, Pearson, & Sproule, 1957). Subse-
quently, Strezynski (1955), Hargrove and McDonough
(1964) received patents for procedures for the manu-
facture of low fat cheeses. These early studies high-
lighted the important processing parameters for
manufacturing low fat cheeses. These included low
temperature cooking and high pH at drain and milling.
Cheeses that resulted from these early studies possessed
most of the characteristics described above that are
typical for low fat cheeses. Research conducted since
then has been targeted at improving upon these defects.
The cheese-making parameters developed during early
studies have since been widely used to address these
issues.
The fat content of milk used for manufacturing low
fat cheeses depends on the desired fat content in the
cheese and generally ranges from o0.5% to approxi-
mately 1.8%. Milk may be fortified with nonfat dry milk
or may be condensed to up to 1.8  (Anderson, Mistry,
Brandsma, & Baldwin, 1993), directly ultrafiltered
(McGregor & White, 1990) or fortified with dried
ultrafiltered or microfiltered retentate (St-Gelais, Roy,
& Audet, 1998). Rodriguez, Requena, Fontecha, Gou-
dedranche, and Juarez (1999) concluded that semihard
low fat cheeses made with milk concentrated by
microfiltration had sensory qualities similar to full fat
counterparts because of the retention of less (35%) whey
proteins.
The ratio of casein to fat in milk is also important.
For manufacturing a 33% fat reduced Cheddar cheese a
ratio of 1.58 is desirable (Kosikowski et al., 1997),
whereas for Mozzarella cheese with 50% fat reduction a
ratio of 2.4 was suggested (Merrill, Oberg, & McMahon,
1994).
Other primary cheese making parameters that may be
manipulated include temperature of cooking, time of
holding during cooking, pH at milling, and rate of
salting (Johnson & Chen, 1995a). Starter cultures are
discussed below.
The general goal is to replace fat in cheese with
moisture without adversely affecting cheese yield and
quality. This is accomplished in part by lowering
cooking temperatures. In low fat Cheddar cheese
making the cook temperature is 30–351C, depending
on the moisture content desired (Banks et al., 1989).
Further moisture retention is attained by employing a
high pH at mill (Kosikowski et al., 1997). For low fat
Cheddar this pH may range between 5.6 and 5.8.
Washing curd with cold water (221C) also helps retain
moisture, remove excess lactose, and solubilize calcium,
which helps soften cheese texture. This step helps in
preventing excessive acid development during aging.
417
Disadvantages include the loss of cheese flavor com-
pounds, resulting in a cheese with a bland flavor and the
development of off flavors during ripening such as
meaty-brothy and unclean (Johnson et al., 1995a). Chen
and Johnson (1996) have addressed these effects. The
procedure involves the cutting of rennet curd when very
firm, high pH at drain (6.45), and high pH at mill (5.9).
By eliminating curd washing, an increased retention of
calcium phosphate retention increases buffering capacity
and restricts the development of an excessively low pH.
Excessive calcium, on the other hand, adversely affects
functional properties of cheeses such as Mozzarella.
Nauth and Hayashi (1995a) suggest lowering the pH of
milk by adding rehydrated cultured skim milk. This
lowers the pH of milk and converts colloidal calcium to
the soluble form, which is eventually removed into the
whey during drainage.
Other methods to increase moisture retention include
the inclusion of whey proteins and sweet buttermilk in
cheese. Whey proteins denatured by high heat treatment
(>801C) have increased water absorption capacity and
have been used in the manufacture of reduced fat
Havarti-type cheese (Lo & Bastian, 1998) and low fat
Edam cheese (Schreiber, Neuhauser, Schindler, &
Kessler, 1998). Excessive whey protein addition is likely
to interfere with rennet curd formation and ultimately
adversely affect cheese quality (Guinee et al., 1998).
Schreiber et al. (1998) suggested use of o0.5% whey
protein aggregates. In addition to an increase in cheese
moisture, cheese yield is also increased. This approach
of denatured whey protein inclusion has been used
cheese as well for low fat Mozzarella without any
apparent effect on physical and sensory properties of
cheese (Punidadas, Feirtag, & Tung, 1999).
Inclusion of sweet buttermilk in low fat cheese also
helps retain moisture. This is accomplished by the direct
addition of sweet buttermilk to milk (Madsen, Re-
inbold, & Clark, 1966; Mayes, Urbach, & Sutherland,
1994; Reisfeld & Harper, 1954). This process requires
the addition of relatively large amounts of buttermilk,
up to 30% (Madsen et al., 1966). An alternative
approach is to use sweet buttermilk that has been
concentrated by ultrafiltration. This approach has been
applied to low fat Cheddar cheese (Mistry, Metzger, &
Maubois, 1996), low fat Mozzarella (Poduval & Mistry,
1999) and low fat Process cheese (Raval & Mistry,
1999). The amounts used were up to 5% ultrafiltered
buttermilk, which helped retain moisture and also
improved the body and texture of cheeses perhaps
because of the inclusion of the milk fat globule
membrane in the buttermilk. Concentrated buttermilk
also lowered free oil in melted cheese.
Various other processing procedures have been
developed for low fat cheese manufacturing. In one
such process (Fenelon, Guinee, & Reville, 1999a), skim
milk curd and full fat Cheddar cheese curds were
418 V.V. Mistry / International Dairy Journal 11 (2001) 413–422
blended at whey drainage to produce low fat Cheddar
cheeses having 16.7–17.9% fat. Cheese sensory char-
acteristics were not affected.
Processes involving homogenization have also been
developed with the specific goal of improving the body
and texture of low fat cheeses. While homogenization of
milk has not been considered desirable for most full fat
cheese varieties (except Blue cheese), modified forms of
homogenization offer useful applications for low fat
cheeses. Tunick et al. (1993) reported on the use of milk
homogenized at 10,300 and 17,200 kPa for manufactur-
ing low fat Mozzarella cheese. Improvements in textural
and melting characteristics of cheeses were reported by
such treatment. Homogenization of milk not only
reduces the size of milk fat globules the interfacial
forces at the new fat globule surface may disrupt casein
micelles (Darling & Butcher, 1978) and lead to curd
shattering and yield loss. In view of this, Metzger and
Mistry (1994, 1995) developed a procedure in which
40% fat cream is homogenized and blended with skim
milk to the desired fat content for the manufacture of
low fat Cheddar cheese. Homogenization in this manner
has minimal effect on milk proteins but provides the
needed reduction in fat globule size and consequently an
increase in fat globule surface area and numbers.
Cheeses had excellent body and texture, less free oil in
melted cheese than in control cheeses, and improved
yield due to increased fat and protein recovery. The
cheeses also had approximately 2% more moisture,
which was caused by the homogenization treatment.
Because of this, it is possible to use higher cook
temperatures than with conventional low fat cheese
and therefore achieve better control over bacterial
numbers and keeping quality. This process was subse-
quently applied to the manufacture of low fat Mozzar-
ella cheese (Rudan et al., 1998b) and produced cheese
that was whiter and more opaque, which are desirable
qualities.
A recently developed method uses microfiltration of
milk for the selective separation of milk fat globules
according to their size (Goudedranche, Fauquant, &
Maubois, 2000). This makes it possible to obtain milk
with a large proportion of small globules (as in the
cream homogenization treatment described above). This
separation is achieved by the use of ceramic microfiltra-
tion membranes with pore sizes of 2–5 mm.
3.2. Starter and adjunct cultures, and enzymes
Starter organisms play an important role in cheese
manufacture because of their contribution to proteoly-
sis, and hence texture and flavor development. Because
of the altered microenvironment in low fat cheeses,
various alterations in microbial metabolism will occur
which will influence cheese characteristics. Regular
starters may be used for cheese manufacture e.g.
mesophilic lactococci and thermophilic starters for low
fat variants of Cheddar and Mozzarella, respectively,
provided that lactic acid production and proteolytic
activity are controlled. The lowered cook temperatures
increase activity of mesophilic starter cultures with little
autolysis and excessive protease production. Further-
more, the high moisture in cheese leads to a low salt
content in the moisture phase of the cheese, which in
turn promotes bacterial activity and leads to the rapid
formation of bitter peptides. Consequently, starters
selected for low fat cheese making should be able to
undergo autolysis at the low cook temperatures and
high cheese moisture content (Ardo, . 1997). It is also
desirable to have starters with low proteolytic but high
peptidolytic activities.
Elevated ripening temperatures have been used to
enhance flavor development in hard cheeses (Wilkinson,
1993) but in low fat cheeses it is likely to produce off
flavors because of the high moisture and consequent
rapid growth of nonstarter lactic acid bacteria. Fenelon
et al. (1999b) used a lacticin (a bacteriocin) producing
strain of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis for manufactur-
ing low fat Cheddar cheese of 19% fat. With this culture
it was possible to ripen the cheeses at the higher
temperature (7–121C) because the bacteriocin controlled
the growth of the nonstarter bacteria and allowed for
proper flavor development. This illustrates an example
in which a strain of a standard culture is selected that
possesses useful traits. Another example is the use of
exopolysaccharide-producing cultures for improving
low fat Mozzarella cheese quality. Perry, McMahon,
and Oberg (1997); Low et al. (1998) used an exopoly-
saccharide-producing strains of Streptococcus thermo-
philus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus to
increase moisture in low fat Mozzarella cheese by 2–4%.
Increases in moisture were lower when the experiment
was scaled up to 454-kg milk (Perry, McMahon, &
Oberg, 1998). It was suggested that these cultures
maintained the exopolysaccharide around the bacterial
cells as a capsule. This increased the diameter of the
bacterial cells to 5 mm and helped break up the protein
matrix (Perry et al., 1998).
Attenuated bacterial cells that will readily release
enzymes for flavor development may also be added. Cell
attenuation involves the inactivation of cell metabolic
activity without killing them. Acid production is
significantly reduced but proteolytic activity continues.
This is accomplished by lysozyme treatment, drying, or
heat- or freeze-shocking of cells in a controlled manner.
These methods have been successfully used for the
accelerated ripening of full fat cheeses (Wilkinson, 1993)
but also have application in the flavor development of
low fat cheeses (Ardo. & Mansson, 1990). Addition of
heat-treated Lb. helveticus improved the flavor of 10%
fat Swedish semi-hard cheese by increasing the amino-
peptidase activity. Bitterness in these cheeses was also
 V.V. Mistry / International Dairy Journal 11 (2001) 413–422
absent due to the presence of intracellular aminopepti-
dases from the attenuated cells (Ardo, . Larsson, Man-
sson, & Hedenberg, 1989). Lb. helveticus cells attenuated
by freeze drying, freezing and spray drying have also
been used for enhancing the flavor intensity of reduced
fat Cheddar cheese (Johnson, Etzel, Chen, & Johnson,
1995b).
In lieu of attenuated cells, non-starter bacteria
(adjunct cultures) have also been added for the
enhancement of flavor in low fat cheeses. Low fat
Cheddar cheeses (20% fat) with added cell-free extract,
freeze dried or untreated cells of Micrococcus spp. (Lee,
Johnson, & Marth, 1992), and Pediococcus pentosaceus
(Bhowmik, Riesterer, van Boekel, & Marth, 1990) had
more intense Cheddar cheese flavor, less off flavor, and
less bitterness than control cheeses. Similarly, in cheeses
of very low fat content made from milk of 0.3–1.5%, fat
enhancement in flavor was obtained by supplementing
the conventional mesophilic cheese starter with 0.1–1%
Lb. bulgaricus, 0.1–1% St. thermophilus, and 0.05–0.3%
Lb. casei (Czulak & Spieler, 1984). The former two
organisms provided rapid acid development whereas the
Lb. casei improved flavor by enhancing proteolysis.
As mentioned earlier, flavor compounds such as
methanethiol are important in flavor development of
some aged cheeses. Methanethiol is formed by the
degradation of methionine. This reaction is catalyzed by
methionine gamma lyase of Brevibacterium linens and
cystathionine beta lyase of Lc. lactis (Dias & Weimer,
1998). Certain types of bacteria such as Br. linens, which
are used in surface-ripened cheeses like Limburger,
apparently provide useful flavor development in low fat
cheeses through the production of methanethiol. Lyo-
philized extracts of Br. linens have been used for the
accelerated ripening of low fat Cheddar cheese (Chen,
El-Soda, Reisterer, & Olson, 1990). Whole cells of
Br. linens are useful for flavor development in low fat
Cheddar cheese (Weimer et al., 1997). Broadbent et al.
(1997) increased flavor intensity of cheese by using
Br. linens as an adjunct culture in making 50% reduced
fat Cheddar cheese. The intracellular aminopeptidase
activity of Br. linens is responsible for the elimination of
bitter peptides in Camembert cheese and may also prove
valuable in low fat cheeses (Brezina, Cikanek, Plockova,
Schovankova, & Kopency, 1988).
Adjunct cultures not only have a role in flavor
development in ripened cheeses but may also be used
to enhance functionality of low fat cheeses. For
example, the proteolytic activity of Lb. casei subsp.
casei is also useful in development of functional
properties of low fat Mozzarella cheese (Merrill, Oberg,
McManus, Kalab, & McMahon, 1996).
Enzymes may also be used in low fat cheese making
for texture development. Proteases of the plant Cynara
cardunculus are extremely proteolytic and are used in
place of chymosin in the manufacture of cheeses such as
419
Queso Serra of Portugal. This enzyme not only
improved the texture of low fat Cheddar cheese of
13% fat but also produced bitterness during ripening
(Banks, Roa, & Muir, 1998).
3.3. Fat replacers and other additives
Various additives are applied in low fat cheese making
with a view to actually replacing the void left by fat in
terms of its sensory and functional characteristics. These
additives include various commercially available fat
replacers as well as blends of stabilizers that help in
moisture retention. Applications include a wide range of
cheeses including soft cheeses, hard and semi-hard
ripened cheeses, and functional cheeses such as Mozzar-
ella and Process cheeses.
Ingredients such as gums, carrageenan, cellulose gels,
gelatin and starch-based products such as StellarTM and
NovagelTM have been used in other dairy products and
have application in low fat cheeses as well. Bullens,
Krawczyk, and Geithman (1994) reported on the
blending of microcrystalline cellulose, carrageenan,
and nonfat dry milk in cheese milk for Cheddar cheese
of 11% fat. Cheese structure is softened by the
interference of the casein–casein interaction by carre-
geenan, and microcrystalline cellulose particles that
function similarly to fat globules by imbedding within
the curd matrix.
Production of good quality low fat Cottage cheese is
particularly challenging. Cream dressing with little or no
fat must have optimum viscosity to provide body to the
cheese. Viscosity is attained by use of additives such as
starch, hydrocolloids, carrageenan, and locust bean gum
in the cream dressing (Kosikowski et al., 1997).
Various types of fat replacers have been developed
commercially to imitate the creaminess and mouthfeel of
milk fat. Examples include milk/egg protein-based
Simplesses, restructured fat (5 cal/g) Salatrims, and
modified denatured whey protein-based Dairy Los.
These products have been used with varying degrees of
success in low fat cheese manufacture (Fenelon &
Guinee, 1997; Hoffmann, 1994; Lucey & Gorry, 1994;
Ma, Drake, Barbosa-Canovas, & Swanson, 1997;
McMahon, Alleyne, Fife, & Oberg, 1996; Rudan,
Barbano, & Kindstedt, 1998c). The effect of such
ingredients on specific flavor development and microbial
metabolism during cheese ripening remains to be
evaluated.
4. Conclusions
A major obstacle to the growth in popularity of low
fat cheeses is probably not technological but has to do
with consumer expectations. Full fat cheeses are used as
the standard for comparing low fat cheeses. A close
420 V.V. Mistry / International Dairy Journal 11 (2001) 413–422
examination of the microenvironment of low fat cheeses
reveals that such cheese is entirely different in nature
from full fat cheeses and many of these factors are
strongly interrelated. It would be difficult, therefore, to
entirely mimic a full fat cheese after fat has been
removed. Cheeses low in fat such as Parmigiano–
Reggiano have been in existence for years and are
highly desirable for qualities that can be acquired in part
only under low fat conditions.
A widely used approach is to develop low fat versions
of currently known varieties of cheese. In doing so it is
important to consider flavor, body, and texture as
well as functional properties of cheese simultaneously
because the improvement of a single criterion may
not be adequate from the consumer-acceptance stand-
point.
While success at developing the ‘‘ideal’’ low fat cheese
has been variable, an interesting aspect of low fat cheese
research is a greater understanding of structure, func-
tion, chemistry, and microbiology of cheeses in general.
Some of this research has also led to the development of
procedures that have directly benefited full fat cheeses.
An example is the application of cream homogenization
for the improvement of low fat cheeses, which also offers
unique qualities to full fat Cheddar cheese (Oommen,
Mistry, & Nair, 2000).
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