Tribol Lett (2017) 65:153
DOI 10.1007/s11249-017-0940-7
ORIGINAL PAPER
Accelerated Fretting Wear Tests for Contacts Exposed
to Atmosphere
Vamshidhar Done1,3   · D. Kesavan1 · Marcus Huffman2 · Daniel Nelias3
Received: 7 July 2017 / Accepted: 14 October 2017
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2017
Abstract  Engineering components can be subjected to
normal and/or rotational fretting wear with contacts that are
intermittently exposed to the atmosphere. Exposure to the
environment may lead to the alteration at the contact due
to the changing role of third body particles such as hard
oxides which can result in abrasion. The abrasion due to
hard oxide particles differs for the closed contact and inter-
mittently opened contact. In the former scenario, the oxides
are compacted into tribo-film, while in the latter case they
remain loose, leading to bigger role of abrasion. Standard
fretting test setup employed to estimate the fretting wear
characteristic operates with a constant load such that the
contact remains closed between the counter surfaces and
does not simulate the opening and closing of the contacts as
observed in certain applications. The forceful interruptions
to the experiments to simulate open and close condition of
the contact require considerable amount of time and effort.
In this paper, an accelerated test procedure is proposed and
investigated to capture the effect of intermittent opening of
the contact without stopping the experiments. A test rig is
designed to simulate the opening and closing conditions, and
tests were performed with abrasive diamond-like particles.
Friction and wear results are compared with those of inter-
mittently contact opening conditions along with operating
wear mechanisms. Scanning electron microscope analysis
showed that the wear mechanism observed in the case of
* Vamshidhar Done
vamshidhar.done@insa‑lyon.fr
1
GE Global Research, John F Welch Technology Centre,
Whitefield Road, Bangalore, India
2
GE Power Gas Power Systems, Greenville, SC, USA
3
LaMCoS, CNRS UMR5259, INSA‑Lyon, Univ Lyon,
Lyon 69621, France
 
fretting with intermittent opening of contact is similar to
that of fretting with diamond-like abrasives at the contact.
Keywords  Accelerated fretting tests · Diamond-like
abrasives · Fretting wear simulations/modeling
1 Introduction
Fretting wear is one of the major failure modes of the com-
ponents used in turbo machinery. Components of gas tur-
bine combustor like liner stop, swirler collar, fuel burner,
aft support, aft bracket, forward bracket and hula seal are
subjected to fretting phenomenon induced by structural
vibration during the turbine operation. Some of these parts
experience intermittent opening of the contact exposing the
worn surfaces to open air atmosphere that support formation
of hard oxide debris. To determine wear behavior of these
engineering components, many a time coupon-level fretting
wear tests are performed in the research laboratories. These
fretting tests are performed without opening the contact and
would result in incorrect estimate of wear rates as the worn
surface is never exposed to open air especially when the slip
amplitude is less than length of the contact along fretting
direction. Building a test setup that can open the contact
after few fretting cycles is expensive and also increases the
testing time for the fretting experiments. An accelerated test
procedure is investigated in this paper, to capture the effect
of intermittent opening of the contact without stopping the
experiments. A test rig was designed to simulate the open-
ing and closing conditions, and tests were performed with
abrasive (diamond-like) particles. The wear volume and
wear depth results are compared with those of intermittently
contact opening.
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Iwabuchi [1] studied the role of oxide debris during fret-
ting by artificially supplying oxide particles between two
contacting surfaces before fretting. It was found that the
action of the oxide to facilitate or to prevent wear depends
on the experimental conditions. Wear is less, if a compact
layer of oxide particles is formed at the contact interface
due to high load. Removal of debris particles increases with
increase in slip amplitude, and the abrasive action of the
particles increases the wear rate. The effect of large debris
particles on friction coefficient was studied by Suh and Sin
[2] and was observed that the larger debris particles lead to
higher friction coefficient. Similar observations of increased
friction in the presence of hard debris particles were reported
by Sherrington and Hayhurst [3]. Saber et al. [4] studied the
cyclic oxidation behavior of Ni-based superalloy (Inconel
617) in air at various temperatures. They performed many
oxidation tests and microstructural analyses to conclude
that the thickness of oxide scales increased with time and
temperature. The oxide scales are compact, dense, adher-
ent and distributed uniformly across the surface. Xin et al.
[5] have characterized the subsurface layers underneath the
worn surface of Inconel 690 alloy which is subjected to dry
fretting at 220 °C. Their results indicate five layers: oxide
layer, mixed layer, tribological transformed structure (TTS)
layer, plastic deformation layer and base materials. They
observed that oxygen easily penetrated TTS and preferen-
tially oxidized Cr and Ni to produce ­Cr2O3 and NiO. Due
to sufficient oxidation on worn surface, stable oxide layer of
­NiCr2O4 and ­Fe2O3 was formed. Soria et al. [6] performed
fretting experiments on Incoloy 800 against AISI 304 for
displacement amplitudes of 70, 116 and 160 µm at room
temperature. They observed adhesive and abrasive wear due
to the formation of hard oxides between the surfaces during
fretting process. The composition of debris was found to
contain (Ni, Fe)(Fe,Cr)2O4. Jin et al. [7] studied the role
of wear scar geometry and oxide-based debris beds on the
temperature of a fretting contact. Debris layer was found to
increase temperature of the contact locally if the thermal
conductivity of the layer is significantly lower than that of
the base material. Jin et al. [8] also studied the role of envi-
ronmental temperature and fretting frequency on wear rate.
At low temperatures, continual oxide formation and egress
from the contact take place, whereas at high temperatures,
wear rate is less due to protective bed formed by oxide.
Technique of ultrasonic fretting was used by Soderberg
et al. [9] to accelerate fretting wear testing. It was observed
that ultrasonic fretting displays many characteristics of low-
frequency fretting. But the ultrasonic fretting has increased
severity of the initial adhesive stage at ultrasonic frequencies
and has higher wear rate compared to low-frequency fretting.
Use of elevated dry temperature testing was proposed by
Malucci et al. [10] to accelerate fretting degradation. Algo-
rithms were developed to simulate the levels of oxidation,
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Tribol Lett (2017) 65:153
stress relaxation and intermetallic compound formation
occurring under accelerated test conditions. Using these
algorithms and fretting model, test exposures of tin-plated
copper base alloy contacts were compared to typical field
conditions. Increased z-height as to create constant force
contact was proposed by Kiely et al. [11] for accelerated
wear testing procedure for head–disc interfaces. Wear rate
for various combinations of head–media combination was
established using the accelerated wear test procedure. An
accelerated nano-fretting test technique was developed by
Beake et al. [12] to study small-scale wear of Si(1 0 0).
Application of abrupt load showed similar crack morphology
to that observed in repetitive nano-impact tests. Okamoto
et al. [13] have showed that cross-grooved surface textur-
ing is very effective to achieve accelerated initial running-
in during fretting wear. High contact pressure with small
contact areas of cross-grooved textured surfaces promotes
contact deformation leading to acceleration of the initial
running-in process. Trezona et al. [14] conducted abrasive
wear tests using particles of SiC, A
­ l2O3 and diamond; the
authors observed that the wear rate changes with change
in concentration of abrasive particles in the slurry. It was
documented by the authors that the wear mechanisms seen
with the concentrated diamond slurries are two-body paral-
lel grooving, whereas the mechanism seen with SiC slurries
is three-body wear by rolling particles. Kassman et al. [15]
and Staia [16] have used diamond particles to perform wear
tests and develop abrasive wear resistance coatings. The
proposed test procedure in this article uses diamond-like
particle to perform accelerated wear tests under cylinder-
on-flat conditions.
2 Accelerated Fretting Wear Test Procedure
To perform fretting wear tests that capture the phenomenon
observed in gas turbine components, the contact at the two
rubbing surfaces needs to be separated after few fretting
cycles and the contact needs to be exposed to atmosphere.
The required test setup becomes complex if it includes both
sliding motion and opening the contact at regular intervals.
Also, the time taken to execute opening the contact while
performing fretting experiments is very large. A new test
procedure is proposed in which the contact is not separated,
and as a substitute of opening the contact, diamond parti-
cle-like abrasive is introduced at the contact. The abrasive
particles (3–5 µm) perform the role of hard metallic oxide
that is formed at the contact when the surface is exposed to
atmosphere after the fretting. The direction of fretting in the
test facility is aligned to vertical direction so that the debris
gets dropped down due to gravitational force. Also, smaller
radius is used for the specimen while performing the fretting
experiments so that the debris is not entrapped at the contact.
Tribol Lett (2017) 65:153 Page 3 of 9  153
2.1 Experimental Setup and Testing Procedure
The test facility to conduct accelerated wear test consists
of an ­MTS® (material testing systems) frame with verti-
cal and horizontal actuators as shown in Fig. 1. Details
of the test rig can be found in the previous publication by
authors Kesavan et al. [17]. Additional feature of the test
rig includes an injector to supply diamond particle paste
on top of the contact. Experiments include cylinder-on-flat
fretting tests with cylindrical specimen mounted on static
fixture and flat specimen mounted on dynamic fixture. As
many engineering components subjected to fretting are
nickel-based alloys, the cylindrical and flat specimens
used in the experiments are made of Nimonic-80A. The
diameter of cylindrical specimen is 20 mm; the sharp cur-
vature of cylinder enables easy escape of wear debris. The
length of the cylindrical specimen is 3 mm. The normal
load applied on the cylindrical specimen is 400 N which
would give stresses within the yield limit. (Yield strength
of Nimonic-80A is 780 MPa at room temperature.) The
corresponding maximum Hertzian contact pressure would
be 700 MPa with semi-contact width of 120 μm for the
selected cylinder. Also, the low normal loads let the wear
debris to move out of the contact region.
Parameters for the fretting experiments are given below:
• Material: Nimonic-80A vs Nimonic-80A.
• Normal load = 400 N.
Fig. 1  Fretting test rig for nor-
mal and accelerated wear tests
• Applied displacement = 125 μm. (Due to the flexibility
of supporting structure with stiffness 48.9 N/μm, the fret-
ting displacement at the contact is only 110 μm.)
• Frequency of fretting = 9 Hz.
• Temperature of cylinder and flat: RT (room temperature).
To validate the proposal of accelerated fretting tests, three
types of fretting wear experiments are performed, maintain-
ing the same test parameters as presented above. Repeat tests
are conducted to check the consistency of results. The three
types of fretting experiments are listed below.
1. Fretting—normal: Continuous fretting wear tests con-
ducted without opening the contact for 100,000 cycles.
2. Fretting—contact separated: Fretting wear tests con-
ducted by opening the contact every 10,000 cycles
and resuming the tests by closing the contact. Total of
100,000 fretting wear cycles are performed.
3. Fretting—diamond particle paste at the contact: Dia-
mond particle paste is applied at the contact without
opening at every 10,000 cycles. Total of 100,000 fret-
ting wear cycles are performed.
2.2 Wear Simulation for Extended Fretting Cycles
Utilizing the test setup shown in Fig. 1, worn profiles of
specimen after fretting wear for 100,000 cycles are obtained.
To estimate wear profiles for extended fretting cycles beyond
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 153   Page 4 of 9 Tribol Lett (2017) 65:153

100,000 cycles, a semi-analytical wear simulation of fret-
ting wear is proposed. These numerical simulations use the
wear and friction coefficients to predict the wear profiles
of the two contacting surfaces. The wear methodology was
successfully implemented and validated in the earlier paper
by the authors Kesavan et al. [17]. The methodology was
derived from previous research presented by Gallego et al.
[18–20], contact solver published by Antaluca and Nélias
[21] and wear law proposed by Fouvry et al. [22]. The model
was later extended to include debris entrapped at the contact
interface and published by authors Done et al. [23]. The
approach involves discretization of contact area to obtain a
rectangular node set; contact pressure is obtained by apply-
ing conjugate gradient method. To improve the speed of
calculations, fast Fourier transformations are applied. Wear
law is used to relate the frictional dissipated energy, fretting
displacement and wear coefficient with the wear volume.
The wear volume is then used to compute wear depth at each
grid point on both the contact surfaces.
For numerical simulations, the geometry of test speci-
mens is replicated. A cylinder of 20 mm and 3 mm of length
is considered fretting on a flat surface. Elastic modulus of
219 GPa is used for Nimonic-80A material at room tempera-
ture for both cylinder and flat surface.
Values of the parameters considered in the simulation are
presented below:
• Wear law = Fouvry’s Law (Fouvry et al. [22])
• Time steps for each cycle = 81
• Maximum number of wear cycles for simulation: 200,000
• Operating temperature = room temperature
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Results from Fretting Wear Experiments
Fretting experiments were performed on cylinder and flat
specimens under three types of test conditions listed in the
previous section. The results obtained from these tests were
compared with each other to check the effectiveness of accel-
erated wear test procedure. Optical non-contact profilometer
was used to capture images of wear scars on flat specimens
after 100,000 fretting cycles. The wear scars obtained from
three test conditions are presented in Fig. 2. The material
loss observed in these experiments is shown in Fig. 3.
Wear observed was low in the case of normal fretting
when the contact is not opened till the end of 100,000 cycles.
Higher wear was observed in the case of opening the contact
and in the case when diamond particle paste is introduced at

• Slip amplitude (δ*) at the contact = 110 μm

• Load = 400 N
• Friction coefficient at the contact interface from experi-
ments  =  0.35 (normal fretting) and 0.7 (intermittent
opening the contact)
• Wear coeff icient of wear on cylinder and
flat = 37,794 µm3/J µm and 27,212 µm3/J µm (estimated
from experiments of normal and opening the contact
cases, respectively) Fig. 3  Bar chart presenting the material loss for fretting wear tests

Fig. 2  Wear scar images for a fretting without opening contact b fretting with opening contact and c fretting with diamond particle paste

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Tribol Lett (2017) 65:153 Page 5 of 9  153
the contact. This observation is in line with wear phenom-
enon noticed by Iwabuchi [1] that the hard particles at the
contact interface increase the abrasive wear rate. In normal
fretting, when the contact is not opened, surface is less oxi-
dized due to lesser contact exposure to air leading to lesser
formation of hard particles and results in low wear. Friction
value is stabilized well before 10,000 cycles and continuous
same till 100,000 cycles.
Identical and high wear was observed in other two cases,
one with regular opening of the contact and one in which
diamond particle paste is introduced at the contact without
opening the contact. Due to temperature raise (frictional
heat) at the contact surface and exposure to atmosphere,
metallic oxide is formed when contact is intermittently
opened. The metallic oxide has high hardness which is
comparable with hardness of diamond particles and shows
similar wear behavior. At room temperature, the hardness of
metallic oxide debris formed from Nimonic-80A is close to
4 GPa as per the study performed by Inman and Datta [24].
For the abrasive particles introduced in our experimental
study, the hardness is close to 10 GPa (Prelas et al. [25].
The test setup used to perform the fretting experiments
has a load cell that can measure the frictional force at the
contact when load in the direction normal to contact is
applied. The frictional force was recorded for every 10,000
fretting cycles, and the coefficient of friction is calculated.
Figure 4 shows the variation of friction for three test cases
from 100th cycle to 100,000th cycle. Coefficient of friction
(COF) for normal fretting settles down to a lower value of
0.36. For both the cases of fretting, i.e., with contact opening
and with diamond particle paste, the COF reaches a higher
value close to 0.7. This observation is in line with the simi-
larity observed in the loss of material between the last two
cases. Increase in friction coefficient due to presence of hard
debris particles was also reported by Suh and Sin [2] and
Sherrington and Hayhurst [3].
The diamond particle used in the experiments is MetaDi
paste manufactured by Buehler. The composition of paste
is diproplylene glycol (70–80%) and diamond (20–30%).
Fig. 4  Change in friction coefficient with progression of fretting
cycles
Diamond particle paste is added at the start of experiment,
and the experiment is run without opening the contact.
Application of diamond particle paste is not repeated. The
low friction coefficient in the initial few cycles observed
for case of diamond particle test in Fig. 4 may be attributed
to the solvent, and later the diamond particles start playing
role of abrasive. The diamond paste is added to accelerate
fretting test and to avoid costly opening and cleaning of the
surface.
3.2 Study of Wear Mechanisms Using Scanning
Electron Microscope
To determine the wear mechanisms under different contact
conditions, samples from each test case are analyzed using
scanning electron microscope (SEM). Scan images are pre-
sented in Figs. 5, 6 and 7. Low-resolution images presented
in these figures and Fig. 2 show that the surface generated
after normal fretting (contact closed condition throughout
the experiment) is more uniform compared to that of inter-
mittent contact opening case and contact with diamond par-
ticle at the interface.
As seen in Fig. 5, the size of wear debris in normal con-
tact is small and looks granular. The worn surface generated
after fretting is uniform leading to low friction and low wear
as presented in Figs. 3 and 4. Because size of debris is small,
a constant wear rate can be expected in this continuously
closed contact fretting. For the case of fretting with inter-
mittent opening of contact, Fig. 6 shows long debris formed
due to subsurface crack propagation parallel to contact sur-
face. Formation of flake-like debris can be explained using
delamination theory proposed by Suh [26]. Because of large
chunks of material coming out of contact surface, the result-
ant surface is rough and wear rate is non-uniform. Suh and
Fig. 5  High-resolution SEM image of worn sample with normal fret-
ting
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 153   Page 6 of 9
Fig. 6  High-resolution SEM image of worn sample with fretting
with intermittent opening of contact
Fig. 7  High-resolution SEM image of worn sample after fretting
with diamond particles at contact interface
Sin [2] also observed that the larger debris particles lead to
higher friction coefficient. Different shapes of wear scar and
transition from U shape to W shape are explained by a “con-
tact oxygenation” hypothesis wherein interfacial dioxygen
concentration falls below a certain threshold; debris oxida-
tion is no longer possible as explained by Fouvry et al. [27].
At high temperature (caused by frictional heat), the reduc-
tion in wear is due to the retention of wear debris within the
scar leading to the formation of a stable-load bearing bed
and eventually a “glaze-layer.” The results support the view
that this is due to a tribo-sintering process as described by
Kato and Komai [28].
Wear mechanism with diamond particles at the contact
interface is similar to that with intermittent opening of the
contact. Subsurface cracks parallel to contact as seen from
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Tribol Lett (2017) 65:153
Fig. 7 are formed, and long chunks of material come out.
Material removal is abrupt, and a rough surface is formed
after the fretting wear.
3.3 Study of Wear Mechanisms Using
Energy‑Dispersive Spectrometry
To determine the generation of oxides when the fretting sur-
face is exposed to the environment, chemical characteriza-
tion of the samples taken from experiments of intermittent
opening of contact is undertaken. The energy-dispersive
spectrometry (EDS) is performed on the base material and
the debris. Figure 8 shows the chemical composition of base
material. The location where EDS analysis is performed
is chosen away from the surface of cut section. It can be
observed that the oxygen content in the base material is of
the order 1.6% in terms of weight.
The EDS analysis is repeated at a location where there
is high concentration of debris. The chemical analysis of
debris is presented in Fig. 9. The oxygen content observed
for debris is close to 20% in terms of weight. The higher
oxygen content in the debris leads to the conclusion that the
debris is composed of metallic oxides. These metallic oxides
being hard can lead to higher abrasive wear.
3.4 Results from Fretting Wear Simulations
Fretting wear simulations were performed to estimate worn
profiles of flat surfaces for fretting cycles of 100,000 and
200,000 cycles. Comparison of worn profiles obtained from
experiments for 100,000 cycles and that from simulations is
presented in Fig. 10. Results validate the numerical model
applied for fretting wear simulation.
Fretting wear simulations were then performed for two
cases, one with wear and friction coefficient obtained with-
out opening contact and one with intermittent opening of the
contact. The wear and friction coefficients used for the case
of not opening contact are 37,794 and 0.35 mm3/J, respec-
tively. For the case of opening contact, the wear coefficient
is 27,212 mm3/J and friction coefficient is 0.7. The proce-
dure followed to obtain the wear coefficient is presented
in the previous publication by authors Kesavan et al. [17].
Simulation results obtained in the two cases are presented
in Fig. 11 for 100,000 cycles and in Fig. 12 for 200,000 fret-
ting cycles. Numerical simulations successfully estimate the
wear profile at 200,000 fretting cycles. The proposed numer-
ical method can be used to continue the fretting simulations
beyond 200,000 fretting cycles. Numerical simulations are
very cost-effective as they do not involve material cost for
samples, sample preparation, fixture design, fretting rig and
wear measurement instruments.
Tribol Lett (2017) 65:153 Page 7 of 9  153

Fig.  8  a Location at which chemical characterization is performed. b Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy results of base material

Fig.  9  a Location at which chemical characterization is performed. b Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy results of debris material

3.5 Advantages and Applications of the Proposed

Accelerated Fretting Method

A good match was observed between the wear volume, wear

Fig. 10  Comparison of experimental and simulation results of fret-
ting wear simulation with opening the contact
mechanism and friction behavior for the two later cases of
fretting tests, one with opening the contact and another with
diamond-like particle paste. As the case of fretting with
opening contact needs an expensive test setup and is a slow
process, an accelerated test procedure that uses diamond par-
ticle paste is a cost-effective and faster way of performing
the fretting experiments. Time taken to perform normal fret-
ting experiments with diamond particles is about 2.5 h for
100,000 cycles. For experiments with opening and closing

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 153   Page 8 of 9
Fig. 11  Fretting wear simulations for 100,000 cycles
Fig. 12  Fretting wear simulations for 200,000 cycles
the contact for every 10,000 cycles, time taken for 100,000
fretting cycles is about 4.5 h. The numerical simulations for
100,000 cycles on a standard computer need about 2 h to
estimate wear profiles, and it does not include sample prep-
aration cost. Fretting wear simulation with the numerical
model can be continued beyond 100,000 cycles. The com-
bination of accelerated fretting experiments and numerical
simulations provides a cost-effective and faster alternative
to fretting wear experiments that need intermittent opening
of the contact.
Though the proposed methodology was developed con-
sidering gas turbine combustor components like swirler
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Tribol Lett (2017) 65:153
collars, fuel burners, liner stops, supports and brackets, the
procedure can be applied to other engineering components.
4 Conclusion
An accelerated fretting wear test methodology is presented
to perform fretting tests that would capture the effect of
intermittent opening of the contact without disturbing the
contact. The new methodology will reduce time and cost of
performing experiments that capture the effect of intermit-
tent opening of the contact. Energy-dispersive spectrometry
(EDS) performed on debris proves the formation of hard
metallic oxides when fretting contact is exposed to ambi-
ent air. In the proposed methodology, diamond-like abra-
sive particles are introduced at the fretting contact with-
out opening the contact. These diamond particles play the
role of debris to get similar effect that is observed when
the contact is opened. The images of worn samples taken
from scanning electron microscope (SEM) indicate the wear
mechanism observed in presence of debris and are similar to
that observed with diamond particles. Additionally, numeri-
cal wear simulations are proposed to obtain wear profiles
for extended fretting cycles to obtain the results with less
resources in short duration of time.
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