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Elementary Logic
The Language of Mathematics
While we use our natural language to transmit our mathematical
ideas, the language has some undesirable features which are not
acceptable in mathematics.
P Q P ⇔Q P ¬P
T T T T F
T F F F T
F T F
F F T
Logical Equivalence
●
The truth table for ~ (P ∧ (Q ∨ P)).
P Q Q∨ P P ∧Q∨ P ¬ P ∧Q∨ P
T T T T F
T F T T F
F T T F T
F F F F T
Two statements are equivalent (logically equivalent) if
they have the same truth table values.
●
P ⇒ Q ≡ ~ (P ∧ ~ Q)
P Q ¬Q P ∧¬Q ¬ P ∧¬Q P ⇒ Q
T T F F T T
T F T T F F
F T F F T T
F F T F T T
Logical Equivalence
● A denial is a statement equivalent to the negation of a
statement.
The negation of P ⇒ Q is ~ (P ⇒ Q).
A denial of P ⇒ Q is P ∧ ~ Q.
● For 2 logical variables there are 16 ways to combine
them, but we can get all of them with combinations of
conjunction, disjunction and negation. In fact, we can
get them all with just one symbol (nand | ).
P Q P∣Q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F T
On a real mythical island ...
● If I am telling the truth, then he is a truth teller (What
tribes?)
Let P := I am telling the truth & Q := he is a truth teller.
There are 3 truth values involved, P, Q and P⇒Q
If the speaker is a liar, then P would be false. If P is false
then P⇒Q is true, and the liar would be speaking the
truth!!
If the speaker is a truth teller, then P is true and P⇒Q is
true, so Q is true and both natives are from the truth
telling tribe.
On a real mythical island ...
● Gold on island iff I am a truth teller (Which tribe? is
there Gold?)
P := Gold on island Q := I am a truth teller
If speaker is a truth teller, then Q is true and P ⇔Q is true
so there is gold on the island.
If speaker is a liar, then Q is false and P⇔Q is false, so P
must be true, there is gold on the island.
So there is gold on the island, but we don't know
which tribe the speaker is from!
On a real mythical island ...
● Two natives, tall and short. Are you a truth teller?
Goom! says the tall one. Other says, He says yes, but
he is a liar. (What tribes?)
If the short native is a truth teller, then the tall one is a liar
(by the truth of the compound P ∧ Q). If the short native
is a liar, then the tall one is a truth teller, since the claim
that he is a liar must be false.
... we can only say that they are from different tribes.
On a real mythical island ...
P Q R P ⇒ Q Q ⇒ R P ⇒ R P ⇒ Q∧Q ⇒ R⇒ P ⇒ R
T T T T T T T
T T F T F F T
T F T F T T T
T F F F T F T
F T T T T T T
F T F T F T T
F F T T T T T
F F F T T T T
Examples:
The integer x is even.
y = 5.
Triangle ABC is isosceles.
Universal and Existential quantifiers
A predicate is not a proposition, it does not have a
truth value. One can however use quantifiers to
make propositions about predicates. For instance,
the universal quantifier (∀) is used to say that a
given predicate is true for all possible values of
its variables. This is a proposition, since it is
either true or false. Similarly, the existential
quantifier (∃) is used to say that there is some
value of the variables which makes the predicate
a true statement.
Quantified Statements
Let x be a real number.
x2 – 1 = 0 is not a proposition, it is a predicate.
"There exists an x so that x2 – 1 = 0" is a proposition (true)
"For all x, x2 – 1 = 0" is also a proposition (false).
Example:
If turtles can sing, then artichokes can fly.
If artichokes can fly, then turtles can sing and dogs can't play chess.
Dogs can play chess if and only if turtles can sing.
Therefore, turtles can't sing.
The first three lines are the premises, and the last line is the
conclusion. Is this a valid argument?
Logical Arguments
Let S = "turtles can sing", A = "artichokes can fly" and D =
"dogs can play chess". The given statements can now be
written symbolically as:
If turtles can sing, then artichokes can fly. S ⇒ A
If artichokes can fly, then turtles can sing and dogs can't play chess. A ⇒ (S∧~D)
Dogs can play chess if and only if turtles can sing. D ⇔ S