HISTORY OF CHINA I.

I. Prehistory

Mythological narrative from about 4000 BCE proven fictional, first ruler from about 2200 BCE (without
names). Chinese civilization from 1330 BCE onwards.

History in service to politics (rewarding winners).

Low frequency of archaeological digs because of cultural traditions.

Peking Man

 caves of Zhou Kou Dian near Beijing

 different from European skeletons - related to the man from Java, Indonesia
 cave-dwelling, hunter, simple stone tools, fire making
 signs of religious notions (burials)
 between 1 million years ago and 500 000 BCE

Palaeolithic

 gap in knowledge – warmer climate than today

 men near lakes around 50 000 BCE – stone and bone tools
 wooden and bamboo tools (South-East Asian styles)
 new type of man around 25 000 BCE not related to Peking Man (non-Mongoloid) – Ainu
 Yuanmou Man (teeth) and Lantian Man (Shaanxi)

Neolithic

 another knowledge gap until 4000 BCE – purely Mongoloid races in the north of China
 cattle breeders and early agriculturalists (pastoral nomads)
 arid period of climate
 early ceramics and domestication of dog and pig (first)
 formation of different culture types with foreign influences (influence on Japan)
 north-east culture group
 Hebei (Beijing), Shandong and southern Manchuria
 hunters with early primitive agriculture (pig-breeders later)
 thick pottery
 northern culture group
 Shanxi and part of Mongolia
 hunters → pastoral nomads (cattle)
 proto-Mongolians
 north-western culture group
 Shanxi and Gansu province (non-Mongolians)
 hunters → pastoral people with agriculture (wheat, millet) and horse-breeding
 ancestors of Turkish peoples
 western culture group
 Sichuan and mountain provinces
 nomadic shepherds (goat, sheep)
  ancestors of Tibetan peoples
 southern culture groups
 Liao – primitive hunters without bows
 Yao – mountainous, collectors and hunters, simple agriculture
 Tai – valleys, agriculture (rice)
 Yao Tai – Yue culture later, spread to Indonesia, rectangular ax
 mixing and penetration of cultures
 mostly along the Yellow River (Huang He)

Yangshao culture

 cca. 2000 BCE – cca.1600/1500 BCE (in some areas until 700 BCE)
 Banpo village (mountainous regions)
 fine painted pottery (li, gui, ding)
 rice farming, domesticated animals, stone and bone tools, rectangular axes
 burials in high altitudes with decorative pottery
 life in villages near rivers, equal society

Longshan culture

 around the same time as Yangshao – cca. 1600 BCE

 plains of the east (Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui)
 black fine pottery, decorated examples (geometric patterns)
 mud houses and village walls
 ancestor worship and fertility cults

Myths

 multiple creation stories (Pan Gu)

 3 Augusts (Sovereigns) and 5 Emperors
 Fu Xi, Nü Wa, Shen Nong
 Huang Di (Yellow Emperor), Zhuanxu, Ku, Yao, Shun
 Yu the Great gets power from Shun → founder of Xia and practice of passing rule to a son

Xia dynasty
夏
 center in southern Shanxi (Erlitou)
 bronze working from about 1400 BCE (came from the north) – weapons, vessels, tools
 semi-mythical dynasty without a lot of traces in archaeology (court at Henan from XVIII.c. BCE)
 culture passed to the Shang

Shang dynasty
商
 cca. 1600 BCE – 1046 BCE
 excavations and texts exist to back the existence of the dynasty
 came from Longshang culture with Xia elements
 centre at north-west Henan, capital at modern Anyang
 Cheng Tang conquered the last ruler of Xia, 31 kings followed
 mud walls, ruler's palace, artisan houses, rectangular mud houses
 large subterranean tombs outside the city for kings with sacrifices and gifts
 stone sculpture, bronze vessels, masks, bronze weapons, metal coins
 new pots: yu, pan, zun, jia, jue, gu, lei
 silk cloth and other fabrics (no wool)
  primitive agricultural society (no plough) – millet, wheat, wine...
 at least 6 capitals (Yinxu last) and about 4 – 5 million people
 5 types of punishment, slavery
 army: chariots, bows, spears, axes, 300 people units, no navy (ships for trade)
 writing
 first written sources – oracle bone script
 for fortune-telling, on bones and turtle shells
 later used for medical purposes (dragon bones)
 all structures of written language in about 3000 characters
 religion
 nature deities, fertility especially
 no pantheon, supreme god Shang Di (vegetation)
 deities combined into a single god later, some remain today in villages
 sacrifices (human too)
 worship of deceased rulers – pre-ancestral worship
 importance of court priest (wu) and historian (shi)
 concepts of heaven, duality of souls and spirits (gui)
 star worship later – influence from nomads of north-west
 elements of early feudalism – social status and classes
 idea of Mandate of Heaven possible
 expansion of territory beyond capable
 conquered by the Zhou cca. 1046. BCE without complete eradication of people and culture
 Shang people remain
II. Antiquity

Zhou dynasty
周
 cca. 1046 BCE – 256 BCE
 division into West Zhou (1046 BCE – 771 BCE) and East Zhou (771 BCE – 256 BCE)
 small realm in the west of Shang state, west → east Shaanxi (moved because of Turkish tribes)
 genetically related to Turkish and Tibetan peoples
 marriages between the royal house of Shang and Zhou
 formation - alliance of tribes
 Wu Wang pushes into central Henan in cca. 1028 BCE
 destruction of Shang army at battle of Muye 1046. BCE
 king murdered, people spread out
 incorporated in to Zhou from Shang: writing system, weak patriarchal system, fertility cults,
primitive feudalism, culture and art
 separation of regions into fiefs as rewards to allied tribes – start of true feudalism (71 states)
 disappearance of clans and creation of family system (slow) – family names
 division of people into nobility (foreign and domestic)
 capital at Xi'an – divided into royal and submissive part, 2nd capital at Luoyang
 transfer of the remaining Shang people to Luoyang (merchants)
 fusion of Shang culture into Zhou society
 father→son inheritance (Wen succeeded by Wu) instead of brother→brother
 religious rituals, abolition of human sacrifice, no priests (became officials)
 slavery practice remains
 vessels, clothes and houses unchanged
 graves became mounds
 Duke of Zhou – important figure as a regent during Wu's rule
 ruling house steadily lost power with weak emperors or early deaths and too big empire to manage
 ruler as The Son of Heaven – Mandate of Heaven (Heaven worship)
 formation of literati group between nobility and peasantry
  town rulers adopted vocabulary from general population – formation of uniform Chinese language
 Chinese society as is today is formed
 Spring and Autumn period
 alliance of northern feudal states in 771 BCE killed the king
 prince escapes to Luoyang – new capital
 leader of state of Qin as the hegemon in the west
 king became a symbol and not the rule holder
 rise in feudal squabble and foreign invaders
 frontier regions gain more and more independence
 formation of real states from former garrisons: Qin, Qi, Chu, Wu, Yue
 state leaders proclaim themselves Wang (king) around 475 BCE
 Warring States period
 around 1000 smaller states where none hold the high ground
 Chu, Qin and Qi are the strongest alliances
 Chu grown in the III.c. BCE
 Qin conquered Zhou completely in 256 BCE
 socio-economic improvements
 iron age in China during this period: chariots, peasant-warriors, crossbow, military tactics
 population growth, migration of people
 spread of metal money and bureaucracy– taxes in wheat
 development of family hierarchy
 agriculture improvements (plough, sickle) and irrigation systems
 growth of cites (luxury merchandise) and spread of roads – rise in trade
 1st code of law in 536 BCE
 foreign politics
 weak ruler without real power
 diplomacy spread with merchants and trade (towards the south)
 conflicts with Hun tribes in the north
 beginning of defensive walls
 trade centers in the north
 philosophy
 priests, literati, bureaucrats, scholars
 Kong Zi (Confucious) – born 551 BCE in Shang culture area
 Meng Zi and Xun Zi – continuation of Confucian thought
 Lao Zi – Taoism (Daoism)
 Mo Zi – Mohism
 Shang Yang – legalist school
 Zou Yan – Yin-Yang and 5 elements
 art
 imitation of Shang art
 pottery with simple text
 painting on silk and wood (lost to time)
 first poetry book „Book of Songs“ and „Book of Changes“
 „Art of War“ by Sun Zi

Qin dynasty
秦
 256 BCE – 207 BCE (unified from 221 BCE)
 area of modern Shanxi and eastern Gansu
 beginning of strong relations with Turkestan – rise in foreign trade
 population growth and inflow of Turkish and Tibetan peoples
 Qin are not fully Chinese and not as feudal as other states
  no civil and military administration – incorporation of peasants in the army
 legalist school formed the basis of government (discipline and obedience)
 burning od Confucian books from 213 BCE
 development of bureaucratic system (prefectures) that controlled vast number od small states
 standardization of language and writing, weights and measures
 start of imperial China – first Emperor (Qin) Shi Huang Di
 great influence of regent and minister Lü Buwei and minister Li Si
 start of the Great Wall as defense against the Huns
 mysterious death of the emperor – son killed, regency under Li Si and eunuch Zhao Gao
 Shi Huang Di buried with the Terracotta army (symbolism of Heaven)
 Liu (Zhi) Bang rebelled in 206 BCE
 conflict with Xiang Yu
 defeat of all 18 states
 proclaimed king and emperor in 202 BCE
 art and literature didn't have time to develop

III. Middle Ages

Han dynasty
汉
 206 BCE – 220 CE
 divided into West Han (206 BCE – 9 CE), Xin dynasty (9. – 23.) and East Han (25.– 220.)
 end of ancient feudalism – gentry state
 Gaozu
 Liu Bang proclaims himself emperor and his family Han (came from the east of China)
 awarding of friends and generals with positions and land, got rid of some close friends
 allowed some laws including the prohibition of Confucian writing
 division of land into fiefs
 merchants and army officers dismissed as officials – turned to gentry (shen shi)
 most educated gentry turned into literati class
 system of examinations and close family relations as a way of promotion in service
 after Gaozu's death (195 BCE) rule passes to Emperor Wen, but really to widow empress Lü
 attempt to bring back feudalism
 after her death opponents killed her family
 Han Wudi comes to power in 141 BCE
 revival of Confucianism at court
 Emperor Wu (peak of Han dynasty)
 expansion: Guangdong, Vietnam, Korea, central Asian plane
 pax Sinica (peacefull times) and opening of the Silk Road
 first real contact with India
 decrease of peasant workload, increase in taxes (copper coins)
 social classes: shi (officials), mong (farmers), gong (manufacturers), shang (merchants)
 emergence of Xiongnu – nomadic tribes to the north
 worship of Heaven continues
 codification of laws – equality for all (Xiao He)
 feudal lords turn on the emperor after the death of Wudi in 87 BCE – unsuccessful
 military occupation in the west (Turkestan) becomes very difficult to maintain
 need for cavalry army → increase in taxing → burden on the economy → „Discourses on Salt and
Iron“ as way of trying to solve the problem (confucian vs. modernist/business – Sang Hongyang)
 inter-familiar relations between officials, gentry and other nobles – weakening of the emperors
 Xin dynasty
 dowager of emperor Yuandi rules for the successor Chengdi
新
 placed nephew Wang Mang, among other family members, in high positions
  after death of Chengdi Wang Mang places a puppet emperor on throne (Aidi)
 complete dethroning of the emperor in 8 CE and proclamation of new dynasty
 Wang Mang rules as emperor from 9. – 23.
 secured his power by all means necessary (force, propaganda...)
 misinterpretation of old texts and Confucian thought to further his cause
 start of the new campaign against Xiongnu, but halted because of Red Eyebrow rebellion
 remaining Han gather the upper classes, but got peasants
 prince Liu Xiu gathers power around Nanyang, moves against Wang Mang
 occupation of the capital and murder of Wang Mang, total control in 24. as Emperor
Guangwu of restored Han dynasty (Eastern Han)
 decrease of population because of wars → free peasant land → elevation of debts
 capital moved from Xi'an to Luoyang
 successful foreign policy in the beginning and expansion (general Ma Yuan), stalemate with the
Xiongnu, but victory of Han after a drought in Xiongnu lands
 new trade with Turkestan, but situation worsens after 80.
 landowners and eunuchs fight for power, luxury at court, suffering of the masses
 Yellow Turban rebellion - peasants revolted in 184. under Zhang Jue, suppressed by 205.
 emperor Xian was a puppet in the hands of generals (Cao Cao, Liu Bei, Sun Zi...)
 abdication of the emperor in 220. to Cao Pei, formation of 3 big kingdoms
 culture and art
 development of literature, historiography (Sima Qian), dictionaries and encyclopedias
 invention of paper -Cai Lun
 painting and pottery progressed

Three Kingdoms
三国
 220. – 280.
 social order disturbed because of nobility squabbles that turned to wars (especially in the north)
 family fights in the south
 Son of Heaven and Mandate of Heaven is unsustainable by the end years of Han
 south transfers to rice from wheat, north transfers to cattle from agriculture (nomadic influences)
 formation of Three Kingdoms in 220. after the abdication of last Han emperor to Cao Pei (Wei)
 Shu Han
 221. – 263.
蜀汉
 situated around Sichuan and Chongqing
 good economic situation (wheat, moderate population, rich merchant class)
 great defensive position – mountains
 hard for them to start the offensive against Wei, buying help from Tibetan peoples
 ruler Liu Bei dies in 223. → regent Zhuge Liang instead of the infant prince
 after the death of Zhuge Liang in 234. decline started
 conquered by Wei in 263.
 Wu
吳
 221. – 280.
 southeast, around Nanjing
 economic situation less favorable (marshy, pigs and water buffalos, sheep and cattle)
 non-Chinese lower classes
 metal trade and timber with India and Middle East
 unambitious for conquest, strengthening own territory (active diplomacy)
 rule in the hands of northern generals
 influx of scholars and administrators to cites – cultural centers
 first emperor (king until 229.) Sun Quan ruled until 252.
 Wei
魏
  220. – 265.
 northern China
 rich regions (densely populated), but bad economic situation (center of old Han devastated)
 very expensive to keep on the luxurious life of the Han
 developed trade with Turkestan
 improvements in philosophy (Confucianism and Taoism)
 Huns are no threat because of internal struggle in their state
 transfer of Chinese culture, tradition and population to Japan
 first emperor Cao Pei called Wen Di rules with the help of big families
 Sima family gains power fast, even greater than the emperor
 division in the ruling family → member of Sima proclaimed emperor in 264. → Jin

Jin dynasty
晋
 265. – 420.
 after securing transfer of power from Wei, Sima Yan (Wu Di) founded the new dynasty
 no changes in the inner politics of China
 divided into Western and Eastern Jin (since 317.)
 greater power to the princes of the royal house and personal rule of military
 court intrigues because of power play
 conquest of Wu in 280. and unification of China, general demobilization and weapon sales
 ineffective disarmament and new conflicts with the Huns, Xianbei and Xiongnu
 Yang family gains power in court with the empress → emperor dies and is succeed by Hui Di whose
empress (Jia family) orders the murder of old empress and Yang family
 in 299. Jia family got rid of the success to the throne → reactivation of princes
 rearming of the lord and alliances between generals and dukes with the Huns
 murder of princes and migration of noble lords (center towards the borderlands)
 shifting of the frontier people all around China
 period of 5 barbarians (Di, Jie, Qiang, Xianbei, Xiongnu) and 16 kingdoms from 304.
 conquest of northern Jin by the Huns in 317. – relocation to the south until 420.

Huns

 304. – 319. – 351.

 Hun Han dynasty (Zhao)
 inferiority complex from earlier time is lost, culturally equal to the Chinese (emperor Liu Yuan)
 attack on Luoyang in 309. – successful under Liu Cong in 311.
 Chinese emperor is helpless and surrenders in 316. (including Changan)
 Liu Yao after Liu Cong, but really all power in hands of general Shi Le
 eastern China in the hands of Shi Le – division in Hun state (charisma) → later Zhao in 319.
 Shi Le succeed by Shi Hu and moves the capital to Ye in Henan (more power to Buddhist monks)
 after death of Shi Hu and power squabbles in 349. disintegration of the Hun dynasty in 351.

early Yan (352. – 370.) & early Qin (351. – 394.)

 part of 16 kingdoms
 proto-Mongol and Tibetan people
 tribe of Murong leads Yan
 conquest and migration to Korea
 enemies to the west (Tibetan family Pu/Fu)
 Qin defeats Yan in the end
Tuoba

 Tibetan people to the north of Shanxi

 alliance of tribes from the north with the Tuoba and migrating to the south forming Tai state in 338.
 destroyed by Fu Qian, but not completely
 founding of the Northern Wei in 386. as part of Northern dynasties
 army led by former barbarians, administration by Chinese families
 dissolved into Western and Eastern Wei after 534./535.
 turkish elements are more present then the Chinese
 local nobility rules in the east in collaboration with the court
 other Northern dynasties: Northern Zhou and Northern Qi

Southern dynasties (420. – 589.): Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang, Chen and Western Liang

Age of civil war and political chaos, flourishing of arts and culture, technology, and spread of Buddhism.

spread of Buddhism

 unknown until about 220. (came to Han both by sea and land)
 new ideals, topics, science and culture from northern India
 no intellectual improvement in the north – Confucian nobility is destroyed, foreign rules uninterested
 only real art and literature comes from Buddhist circles
 strong with the lower and middle class – new doctrine of life after death
 temples cooperate with merchants and finance sectors
 Buddhists slowly gain court positions as the only educated people
 different versions of Buddhism, but more common is a mix with Taoism and Confucianism
 worship of heaven remains in every aspect of new though (Mahayana Buddhism)
 translation of texts and other scholarly works

Sui dynasty
隋
 580. – 618.
 last dynasty of the North was destroyed by Yang Jian (Emperor Wen Di) in 580.
 unified state under Chinese rule overcame warrior nomads
 period of transition like the Qin dynasty
 a lot of cultural inheritance from foreign rule: music, clothing, style of life
 still a presence of older families who regarded themselves as superior (especially in northern armies)
 language, economy and society differences because of 360 years of division to North-South
 great differences in population density throughout China
 Wen Di is from the west and tries to move the center of power towards north-west (Daxing)
 anti-Confucian rule, more Buddhist, militaristic and practical
 unsatisfied south and north-east encouraged prince Guang to rebellion → murder of the emperor
 Guang becomes Yang Di and returns the capital to Luoyang
 construction of the Grand (Imperial) Canal from the Yellow River to the Long River (Chang Jiang)
 promotion of Confucianism at court and examination system of old (no merchants and craftsmen)
 golden age of prosperity by the middle of Sui rule (agriculture surplus → population growth)
 standardization and reunification of the coinage
 foreign policy
 the Turks divide into 2 parts, sides with China
 remaining Tuoba encourage Turks to conquer the north of China (princess of Yuwen family)
 one section of the Turks came under Chinese rule mostly via diplomacy
 big parts of the other section defected to the Chinese and created conflict in Turk tribes
 Korea (Goguryeo) wanted an alliance with the Turks to surround China
  fighting with the Koreans without much success
 collapse
 constant warfare → stress on finances + cour intrigues + The Great Canal
 Yang Di's extremely luxurious life (palaces, trips, daily life)
 desertion of the gentry after the defeat by the Turks in 615.
 emperor escapes south where he is killed by the remaining Tuoba of Yuwen in 618.
 independent governments and small states for 5 years

Tang dynasty 唐
 618. – 907.
 Li Shimin allies with the Tuoba Turks in 615./616.
 formal ruler is Shimin's father Li Yuan
 conquest of Changan and placing of a puppet emperor on the throne from 617. to 618.
 final unification in 623.
 reforms (626.)
 equal ownership of peasant land (lasted until 780.) – modification Tuoba land laws
 promotion of certain circles of court nobles (extra land)
 temples exempt from taxation
 creation of new nobility from a mix of old and helpers of Tang to reach power
 „disappearance“ of peasantry – became tenants farmers for gentry
 grouping of 5 families into tax and penal system (ancient Chinese way)
 division of citizens into strict classes
 police became the center of military might
 police recruited from general population, royal guards from noble sons
 military prefectures replaced by regional armies, became responsible for finances (from
678.)
 division of government into economic and political side (more form later)
 formation of Privy Council (Secret Chamber) for controlling the generals
 great success of the reforms in the beginning in every aspect (population, taxation, urbanization)
 increase in young state officials (Confucian examination system)
 both Changan and Luoyang function as capitals
 foreign relations
 Tang came to power because of east Turkish help
 conflicts after unification because of Sui pretenders
 invasions around 624. – came to Changan, but unsuccessful
 Tang succeeds in overthrowing the Turks in 629./630.
 wars with Turkestan from 639. – conquered by 640. with Uigur help
 Sassanid ruler asks for Chinese help in 638. against Arabs – rejected
 last Sassanid ruler accepted to Chinese court as a refugee
 war with Korea continued from Sui – successful in 661.
 minor conflict with Japan over Korea, but also the greatest period of influence on Japan
 Tibet grows and defeats China in 678., but destroyed in 699.
 Li Shimin successfully inherited his father's empire in 626. as emperor Taizong (height of Tang)
 third emperor Gaozong finalizes his father's conquests (649. – 683.)
 growth of commercialism and Western trade, foreign merchants (economic growth of China)
 first Jewish and Muslim traders in China
 Turks weekend because of Arab conquest in VII.c.
 Wu Zetian
 concubine of Taizong and Gaozong after his father's death
 buddhist monk that became empress with Gaozong in 655.
 gradually became more powerful then the emperor- placed son as successor in 680.
 chief regent after death of the emperor in 683.
 proclaims herself Empress of China in 690. before both sons – Zhou dynasty revived
 capital moved to Luoyang
 cooperation with Turks and eastern tribes
 promotion of Buddhism as a favor to the eastern nobility (temples, statues, shrines)
 khan of northern Turks wants to depose her and place Gaozong's heirs – war
 Wu Zetian yielded and accepted the heir of Gaozong as successor
 Cui family eliminated the supporters of Wu Zetian, she dies in 705.
 emperor Xuanzong comes to power in 713.
 culture
 rejuvenation of Tang culture and state after Wu Zetian
 flourishing of poetry and short stories
 poets: Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi, Yuan Zhen
 essayists: Han Yu, Liu Zongyuan
 no new forms, but old ones are perfected
 free versification – no fixed lengths of poem lines
 development of the theatre (opera) from religious games, bullfights, wrestling
 fine sculpture in bronze and stone, massive stone Buddha statues in mountains
 excellent fabric, porcelain and lacquer manufacturing
 main achievement in painting: Xie Hei (foundations), Wu Daozi, Wang Wei
 calligraphy as a part of poetry and paining
 greatly encouraged by Emperor Xuanzong
 first military conflict with Islam in 751. at Samarkand
 capital moved back to Changan
 Li Linfu exerts great influence on the emperor with concubine Yang

 An Lushan Rebellion
 military governer Al Lushan gains confidence of the Li family (Li Linfu)
 victory over Kitan in 744.
 conflict with Yang family after the death of Li Linfu
 An Lushan marched on Changan in 755., conquered Luoyang in 756. – Yan dynasty
 Tang sends Guo Ziyi and Turkish allies → An Lushan captures Changan and emperor
escapes with son Suzong to Shanxi
 An Lushan defeated in 757. near the capital by the Uigurs (looting of Luoyang)
 Turkish general Shi Siming continues An Lushan's rule – first victory then murdered by son
 Chinese – Uigur alliance turns on Tibet
 emperor became powerless and meaningless
 after the death of the emperor Suzong in 762. Tengri, Uigurs and Tibet fight for power in China
 eunuch and nobles fighting on court → poverty of the entire country
 Uigurs disintegrate by 832., Tibet by 842.
 administration banned foreign religion in 843., secularization of monasteries (financial benefit)
 taoism not affected by new religious laws until Buddhist circles gain court power in 846.
 nobility embraces Buddhist teaching in new forms as way of staying in power
 peasant revolts because of poverty
 in 860. one was crushed
 in 874. Wang Xianqi and Huang Chao lead a new revolt
 eastern provinces come into peasant and merchant hands
 administration gives weapons to the people, they turn on them and revolt
  Canton captured and burned, emperors family killed in Changan, he escapes to Sichuan
 Huan Chao killed by the Turks
 last years of Tang
 emperor returns to Changan in 885.
 fighting between Turkish leader Li Keyong and Zhu Quanzhong (follower of Huan Chao)
 both set up their own dynasties (Qi, later Liang)
 emperor and family killed by Zhu Quanzhong in 907.
 in the west (Sichuan) and southeast (Zhejiang) governers proclaim themselves emperors
 formation of 5 Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms