1) Statistics is the science concerned with developing and studying

methods for collecting, analyzing, interpreting and presenting empirical

data.

Statistics is a term used to summarize a process that an analyst uses to

characterize a data set. If the data set depends on a sample of a larger
population, then the analyst can develop interpretations about the population
primarily based on the statistical outcomes from the sample. Statistical analysis
involves the process of gathering and evaluating data and then summarizing the
data into a mathematical form.

Statistics is used in various disciplines such as psychology, business, physical

and social sciences, humanities, government, and manufacturing. Statistical data
is gathered using a sample procedure or other method. Two types of statistical
methods are used in analyzing data: descriptive statistics and inferential
statistics. Descriptive statistics are used to synopsize data from a sample
exercising the mean or standard deviation. Inferential statistics are used when
data is viewed as a subclass of a specific population.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

 Statistics studies methodologies to gather, review, analyze, and draw

conclusions from data.
 There are many different types of statistics pertaining to which situation
you need to analyze.
 Statistics are used to make better-informed business decisions.

the science of data. Involves collecting, classifying,

summarizing, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting
numerical information and categorical information

Descriptive Statistics
utilizes numerical and graphical methods to explore data,
i.e, to look for patterns in a data set, summarize the
information revealed in a data set, and to present the
information in a convenient form

Inferential Statistics
utilizes sample data to make estimate, decisions, predictions, and other generalizations about a larger
set of data

Experimental (Observed) Unit

an object upon which we collect data
Population
a set of units that we are interested in studying
Variable
a characteristic or property of an individual experimental unit
Sample
a subset of the units of a population
Statistical Inference
an estimate or prediction or some other generalization about a population based on
information contained in a sample
Measure of Reliability
a statement about the degree of uncertainty associated with a statistical inference
Process
a series of actions or operations that transforms inputs to outputs. A person produces or
generates output over time. Any set of output produced by a process is also called a
sample
Black Box
Any process whose operations or actions are unknown.
Quantitative Data
measurements that are recorded on a naturally occurring numerical scale
Qualitative Data
measurements that cannot be measured on a natural numerical scale, they can only be
classified into one of a group of categories
Representative Sample
exhibits characteristics typical of those possessed by the population of interest
Simple Random Sample
(of n experimental units) is a sample selected from the population in such a way that
every different sample of size n has an equal chance of selection
Selection Bias
results when a subset of experimental units in a population has little or no chance of
being selected for the sample
Nonresponse Bias
a type of selection bias that results when data on all experimental units in a sample are
not obtained
Measurement Error
inaccurate in the values of the data collected. May be due to ambiguous or leading
questions
Statistical thinking
involves applying rational thought and the science of statistics to critically assess data
and inferences.

Population

In statistics, population refers to the total set of observations that can be made.

For example, if we are studying the weight of adult women, the population is the set of
weights of all the women in the world. If we are studying the grade point average (GPA)
of students at Harvard, the population is the set of GPA's of all the students at Harvard.

Population vs Sample

The main difference between a population and sample has to do with how observations
are assigned to the data set.

 A population includes all of the elements from a set of data.

 A sample consists one or more observations drawn from the population.

Depending on the sampling method, a sample can have fewer observations than the
population, the same number of observations, or more observations. More than one
sample can be derived from the same population.

Other differences have to do with nomenclature, notation, and computations. For

example,

 A measurable characteristic of a population, such as a mean or standard deviation, is

called a parameter; but a measurable characteristic of a sample is called a statistic.
 We will see in future lessons that the mean of a population is denoted by the symbol μ;
but the mean of a sample is denoted by the symbol x.
 We will also learn in future lessons that the formula for the standard deviation of a
population is different from the formula for the standard deviation of a sample.
Sampling Techniques

Seema Singh

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Jul 26, 2018 · 6 min read

Sampling helps a lot in research. It is one of the most important

factors which determines the accuracy of your research/survey
result. If anything goes wrong with your sample then it will be
directly reflected in the final result. There are lot of techniques
which help us to gather sample depending upon the need and
situation. This blog post tries to explain some of those techniques.

To start with, let’s have a look on some basic terminology

Population

Sample

Sampling

Population is the collection of the elements which has some or the

other characteristic in common. Number of elements in the
population is the size of the population.

Sample is the subset of the population. The process of selecting a

sample is known as sampling. Number of elements in the sample
is the sample size.
Sampling

There are lot of sampling techniques which are grouped into two
categories as

 Probability Sampling
 Non- Probability Sampling
The difference lies between the above two is whether the sample
selection is based on randomization or not. With randomization,
every element gets equal chance to be picked up and to be part of
sample for study.

Probability Sampling

This Sampling technique uses randomization to make sure that

every element of the population gets an equal chance to be part of
the selected sample. It’s alternatively known as random sampling.
Simple Random Sampling

Stratified sampling

Systematic sampling

Cluster Sampling

Multi stage Sampling

Simple Random Sampling: Every element has an equal chance

of getting selected to be the part sample. It is used when we don’t
have any kind of prior information about the target population.

For example: Random selection of 20 students from class of 50

student. Each student has equal chance of getting selected. Here
probability of selection is 1/50
Single Random Sampling

Stratified Sampling

This technique divides the elements of the population into small

subgroups (strata) based on the similarity in such a way that the
elements within the group are homogeneous and heterogeneous
among the other subgroups formed. And then the elements are
randomly selected from each of these strata. We need to have prior
information about the population to create subgroups.
Stratified Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Our entire population is divided into clusters or sections and then

the clusters are randomly selected. All the elements of the cluster
are used for sampling. Clusters are identified using details such as
age, sex, location etc.

Cluster sampling can be done in following ways:

· Single Stage Cluster Sampling

Entire cluster is selected randomly for sampling.

Single Stage Cluster Sampling

· Two Stage Cluster Sampling

Here first we randomly select clusters and then from those

selected clusters we randomly select elements for sampling
Two Stage Cluster Sampling

Systematic Clustering

Here the selection of elements is systematic and not random

except the first element. Elements of a sample are chosen at
regular intervals of population. All the elements are put together
in a sequence first where each element has the equal chance of
being selected.
For a sample of size n, we divide our population of size N into
subgroups of k elements.

We select our first element randomly from the first subgroup of k

elements.

To select other elements of sample, perform following:

We know number of elements in each group is k i.e N/n

So if our first element is n1 then

Second element is n1+k i.e n2

Third element n2+k i.e n3 and so on..

Taking an example of N=20, n=5

No of elements in each of the subgroups is N/n i.e 20/5 =4= k

Now, randomly select first element from the first subgroup.

If we select n1= 3

n2 = n1+k = 3+4 = 7

n3 = n2+k = 7+4 = 11
Systematic Clustering

Multi-Stage Sampling

It is the combination of one or more methods described above.

Population is divided into multiple clusters and then these clusters

are further divided and grouped into various sub groups (strata)
based on similarity. One or more clusters can be randomly
selected from each stratum. This process continues until the
cluster can’t be divided anymore. For example country can be
divided into states, cities, urban and rural and all the areas with
similar characteristics can be merged together to form a strata.
Multi-Stage Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

It does not rely on randomization. This technique is more reliant

on the researcher’s ability to select elements for a sample.
Outcome of sampling might be biased and makes difficult for all
the elements of population to be part of the sample equally. This
type of sampling is also known as non-random sampling.

Convenience Sampling

Purposive Sampling

Quota Sampling

Referral /Snowball Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Here the samples are selected based on the availability. This

method is used when the availability of sample is rare and also
costly. So based on the convenience samples are selected.
For example: Researchers prefer this during the initial stages of
survey research, as it’s quick and easy to deliver results.

Purposive Sampling

This is based on the intention or the purpose of study. Only those

elements will be selected from the population which suits the best
for the purpose of our study.

For Example: If we want to understand the thought process of

the people who are interested in pursuing master’s degree then the
selection criteria would be “Are you interested for Masters in..?”

All the people who respond with a “No” will be excluded from our
sample.

Quota Sampling

This type of sampling depends of some pre-set standard. It selects

the representative sample from the population. Proportion of
characteristics/ trait in sample should be same as population.
Elements are selected until exact proportions of certain types of
data is obtained or sufficient data in different categories is
collected.

For example: If our population has 45% females and 55% males
then our sample should reflect the same percentage of males and
females.

Referral /Snowball Sampling

This technique is used in the situations where the population is
completely unknown and rare.

Therefore we will take the help from the first element which we
select for the population and ask him to recommend other
elements who will fit the description of the sample needed.

So this referral technique goes on, increasing the size of

population like a snowball.

Referral /Snowball Sampling

For example: It’s used in situations of highly sensitive topics like
HIV Aids where people will not openly discuss and participate in
surveys to share information about HIV Aids.

Not all the victims will respond to the questions asked so

researchers can contact people they know or volunteers to get in
touch with the victims and collect information

Helps in situations where we do not have the access to sufficient

people with the characteristics we are seeking. It starts with
finding people to study.

The two main variables in an experiment are the independent and dependent
variable.

An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a

scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable.

A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific

experiment.

The dependent variable is 'dependent' on the independent variable. As the

experimenter changes the independent variable, the effect on the dependent
variableis observed and recorded.

Independent and Dependent Variable Example

For example, a scientist wants to see if the brightness of light has any effect on a
moth being attracted to the light. The brightness of the light is controlled by the
scientist. This would be the independent variable. How the moth reacts to the
different light levels (distance to light source) would be the dependent variable.

How to Tell the Variables Apart

The independent and dependent variables may be viewed in terms of cause and
effect. If the independent variable is changed, then an effect is seen in the
dependent variable. Remember, the values of both variables may change in an
experiment and are recorded. The difference is that the value of the independent
variable is controlled by the experimenter, while the value of the dependent
variable only changes in response to the independent variable.

Remembering Variables With DRYMIX

When results are plotted in graphs, the convention is to use the independent
variable as the x-axis and the dependent variable as the y-axis. The DRY MIX
acronym can help keep the variables straight:

D is the dependent variable

R is the responding variable
Y is the axis on which the dependent or responding variable is graphed (the
vertical axis)

M is the manipulated variable or the one that is changed in an experiment

I is the independent variable
X is the axis on which the independent or manipulated variable is graphed (the
horizontal axis)

Independent vs Dependent Variable Key Takeaways

 The independent and dependent variables are the two key variables in a
science experiment.
 The independent variable is the one the experimenter controls. The
dependent variable is the variable that changes in response to the
independent variable.
 The two variables may be related by cause and effect. If the independent
variable changes, then the dependent variable is affected.