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Properties of ecosystems
2.Stability – the ability of an ecosystem to return to equilibrium
1. Productivity – amount of energy formed or rate of production following minor external forces/disturbance
or organic matter Ex. Temp, rainfall, soil water content
- Reciprocal of variability (1/CV)
Expressed in: no./mass/unit time/area (eg. No./kg./ha./yr.)
3. Sustainability - the ability of an ecosystem to return to
a)Primary productivity – rate at which radiant energy is equilibrium following major external forces/disturbance
stored by photosynthetic activity. Ex. Long drought, acidification of soil, salt intrusion,
typhoons, infestation
I)Gross primary productivity (GPP) – total rate of 4. Diversity – no. of species in an ecosystem
photosynthesis •More species, higher biological diversity, higher stability, higher
sustainability
II)Net primary productivity (NPP) – rate of storage of in
plant tissue in excess of respiration 5. Equitability – benefits of ecosystem are distributed among its
beneficiaries
•Energy available to the next trophic level •More members have access – higher equitability (and vice versa)
NPP = GPP – Resp.

Biogeophysical Processes on Earth

Solar Service type Examples of goods or services
What ecosystems can provide man? Capital
provided

•Food and fiber Fiber; Food; Freshwater; Fuel

Provisional wood and other essential
•Balanced CO2 – O2 atmosphere resources
•Climatic buffer provided by ocean Air
resources Climate
control
Recycling Climate regulation; Disease
and masses of vegetation
and vital
purification chemicals control and suppression of
Water Regulative
•Clean water resources
and
Renewable
energy
pathogens; Water purification
•Life-cycle resources purification resources and regulation
•Recreational and aesthetic needs Supporting Nutrient cycling; Primary
Soil
formation Natural Nonrenewable (processes) production; Soil formation
and Capital energy
renewal resources
Aesthetics; Cultural heritage and
sense of place; Educational;
Cultural
Waste
removal and Nonrenewable Recreational; Spiritual and
detoxification mineral
resources
religious
Natural Potentially
pest and renewable
disease
Biodiversity
matter Table 1: Classification of ecosystem services. Based on
and gene
control
pool
resources Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2003).

Hydrologic (Water) Cycle

Matter Cycling in Ecosystems

Biogeochemical cycles – global cycles recycle nutrients

through the air, land and water
 Cycles are driven directly or indirectly by solar
energy and gravity

>Hydrologic cycle (H2O)

>Carbon cycle
> Nitrogen cycle
>Phosphorus cycle

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Human Influence The Carbon Cycle (Marine)

on the Water Cycle
Based on Carbon Dioxide
 Water withdraw from lakes and streams
 Clear vegetation Terrestrial producers remove
CO2 from the air; aquatic
 Construct impervious surfaces producers remove it from the
water.
 Fill wetlands
Through photosynthesis,
 Modify water quality by adding nutrients Converts to carbohydrates.

O2 consuming producers
respire,breaking carbo-
hydrates back to CO2.

CO2 not released until burned.

The Carbon Cycle (Terrestrial) Human Influence on the

Carbon Cycle
 Clear trees and other plants, often times permanently
 Burning fossil fuels and wood
 Increased CO2 in the troposphere enhance natural
greenhouse effect
 Results in global warming

The Nitrogen Cycle Human Influence

Atmosphere’s most abundant
element.
on the Nitrogen Cycle
 Add large amounts of nitric oxide by burning fuel
Bacteria help recycle nitrogen.
Nitrogen cannot be used by plants  Gas converted to nitrogen dioxide gas and nitric
and animals without bacteria’s help. acid (acid rain)
 Add nitrous oxide through anaerobic bacteria
breaking down livestock wastes (global warming).
 Release nitrogen stored in soils and plants by
Waterlogged destroying forests, grasslands and wetlands.
soil
Ammonia not taken up by plants  Add excess nitrates for agriculture
Toxic to plants  Remove nitrogen from topsoils through harvesting
Usable by plants
various crops

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The Phosphorus Cycle Human Influence

Slow on the Phosphorus Cycle
Bacteria not a major player  We mine large quantities of phosphate rock to make
inorganic fertilizers.
Washes from the land into
streams, then the sea.  We reduce the available phosphate in tropical soils by
Can be deposited as sediment
clearing tropical forests.
and remain for millions of  We disrupt aquatic systems with phosphates from
years.
runoff of animal wastes and fertilizers, and sewage
Often a limiting factor for systems.
plant growth on land.

Also limits growth in lakes

And streams because
phosphate salts are only
slightly soluble in water.
Fig. 4-33 p. 82

Organization of the Environment

 Atmosphere
Abiotic Influences of an
 The biosphere is
the part of the
 Thin membrane of air
 Troposphere Ecosystem
Earth that  11 miles
 The two most
supports life.  Stratosphere
 Scattered  12-30 miles significant
throughout the abiotic
biosphere is a  Lower portion
wide range of (ozone) factors that
habitats– dry  filters out harmful
deserts, lush sun rays
influence life
rainforests, even
dark caves.  Allows life to exist in a biome are
 Each of these on earth temperature
areas, called  Lithosphere and
biomes, has its
own unique  Earth’s crust precipitation.
geography and  Hydrosphere
climate.  water
 Biosphere
 Living and dead
organisms

 As the latitude, or distance away from the equator

increases, average temperature tends to decrease.

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 As the altitude, or elevation from sea level increases,

average temperatures decrease.

 Latitude is measured in degrees north or south of

the equator.

 In addition to changing altitude, the presence of
mountains has a major influence on the distribution of
precipitation.
 As warm, moist air travels up a mountain range, the air
cools (due to altitude) and the moisture condenses.
 As a result, the windward side of the mountain facing
the incoming air currents receives disproportionately
more precipitation than the opposite, leeward side.
 This is called the rain shadow effect.

Ecosystems in Transition Altitude and latitude

 Biomes are dynamic – they change as the Earth
changes. This process is called succession.
 Organisms that thrive during the early stages of
succession are called pioneer species. Those only found
in later stages are called climax species.
 Ecosystem succession takes two forms, depending on
the starting point.

The two most important factors influencing vegetation in the

formation of biomes are precipitation and temperature.

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 Primary succession occurs when a new ecosystem Ecological Succession

develops where there was none before.
 A combination of wind, water, and pioneer species such
Primary Succession
as lichens break down rock into soil.
 Once the soil has enough organic matter, small plants
and shrubs can be supported. Over time, trees spout
and become dominant.

Exposed Lichens
rocks and mosses

Balsam fir,
paper birch, and
Jack pine, white spruce
black spruce, climax community
Small herbs Heath mat and aspen
and shrubs

Time

Fig. 8.15, p. 188

 Secondary succession occurs following the disruption

Secondary Succession
of an existing ecosystem.
 Fire, flood, volcanic eruption, clear-cutting, etc.
 This form of ecological succession does not take as
long. Soil is already in place, and pioneer species
appear within days or weeks.

Mature oak-hickory forest

Young pine forest
Perennial Shrubs
Annual weeds and
weeds grasses
Time

Ocean and Lake Effects

 Biomes located near a large body of water often
have greater precipitation levels and milder, more
stable temperatures.
 Water gains and loses
heat much more slowly
than air.
 The nearby water
evaporates and fuels
incoming storm
systems.
Vegetation map of the world. Source: NASA and NOAA.

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Terrestrial Ecosystem
Climatographs Forests - is a biological community dominated by trees
 A climatograph is a
combination Ecological roles :
precipitation and  major role is in the hydrologic cycle
temperature graph for  intercept rainfall, regulate leaching and runoff
a given biome. evapotranspiration
 The average montly  stabilize the soil and cycle of OM
precipitation for the  influence the ambient temperature
area is displayed as a  “purify” the air by producing O2 that is important
bar graph. for animal life and fixing CO2
 The average monthly
temperature is
displayed as a line
graph.

Forests  Tropical rainforests receive the greatest amount of

rainfall of any other biome and are consistently warm.
 Forest biomes receive much  Few abiotic limiting factors for plant growth.
more consistent precipitation  Rainforests are so dense with life that they are divided
than deserts and grasslands, into four
allowing them to support layers:
hardwood trees.  Emergent layer
 Canopy
 Understory
 Forest Floor

 The emergent layer and canopy contains the majority TRF

of the fruit, leaves, and flowers of the trees.  most massive, most diverse and most productive
 Most of the animal life is also found in the canopy.  generally found in lowlands with well-drained soils
 annual rainfall is very high ( 1,800mm)
 temperature is generally high ( mean over 18 0 C)

Composition:

 very rich flora and fauna

Iguaçu Falls,
border of
60-200 sps of tree/ha
Brazil, More animals than plants
Argentina,  high diversity of plants, low dominance (<15%)
and Bolivia.

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Why so diverse? Dynamics : TRF is a climax vegetation and it is in a

 it is located near/ close to the equator
 edaphic diversity
 formation of large biomass of trees
 a very important concept on forest ecosystem is high
diversity this attribute reduces the probability of pop’n
outbreaks in any ecosystem
Very important component in designing stable
ecosystem
state of dynamic equilibrium
Nutrient Cycling: generally very low in fertility because
most of the nutrients are already locked in the tree
biomass in the form of wood
- the rate of nutrient absorption is governed by the
rapid decomposition of litter
- closed nutrient cycling system ( one of the reasons
why harvesting timber is lethal on forest ecosystem)

- despite their biological diversity and stability, TRF

are actually the most fragile terrestrial ecosystem

Tropical Forest: Vertical stratification with trees in canopy

blocking light to bottom strata. Many trees covered by
epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants).

Forest cover in the

Philippines declined
from 21 million
hectares, or 70% of
the its land area, in
1900 to about 6.5
million hectares by
2007. This data is
very similar that to the
U.N. FAO, which is
usually based on
government data.
Both the government
and the FAO show an
increase in overall
forest cover since
1990.

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FAO estimated that forest cover in the Philippines declined by an

average of about 54,750 hectares per year between 1990 and 2010.
Hansen puts the figure at about 51,400 ha per year between 2001 and
2012, increasingly slightly over the period

TRF in the Philippines TRF in the Philippines

 Bohol, Mindanao and
Palawan
tarsier


Philippine Eagle

Bangkong
Kahoy Mt. Bandilaan
The Vine
Malabayabas

Grasslands Grasslands
 Grasslands receive more
precipitation and cooler
temperatures than deserts.
 With water being less of a
limiting factor, more biomass is
found here than in deserts.

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 Tropical grasslands, also called savannas, are located near
the equator, usually between desert and rainforest
biomes.
 Savannas have consistent temperatures. The seasons are
instead based on precipitation.
 Temperate grasslands, called prairies in North
America, are farther away from the equator and
experience seasonal temperature shifts.

 Prairie plants have adapted to the cold winter and  Polar grasslands, also called tundra, are below freezing
frequent absence of precipitation by developing root most of the year.
systems that can be several feet deep.  Limiting factor is temperature.
 This enables  Due to the short growing season, only the top layer of
prairie plants soil actually thaws and can support plant life.
to recover
 The rest is permafrost.
quickly from
drought or
wildfire,
while the slow
growing trees
cannot.

 There is a growing season in the tundra, but it is only a few
months long.
 Only lichens, herbs, and other small plants survive there.
 Grassland vegetation types in RP
 Imperata cylindrica – cogon most extensive
 Themeda triandra - bagocboc
 Cuppillepedium parviflorum – misamis grass
 Chrysopogon aciculatus - amorseco
 Chrysopogon contortus – spear grass
 Schohorum spontaneum – talahib

 Seeds
 Prolific reproducers
 Seed widely dispersed by wind
 Seeds remain viable in soil
 Seed production encouraged by physical attack on
plant
Tundra: Permafrost (Permanent frozen ground), bitter cold,
high winds and thus no trees. Has 20% of land surface on
53
earth.

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cogon amorseco bagocboc

talahib

Factors affecting the expansion of Phil grassland

 Rhizomes
> mismanagement of TRF
 Can remain dormant
> swidden farming
 Extensive and prolific
> repeated occurrence of fire
 Ability to impact other crops
 Highly flammable
Interacting factors : pop’n growth, system of land
 Fast growth rate
holding, unemployment, declining of arable land
 Large biomass production
per farmer in lowland
 Susceptibility
 Intolerant to shade
Economic significance: source of subsistence esp for
 Susceptible to herbicide
low-income people

Agroforestry – a practice that maintains

a large portion of forest than the agricultural
land

 Assisted Natural Regeneration

(ANR)
- the human protection and
preservation of natural tree seedlings in DESERT
forested areas

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Deserts
 Lowest moisture levels of all
ecosystems.
 Precipitation is infrequent
and unpredictable.
 The lack of water is a major
limiting factor for plant
growth.
 The lack of plants, in turn, is
a limiting factor for any
other consumer or
decomposer.
Desert: Sparse rainfall (< 30 cm per year), plants and
animals adapted for water storage and conservation. Can
be either very, very hot, or very cold (e.g. Antarctica)

 Subtropical deserts are usually located in the interior of  Rain shadow deserts are formed primarily due to their
continents, far from sources of moisture. position on the leeward side of a large mountain range.
 Wind patterns also prevent any moisture from collecting.
 The Gobi desert
 The Sahara falls on the
Desert in leeward side of
Africa and the Himalayan
the Great mountains.
Australian
Desert are
examples.

Kalahari Desert, Botswana, Africa

64

 The Atacama Desert in Chile is

the driest place on Earth,
 Midlatitude, or temperate deserts fall in higher
outside of Antarctica.
latitudes, between 40 and 60 degrees.
 Some weather stations have
 This means much more temperature variability,
never recorded any rainfall!
including different seasons.
 This is a coastal desert. The
 Temperate deserts receive somewhat more
ocean water cools the air so
precipitation than subtropical deserts, supporting
much that it is unable to hold
plants adapted to the climate.
moisture well.
 The Andes Mountains form a
 The Sonoran Desert in the southwestern United States
rain shadow effect on the is an example.
opposite side.

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 Many temperate desert plants are succulents, meaning  Polar deserts consistently experience temperatures below
they have thickened, fleshy parts for storing water. freezing.
 Succulent plants also grow very slowly.  The little precipitation that falls takes the form of ice or
snow.
 The Saguaro cactus
grows 75 years  Most of the
before sprouting interior of
its first arm! Antarctica
is considered
a polar desert.

Saguaro cacti, Carnegiea gigantea 250 year-old mummified seal carcass.

Sonoran Desert, Arizona, USA. McMurdo Dry Valley, Antarctica.

Chaparral: Dense, spiny, evergreen shrubs, mild Temperate Grassland: Marked by seasonal drought and fires,
rainy winters; long, hot, dry summers. Periodic fires, and grazing by large animals. Rich habitat for agriculture,
some plants require fire for seeds to germinate. very little prairie exists in US today.

 Temperate deciduous forests, located at higher

latitudes, experience a winter that reaches below
freezing.
 Like rainforests, these mostly contain broadleaf trees
which are well-suited for absorbing sunlight.
 They are divided into the same layers – canopy,
understory, and forest floor.
 The growth is not constant, so the soil is actually much deeper
and richer.

Temperate Deciduous Forest: Mid-latitudes with moderate

amounts of moisture, distinct vertical strata: trees,
understory shrubs, herbaceous sub-stratum. Loss of leaves
in cold, many animals hibernate or migrate then. Original
forests lost from North America by logging and clearing.

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 Winter poses a problem for these trees – the air is too  Temperate rainforests
dry for the trees to survive with their leaves intact. receive a comparable
 Deciduous trees adapt by shedding leaves when water is amount of precipitation
scarce or ground is frozen. to tropical ones, but are in
higher latitudes.
 One example is the
Northern Pacific coast of
the United States and
Canada, which has two
geographic advantages:
Dandenong  Located on the windward
Ranges, side of the Olympic
Australia. mountain range.
 Receives constant
moisture from the wind
currents off the Pacific
ocean. Issaquah, Washington,
United States

 Boreal forests, also called

taiga, are found throughout
the far northern latitudes.
 These forests are
characterized by coniferous
trees, which are much more
well-adapted to the long,
cold, dry winters.
 Needle-shaped leaves have a
waxy coating that retains
moisture in the winter.
 Cone shape allows
accumulated snow to slide to
the ground. Fairbanks, Alaska, United States. Coniferous forest: Largest terrestial biome on earth, old
growth forests rapidly disappearing, usually receives lots
of moisture as rain or snow.

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