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1. Introduction
Disadvantages
Solidly earthed
Line to earth fault causes loss of supply
Line to ground fault current may be high enough
to cause damage
Unearthed
Line to line fault current may be low and may not
trip protection
May have prolonged arc faults and associated
damage
Line to line voltage is imposed on phase
insulation if an earth fault occurs
Overvoltages may cause increased insulation
stress if there is an earth fault
Finding faults may be difficult
Regular maintenance is required
3. Personnel Protection
(i) TT
(iia) TN-C (iib) TN-S (iic) TN-C-S
(iii) IT
current
equipotentials
streamlines
ρ ⎡ ⎛ 4L ⎞ ⎤
R= ⎢ln ⎜ ⎟ − 2⎥ ohms
2π L ⎣ ⎝ r0 ⎠ ⎦
ρ ⎛ 1 1⎞ ρI ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
R(r ) = ⎜ − ⎟ and V (r ) = ⎜ − ⎟
2π ⎝ r0 r ⎠ 2π ⎝ r0 r ⎠
R⎛ r⎞ s s
Req = ⎜1 + 2 ⎟ ohms
3⎝ s⎠ s
⎡ r 2r 2 ⎤
1+ −
R ⎢ 2s s 2 ⎥
Req = ⎢ ⎥ ohms
3 ⎢ 1 − 7r ⎥
⎢⎣ 6s ⎥⎦
A B C
RA RB RB RC
R1 R2
R3
R1 = RA + RB ⎫
⎪ R1 − R2 + R3
R2 = RB + RC ⎬ ⇒ RA =
⎪ 2
R3 = RA + RC ⎭
AC supply ammeter I
voltmeter
RA
A B C
IT
1000Ω 1000Ω
IS
VTOUCH
3ρ Ω 3ρ Ω 3ρ Ω 3ρ Ω
VSTEP
(b) Step
Rstep = (1000 + 6 ρ ) Ω
Vstep
Vstep = (1000 + 6 ρ ) I s ⇒ Is =
(1000+6ρ )
This assumes bare feet or conducting footwear.
0.16
Vstep = 1600 ×
t
= 256V ( t = 1s )
= 148V ( t = 3s )