Logging while drilling (LWD)

What is logging while drilling

Logging while drilling (LWD) is downhole measurement of the formation’s electric, nuclear and acoustic
properties. Formation characterisations found by LWD are:

• Porosity
• Water saturation
• Residual oil saturation
• Probable recovery
• Permeability
• Lithology
• Density
• Fluid identification
• Fractures
• Rock mechanical property estimates
• Pore pressure prediction

How it works
The measurements are performed perpendicular to the borehole. Data is normally sent to the surface by
mud pulse telemetry for processing. Evaluation of the measurement to determine formation characterisation
is called formation evaluation. Properties may be found by evaluating single measurements or by combining
results from different measurements. There is overlap between the measurement principles, thus different
measurement principles may be used to measure the same formation property. Traditional well logging is
executed by wireline operations after the drillstring has been pulled out of hole.
Advantages
Advantages with LWD are:
Formation evaluation
Real-time correlation and evaluation allow coring and casing point selection. Logging before extensive mud
invasion occur, may reveal hydrocarbon zones, that can be saturated with borehole fluid by the time wireline
logs are run.
Multiple-pass logging
Comparison logs made at different times can help distinguish pay zones from water zones, locate fluid
contacts and identify true formation resistivity. Permeable zones may be identified from time-lapse filtrate
movement.
Insurance logging
Logs obtained while drilling provide contingency data in case the well is lost or when conditions create bore
holes that yield poor quality wireline logs.
Cost reduction
Running wireline tools in high-deviation wells requires conveyance by drill pipe or tractor. In some cases,
these wells can be logged by LWD tools while or immediately after drilling. Rig time will be saved offshore.
Geo-steering
By comparing real time data and to an expected model, the well bore trajectory is modified, thereby placing
the well in the most productive portion of the pay zone.
Resistivity and gamma ray (GR) are typical used. Gamma ray is used to detect contrasting bed boundaries
and fluid contacts.
Logging principles
An introduction to downhole measurement principles follow.
Acoustic
Acoustic logging is based on the propagation of elastic vibrations through formation, mud cake and the mud.
There are two types of acoustic waves. Compressional (longitudinal) waves called P-waves and shear
(transverse) waves called S-waves. In compressional vibrations the particles vibrate along the same
direction as the wave propagation. In shear vibrations the particles vibrate in a direction perpendicular to
that of propagation. The velocity of the propagation depends on the elastic parameters of the medium and
its density. Solid mediums have both compressional and share waves. Share waves does not exist in liquids
and gases (share waves may exist in the border between liquid and gas like waves on the sea).
Acoustic logging tools have a transmitter and several receivers. The receivers are interested in the waves
refracted from the formation and the eigenmodes. The wave trains used are repeated 10 to 20 times per
second. Note that the acoustic response will be influenced by cracks near the well bore. Acoustic
measurements may give information about:

• Porosity
• Lithology (in combination with gamma ray)
• Fracture detection
• Rock mechanical property estimates
• Pore pressure detection (increased pore pressure Þ decreased sound velocity)

Acoustic waves can be divided into categories:

Wave type Typical requency Travel range Resolution

Seismic 10Hz to 200Hz Kilometers Poor

Sonic 20Hz to 20kHz Meters (audibly) Medium

Ultra sonic >20kHz Centimeters High

Gamma ray (GR)
Natural radiation is found in the ground due to disintegration of radioactive formations. Active radiation
sources integrated in tools are also widely applied. Of the three nuclear radiations alfa, beta and gamma,
only gamma can be used in well logging because it has sufficient penetrating power to go through the
formation and the steel casing. There are several types of gamma ray logs:

• Conventional gamma ray log

• Spectral gamma ray log
• Density log
• Litho-density log

Conventional gamma ray log is an overall measurement of radiation coming from the formation typically 15
to 25 cm around the well. Coal is a non-radioactive formation. Sand, limestone and dolomite have a weak
radioactive radiation. Shale/clay is a radioactive formation. Volcanic ash and disintegrated granite can cause
high radioactivity. Spectral gamma ray log is used to identify the amount of each radioactive element
present in the formation. Density log has integrated the gamma ray source into the tool. A counter closed to
the source picks up gamma rays diffused by the formation towards the borehole. The signal observed is
related to the density of the formation. The investigation radius is about 15 cm. Litho-density log has
integrated the gamma ray source into the tool. A counter closed to the source picks up a selection of low-
energy gamma rays, which have not been photoelectric absorbed by the formation. The absorption is linked
to the atomic number of the nucleus, thus the lithology. Gamma ray measurements can thus
give information about:
 • Overall formation radiation
• Each radioactive element
• Density of the formation
• Litholog

Neutron
High-speed neutrons are emitted by a radioactive source or by particle accelerators. Collision with atom
nucleuses in the formation slows the neutrons down. Hydrogen nucleus is among the most effective since
the mass is almost identical to the mass of the neutron. The slow neutron is captured by an atom, which
emits a “capture” gamma ray. There are several types of neutron logs:

• Conventional neutron log

• Pulse neutron log
• Neutron spectroscopy

In the conventional neutron log, the travel distance of the neutron before slowed down varies with the
amount of hydrogen present, i.e. the porosity of the formation. High porosity filled with water or oil results
in short travel distance before slow down. The investigation radius is about 20 cm. Pulse neutron log may
also be used to determine density and water saturation, the same as resistivity. The investigation radius is
about 20 cm in a 30% porosity formation. Neutron spectroscopy logis collects three different gamma rays
that are produced by the interaction of neutrons with the nucleus of atoms, providing an analysis of
formation elements. The neutron measurements can thus give information about:

• Porosity
• Water saturation
• Formation elements

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

Certain nucleuses have a “spin” which may be thought of as a small magnetic field with a north and south
pole. The hydrogen nucleus, composed of a single proton, has this spin property. When the proton is placed
in an external magnetic field, it will align itself with the external field like a magnet. There is a low-energy
state where the poles are aligned N-S-N-S and a high-energy state where the poles are aligned N-N-S-S.
Nuclear magnetic resonance in logging tools puts focus on hydrogen. Hydrogen exists in water as well as
hydrocarbon and the response is good. The tool has a static magnetic field exposed to a second oscillating
magnetic field. The oscillating magnetic field is used to turn the protons. When this field is shut off, the
protons turn back, and the time response in is recorded. Nuclear magnetic resonance is a direct
measurement compared to other logging methods and will give information about:

• Free fluid in the pores

• Fluid identification (oil, water)
• Porosity
• Pore size distribution
• Permeability estimate

Typical rate of penetration is 2 – 3“ into the formation. The response will be influenced by cracks near the
well bore. NMR may also be used for imaging. By using NMR spectroscopy also other nucleus than hydrogen
may be detected. The NMR response is affected by several factors like pressure, temperature, cracks and
mud filtration.

Resistivity
Porous geological formations all contain various amounts of saltwater and clay, which provide electrical
conductivity. The conductivity increases with increased concentration of salt and heat. Resistivity is the
inverse of conductivity, and expressed as Ωm. There two main types of resistivity logs are laterolog and
induction log. Laterolog is a preferred resistivity log, but can only be used in conductive drilling fluid.
Laterolog can thus only be used in water based drilling fluid. The investigation radii depend on several
factors like the distance between sender and receiver. Induction logs are using electromagnetic induction
principles for the measurement of formation conductivity or resistivity and can be used in non-conductive
drilling fluid. Induction log can thus be used in both water based and oil based drilling fluid. Resistivity
measurements may give information about:

• Porosity
• Water saturation
• Residual oil saturation
• Probable recovery
• Fluid contacts
• Contrasting bed boundaries

Other
Other sources to determine formation characters are mud and cutting analysis and measurement while
drilling (MWD).