M

CASE HISTORIES any different metals and alloys

have been found to undergo

Stress
stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
under certain conditions. Sev-
eral factors have been found to affect stress
corrosion crack propagation rate in a
susceptible metal or alloy, including solu-

Corrosion
tion concentration, temperature, pH,
turbulence conditions, and flow velocity.1
Although the mechanical and chemical
processes involved in SCC are complex

Cracking
and difficult to positively identify, several
different crack initiation and propagation
models have been proposed.
In any event, however, proper identi-
fication of the root cause of any failure is

of Various
of great importance for the practical ap-
plication of corrective measures. The use
of a systematic approach in any such in-
vestigation will minimize the likelihood

Alloys—Part 1
that critical features will be overlooked.
SCC produces certain characteristic fea-
tures that can be recognized by an expe-
rienced analyst during a failure investiga-
tion, although these features will vary
S.J. SUESS, Stork Technimet, Inc., New Berlin, Wisconsin depending on the material, stress level,
and environment.
Following are three case histories de-
scribing various aspects of SSC.

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) can lead to rapid Discolored Stainless

Steel Ladder Tube
and catastrophic failure in many different metals A type 304 stainless steel (SS) (UNS
S30400) tube section, which was ex-
and alloys. Failures often occur with little or no tracted from a ladder, showed signs of
discoloration and deterioration after
prior warning. A systematic approach is needed to ~30 years in service. The ladder was in-
stalled in a processing tank that contained
a fairly acidic corn syrup product, and
evaluate any failure and identify its cause. Te case was occasionally steam cleaned.

histories in this article illustrate features that are Visual Inspection

The tube section exhibited dark dis-
commonly evident in various materials that coloration over the outer diameter.
Higher magnification study revealed
experience SCC. clear evidence of branched cracks. The
inner diameter surface exhibited adher-
ent dark deposits, which were likely in-
74 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE August 2007
 M AT E R I A L S S E L E C T I O N & D E S I G N

FIGURE 1

dicative of residual corn syrup. Figure 1

shows a typical opened crack, where a
brown discoloration was noted.

Chemical Analysis
The chemical composition of the tube
was characterized via inductively coupled
plasma/atomic emission spectroscopy
(ICP/AES) and a combustion/IR tech-
nique. The composition of the tube was
found to be consistent with the require-
ments of the specified SS type.

Scanning Electron Microscopy

and Energy Dispersive
X-ray Spectroscopy
Further examination of the opened
crack, illustrated in Figure 1, was con-
ducted using a scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) equipped with an energy
dispersive x-ray spectrometer (EDS).
Most of the fracture was found to contain
adherent deposits. A relatively clean area
of the crack surface was found where the
feathery features are consistent with
transgranular SCC in an austenitic SS.
Three areas of the fracture containing
deposits were identified as Locations FA,
FB, and FC. These three areas were ana-
lyzed via EDS along with a freshly ground
A typical opened crack through the tube wall exhibits brown discoloration.
area of the base metal for comparison
purposes. The iron, manganese, chro-
mium, nickel, and silicon that were de-
tected in the base metal are typical for the
SS type. All three fracture locations were
found to contain the base metal elements,
in addition to varying amounts of chlo-
rine, carbon, and oxygen. Additionally,
low levels of sodium and sulfur were de-
tected at Location FA, and low levels of
copper and sulfur were found at Location
FB. The carbon and oxygen may be in-
dicative of trace levels of organic residues,
although some of the oxygen may also be
in the form of oxidation products from
corrosion of the fracture surface. The
chlorine, in particular, is likely indicative
of chlorides, and aqueous chlorides are
known to produce SCC in austenitic
stainless steels that are subjected to sus-
tained mechanical and/or residual
stresses under certain conditions.

FIGURE 2

(a) (b)
Metallographic study of the ladder tube revealed a microstructure of austenite grains and annealing twins with numerous
branched stress corrosion cracks.

August 2007 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE 75

M AT E R I A L S S E L E C T I O N & D E S I G N Stress Corrosion Cracking of Various Alloys

FIGURE 3

outer diameter. Analysis of the crack sur-

face revealed evidence of chlorides, and
aqueous chlorides are known to cause SCC
in austenitic stainless steels under certain
conditions. No anomalies were found in
the chemical composition of the tube. Al-
though the exact source of the chlorides
was not positively identified, it is suspected
that the damage may have been caused by
the acidic corn syrup product itself, or pos-
sibly during a cleaning process.

Fractured Stainless Steel

Lighting Fixture Stem
A stem from an electrical lighting fix-
ture assembly had separated while it was
The lighting fixture stem exhibits red rust with jagged cracks that resulted in in service. The fixture was used in a nata-
separation adjacent to the swivel ball. torium, and suspended lights over a swim-
ming pool containing chlorinated water.
The stem was reportedly manufactured
Metallography The cracks appear to have emanated from from type 304L SS (UNS S30403).
A metallographic cross section was the outer diameter of the tube, and some
prepared through a discolored and cracked of the cracks had completely propagated Visual Inspection
area of the tube to facilitate examination through the tube wall. Figure 3 shows the damaged end of
of the profile. This area exhibits a micro- the stem where jagged cracks exhibiting
structure of austenite grains and annealing Conclusions red rust are evident. The mating sections
twins, with a myriad of branched inter- The findings indicate that the discolor- of the stem contain significant amounts
granular and transgranular stress corro- ation and deterioration of the ladder tube of red rust, and similar rust was noted on
sion cracks (Figure 2). The microstructure were caused by intergranular and trans- the surface of the attached swivel ball.
is consistent with an annealed condition. granular SCC, which emanated from the Several branched cracks were evident on

FIGURE 4

(a) (b)

SEM study of the cleaned fracture through the lighting stem revealed features that are characteristic of transgranular SCC in
an austenitic SS.

76 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE August 2007

 M AT E R I A L S S E L E C T I O N & D E S I G N

FIGURE 5

(a) (b)

The exterior (a) and interior (b) surfaces of the radiator are shown, and exhibit severe discoloration.

the crack surface along with adherent red under ultrasonic agitation, and was during condensation from the humid
rust deposits. then studied via SEM. Although most atmosphere above the chlorinated swim-
of the original details had been obliter- ming pool. No anomalies were found in
Chemical Analysis ated by post-fracture corrosion, feathery the chemical composition of the tube, and
The composition of the stem was de- features were noted at some areas the microstructure was indicative of an-
termined via ICP/AES and a combus- (Figure 4). These features are character- nealed material. In this instance, alterna-
tion/IR technique. The composition was istic of transgranular SCC in an austen- tive materials were recommended for use
found to be consistent with the require- itic SS. in this application, as austenitic stainless
ments for the specified type 304L SS steels are subject to SCC in this service
(UNS S30403). Metallography environment while under conditions of
A metallographic cross section was sustained tensile stress.
Energy Dispersive prepared through a typical cracked area
X-ray Spectroscopy of the stem. The observed microstructure Brass Radiator Leak
A typical discolored area of the frac- of austenite grains and annealing twins is A radiator had developed leaks in the
ture was analyzed using EDS. A freshly consistent with an annealed condition, tank during endurance testing within a
ground area of the base metal was also and several branched transgranular stress vehicle. The radiator tank was reportedly
analyzed for comparison purposes. The corrosion cracks are evident. Most of the made from a 70-30 brass, although no
elements that were detected within the cracks appear to have emanated from the particular specification was provided.
base metal are typical for type 304L SS. outer diameter of the stem.
The fracture surface was found to Visual Inspection
contain the base metal elements along Conclusions Figure 5 shows a corroded section of
with relatively high levels of carbon and The findings indicate that separation the radiator. The interior and exterior
oxygen, a moderate level of chlorine, and of the lighting fixture assembly occurred surfaces of the radiator exhibit severe
lower amounts of aluminum, calcium, from transgranular SCC of the SS stem. discoloration. Cracks were noted in the
copper, zinc, and sulfur. The chlorine is The cracking appears to have emanated tank, adjacent to the large tube in the
likely indicative of chlorides, and the primarily from the outer diameter, and section, and a typical crack is depicted in
carbon and oxygen are likely in the form that surface would experience signifi- Figure 6. The opened fracture exhibits
of organic substances and oxidation cantly more exposure to the general na- large intergranular facets.
products. tatorium environment than the inner
diameter surface because of the design of Chemical Analysis and
Scanning Electron Microscopy the assembly. A typical area of the crack Tensile Testing
An additional fractured section was was found to contain a relatively high The composition of the radiator tank
cleaned using a mild alkaline detergent level of chlorides, which likely deposited was determined via ICP/AES and a

August 2007 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE 77

M AT E R I A L S S E L E C T I O N & D E S I G N Stress Corrosion Cracking of Various Alloys

FIGURE 6

(a) (b)

The area of the radiator tank adjacent to the large tube (a) exhibits discoloration with a crack, and the opened fracture
(b) shows large intergranular facets.

FIGURE 7

(a) (b) (c)

Metallographic evaluation of a typical cracked area of the radiator shell revealed evidence of secondary intergranular and
transgranular stress corrosion cracks (arrows).

combustion/IR technique. The composi-
tion was found to be consistent with the
requirements for cartridge brass per
ASTM B 19-05.2 The tensile properties
of the tank were found to be consistent
with the Condition H01 requirements.
Energy Dispersive
X-ray Spectroscopy
The fracture and interior shell sur-
faces were analyzed for elemental com-
position using EDS. The fracture surface
was found to contain relatively high
78 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE August 2007
levels of copper and zinc, a moderate
level of oxygen, and lower amounts of
iron, silicon, aluminum, calcium, silver,
lead, sulfur, and carbon. The copper and
zinc are likely from the underlying base
metal, while the remaining elements are
indicative mostly of foreign deposits,
including oxidation products and re-
sidual solder from an adjacent tube joint.
The interior surface of the tank was
found to contain high amounts of copper
and oxygen, with moderate levels of
zinc, lead, carbon, and chlorine, and low
amounts of silicon, aluminum, sulfur,
and tin. The chlorine is indicative of
chlorides.
Scanning Electron Microscopy
The fracture through the tank was
studied via SEM after cleaning. Scanning
electron micrographs showed that the
features are consistent with a mixture of
intergranular and transgranular SCC in
cartridge brass. The intergranular facets
are consistent with those that were ob-
served during the visual inspection.
 M AT E R I A L S S E L E C T I O N & D E S I G N

Metallography Case Study Conclusions

A metallographic cross section was pre- SCC has been documented to occur
pared through a typical fractured area of in many different materials under a wide
the radiator tank. Figure 7 shows the frac- variety of conditions. The use of a system-
ture profile, where intergranular and trans- atic approach will greatly aid in the cor-
granular cracks appear to have emanated rect identification of the physical cause of
from the interior surface. The features are any failure, and proper execution of a
consistent with SCC in cartridge brass. comprehensive failure analysis will
greatly aid in characterizing the pre-
Microhardness Testing dominant failure mode. When SCC is
Various locations in the vicinity of the identified as a significant contributor to a
fracture through the tank were evaluated failure, an understanding of the compo-
for microhardness. The heat-affected zone nent material properties and service en-
(HAZ) was found to have a substantially vironment will help facilitate compilation
higher equivalent Rockwell hardness than of appropriate and effective corrective
the base metal, suggesting the material measures.
within the HAZ to be more rigid than the
surrounding base metal, as a result of local- Acknowledgments
ized severe heating during the brazing The author would like to acknowledge
process. Because of this, the braze joint Craig Brown, Julius Sims, and Brett
would likely be less able to relieve appliedMiller of Stork Technimet, Inc., for their
and residual stresses via deformation, and contributions to the case studies that are
would thus be more prone to SCC due to contained in this article. It should be
stress concentration effects. noted that Brett Miller is currently em-
ployed as Laboratory Director at IMR
Conclusions Metallurgical Services in Louisville,
The findings of this study show that the Kentucky.
radiator tank underwent intergranular
and transgranular SCC adjacent to the
References
tube braze joint, and cracking initiated at 1 ASM Handbook, Vol. 13A (Materials
Park, OH: ASM International, 2003),
the interior surface. The interior tank p. 346-366.
surface showed possible evidence of sulfur- 2 ASTM B 19, “Standard Specification
bearing and chloride-containing com- for Cartridge Brass Sheet, Strip, Plate,
pounds, as determined via EDS, and such Bar, and Disks (Blanks)” (West
Conshohocken, PA: ASTM, 1995).
compounds have been found to initiate
SCC in copper alloys. SCC is most com- Technical Editor’s Note: This article
monly caused in copper alloys by nitro- is excerpted from CORROSION/2007 paper no.
gen-bearing compounds; however, such 07RTS2, presented in Nashville, Tennessee. Addi-
compounds are not detectable using the tional case histories from this paper will be published
EDS technique. The microhardness in the September 2007 issue of MP.
within the HAZ of the tube braze joint STEVEN J. SUESS is a senior metallurgist at Stork Techni-
appears to have been increased because of met, Inc., 3200 S. 166th St., New Berlin, WI 53151. He
performs metallurgical failure analysis, materials consul-
the brazing process, and this may have tation, engineering evaluation, and electrochemical corro-
increased the propensity of this zone to sion testing. A 12-year member of NACE, Suess is a regis-
tered professional engineer in the state of Wisconsin and
SCC due to stress concentration effects. a NACE-certified Materials Selection & Design Specialist.
No anomalies were noted in the chemical He is chair of the NACE Wisconsin Section, past chair of
composition or bulk mechanical proper- the ASM International Milwaukee Chapter, received the
ASM Milwaukee Chapter President’s Pin in 1999 and
ties of the radiator tank. 2007, and has authored several publications.

August 2007 MATERIALS PERFORMANCE 79