Chapter 1: History

and Approaches

Key Terms, Concepts, and People

Psychology Behavior Mind

Eclectic approach Dualism Empiricism

Materialism Structuralism Introspection

Structuralism Functionalism Gestalt psychology

Biological psychology Behaviorism Classical conditioning

Stimuli Responses Operant conditioning

Reinforcement Behavior modification Cognitive psychology

Humanistic psychology Self-actualization Unconditional positive

regard

Psychodynamic approach Unconscious mind Conscious mind

Repressed Dream analysis Free association

Sociocultural approach Evolutionary psychology Natural selection

Biopsychosocial approach Clinical psychology Counseling psychology

Developmental psychology Educational psychology Experimental psychology

Human factors psychology Industrial-organizational psychology

Personality psychology Psychometric psychology Social psychology

Key People: Mary Whiton Calkins, Charles Darwin, Dorothea Dix, Sigmund Freud, G.
Stanley Hall, William James, Ivan Pavlov, Jean Piaget, Carl Rogers, B.F. Skinner, Margaret
Floy Washburn, John B. Watson, Wilhelm Wundt

Chapter 1: History and Approaches 15

 Overview
Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior. Behavior refers
to the way in which a person acts and can be observed. The mind refers to that part of
an individual that consists of their cognitions, memories, sensations, emotions, motives,
and perceptions. The mind is what enables individuals to think and reason. It consists of
conscious and unconscious mental processes. Psychology attempts to explain and describe
behavior and the cognitive processes behind behavior.
Psychology is a science based on experimentation and systematic observation, enabling
psychologists to form assumptions about behavior, the mind, and human functioning.
These assumptions lead to the development of theories that attempt to explain aspects
of human behavior or mental processes. As with all sciences, knowledge about general
laws and patterns are obtained through experimentation and observation. The field of
psychology consists of several different theoretical perspectives, and most psychologists
closely adhere to the theoretical approach that most closely fits their perspective. However,
many psychologists see value in different theories, and an eclectic approach to the study of
psychology. These psychologists believe that no single theory perfectly explains human
thoughts and behavior, but rather attempt to explain behavior and cognitive processes by
drawing upon different theoretical perspectives.

History of Psychology

Early Greek Philosophers

Throughout history, humankind has been interested in the nature of the mind
and the factors affecting behavior. Many ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato,
Socrates, and Aristotle presented differing perspectives on human thought and behavior.
Aristotle’s beliefs about logic, reasoning, and careful observation of the world formed the
underpinnings of the scientific method. These philosophers believed the world, and by
extension, human nature, could be divided into two parts: the body and the spirit. This
concept is known as dualism. The debate over which aspect of a person is more powerful
in determining behavior and cognitions is still relevant today as the field of psychology
continues to expand.

The Scientific Revolution

During the scientific revolution, a great philosophical shift occurred. Whereas religion
had asserted that the spirit of a person could not be studied using scientific means, a
new generation of philosophers and scientists challenged these religious beliefs. Advances
in astronomy, biology, and other areas demonstrated that human behavior could be
scientifically studied.
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) believed that the physical world behaved according to
patterns and natural laws. However, Descartes did not believe the human mind and its
processes could be observed or predicted, because the mind does not follow natural laws.
He envisioned an interaction between the mind and body, with the mind controlling
the body and the body constantly supplying sensory information to the mind. Descartes

16 AP Psychology
believed that some parts of the body, such as reflexes, are not under the control of the mind
but are simply reactions to external stimuli.
Descartes’s ideas were expanded upon by John Locke (1632-1704). Locke believed
that even the mind is subject to natural laws. Locke’s perspective that truth and knowledge
can be acquired through experiences and observations is referred to as empiricism. Locke
is perhaps best known for his concept of “tabula rasa,” a term that refers to the belief that
humans are born knowing nothing, or are essentially “blank slates.” According to this
perspective, no knowledge is innate; everything a person knows must be learned from
experience.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) rejected the idea of a soul and spirit. He believed that
matter and energy are the only things that exist, a philosophy referred to as materialism.
Everything experienced in a person’s conscious awareness is a result of processes of the
brain. The field of behaviorism was greatly impacted by Hobbes’s philosophy.

Theory of Natural Selection

Discoveries in medicine and biology strongly influenced the field of psychology during
the nineteenth century. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) proposed the idea of natural selection.
This evolutionary theory asserted that all living things evolved over a period of millions
of years. Natural selection assumes that variations among humans naturally exist, and the
individuals most likely to survive and reproduce are those that are the strongest and fittest,
or those that have adapted to their environment. Through the process of natural selection,
the characteristics that ensure a species’ survival are the ones selected. Evolutionary theory
is one way that differences between species can be understood and explained.

The Science of Psychology Begins

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is considered to be the founder of the science of
psychology in the year 1879. Wundt hoped to use the process of introspection, in which
individuals observe and record their mental states, including thoughts and feelings, in
response to various stimuli, in order to understand more about basic cognitive processes.
From this experiment, Wundt and his mentee, Edward Titchener (1867-1927), developed
the theory of structuralism, in which the mind can be broken down into its simplest
components and then those components can be combined in order to make up the sum
total of the individual’s experiences. Titchener is credited for bringing the science of
psychology to the United States.
William James (1842-1910), an American psychologist, disagreed with the idea of
structuralism and offered the view that the function and uses of cognitive processes, or
the mind, is more important than the structures of the mind, an approach known as
functionalism. James is also the author of the first psychology textbook. One of James’s
students, Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930), became the first female president of the
American Psychological Association. Calkins is also credited with starting the first women’s
psychology lab. She is noted for her studies of memory, which led to the development of
the paired association technique. She was a highly influential professor of psychology and
philosophy. Another female pioneer in the field of psychology is Margaret Floy Washburn

Chapter 1: History and Approaches 17

 (1871-1939). Washburn was the first woman to receive a Ph.D. in psychology. She is
noted for her work in animal behavior development and for motor theory. G. Stanley
Hall (1844-1924), who also studied under William James, is considered to be the founder
of child psychology and educational psychology; he was also interested in evolutionary
psychology. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association.
Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology.
He believed that thinking moves from the whole to the parts, and focused on the total
experiences of an individual. Gestalt psychology takes a holistic approach to understanding
the individual, and this approach rejects the idea that human thought and behavior can
be separated.
Dorothea Dix (1802-1887) was a social activist and reformer who advocated for
mentally insane, indigent people. After visiting hospitals and noting the terrible ways the
mentally ill were treated and abused, she successfully lobbied for the establishment and
expansion of state hospitals for the mentally ill.

Theoretical Approaches
The theoretical perspectives above show an evolution of thinking in science that
gradually moves away from using reason and logic alone, to become more and more
scientific in nature.
There are ten main schools of thought in contemporary psychology. It is absolutely
essential that you understand each one, and know what distinguishes each approach.

School of
Important con-
Psychology Description
tributors
(starting year)
Process of natural selection determines behaviors
and thoughts that promote survival. The behav-
Evolutionary
iors, traits and thought processes that are most Charles Darwin
1850s
beneficial to survival will be passed to the next
generation.
Used introspection to identify basic elements or
“structures” of psychological experience. To under-
Wilhelm Wundt,
Structuralism stand “reading”, for example, research participants
Edward B. Titch-
1880s would describe their experience while reading.
ener
First laboratory dedicated to psychological re-
search, University of Leipzig, Germany 1879.
Related to Darwinism, consciousness must have
evolved because it was useful for something; it had William James,
Functionalism
a function. To understand the origins and purpose Father of Ameri-
1890s
of psychological phenomenon we should ask what can Psy.
it is used for.

18 AP Psychology
 School of
Important con-
Psychology Description
tributors
(starting year)
The unconscious mind determines thoughts and
behaviors. The unconscious mind cannot easily be
Sigmund Freud
accessed, but influences our behavior. The conscious
Psychodynamic Carl Jung
mind includes cognitive processes that we can
1890s Alfred Adler
access and for which we are aware. Early child-
Erik Erickson
hood experiences shape personality and determine
behavior
Not possible to objectively study the mind, there-
fore study should focus on observable behavior.
Classical conditioning was the basis for learning by Ivan Pavlov
Behaviorism
association. Operant conditioning refers to the effect John B. Watson,
early 1900s
of reinforcers (positive or negative) that strengthen B. F. Skinner
or weaken the likelihood the behavior happens
again.
The study of mental processes, including percep- Hermann
Cognitive
tion, thinking, memory, and judgments. Comput- Ebbinghaus,
late 1800s,
er analogies guided research and have now evolved Albert Ellis
1960s, 1990s
to include neuroimaging of the brain. Jean Piaget
Social situations and culture influence thinking
and behavior. Explains variations in behavior and Fritz Heider
Sociocultural
thoughts as influenced by different social environ- Leon Festinger
1950s
ments, roles, norms and values among people of Stanley Milgram
different cultural groups.
Study of the person, the self-concept, self-esteem
and an appreciation for the human condition.
Humanistic Takes a holistic approach to understanding human Abraham
1950s behavior and improving the growth of the indi- Maslow,
vidual person. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Carl Rogers
Roger’s concept of unconditional positive regard
are central concepts.
Attempts to understand how biology, physiology,
No single
Biological and genes affect behavior. Cognitive processes,
researcher
1990s emotions, and behaviors are seen as direct results
recognized
of biological factors.
Human behavior is the result of an interaction be-
tween biological, psychological, and social factors.
Biopsychosocial George Engel
Each factor is equally important in determining
thoughts and behavior.

Chapter 1: History and Approaches 19

 Modern Subfields in Psychology
The AP Psychology exam requires you to be familiar with the subfields of psychology.
Different schools of psychological thought have led to different subfields and professions
in the 21st century. The following is a list of the subfields and their definitions. Many
universities offer masters or doctoral degrees in these subfields.

Modern Subfields of Psychology

Examines the mind-body connection.
Biological Understand how biology, physiology, and genes affect behavior.
psychology

Diagnose, assess, treat, and prevent emotional, behavioral, and

Clinical psychological disorders
psychology

Help individuals achieve and maintain healthy functioning.

Counseling Includes social, vocational, educational, developmental, and healthy
psychology habits

Studies how and why children/adults change over the lifespan.

Developmental Can include various theoretical approaches.
psychology

Examines mental processes involved in social settings, information

Cognitive processing and decision-making.
psychology

Studies learning, motivation, instruction, and assessment in educa-

tional settings.
Educational Examines and improves the interaction between teaching and learn-
psychology ing.

Studies humans and animals to understand sensation, perception,

Experimental memory, learning and motivation.
psychology

Design products, equipment and technology for human interaction.

Human factors Often focused on performance and safety.
psychology

How people act in organizations and the workplace.

I/O psychology Goal is to increase performance, motivation, and job satisfaction.

20 AP Psychology
 Studies individual differences in emotions, cognitions, and behavior.
Personality psy- How cultural factors influence personality development and expres-
chology sion.

Examines the design, administration and interpretation of tests.

Psychometric Measures variables such as aptitude, personality, abilities, and inter-
psychology ests.

Examines the way people relate to others using experimental meth-

Experimental ods.
Social psychol- How attitudes are formed, changed, and affect the behavior of oth-
ogy ers.

Practice Questions

1. Which approach deals with issues of self-concept and free choice?

(Lower order)
(A) sociocultural approach
(B) biological approach
(C) humanistic approach
(D) functionalism
(E) Gestalt psychology

The correct answer is C: humanistic approach

Humanistic psychology focuses on the study of free will, self-concept, awareness of the
human condition and aspects of consciousness. The sociocultural approach studies how
social and cultural factors influence thoughts and behavior. The biological approach views
behavior as being a result of biological and genetic factors. Functionalism is a theory that
states that the functions of the mind are more important than the actual components of
the mind. Gestalt psychology seeks to understand the individual in view of the person’s
total experiences. Although very similar to humanistic psychology, gestalt psychology does
not focus on self-concept.

Chapter 1: History and Approaches 21

 2. Which early theoretical perspective had the greatest influence on the
field of behavioral psychology?
(Higher order)
(A) empiricism
(B) dualism
(C) natural selection
(D) materialism
(E) tabula rasa

The correct answer is D: Materialism

Materialism is the belief that matter and energy are the only things that exist. It rejects the
idea of a soul and spirit and proposes that all things in a person’s conscious awareness are
results of processes of the brain. Since behavioral psychology focuses only on what can be
observed, no attention is given to cognitive processes, emotions, or any other part of the
human experience, such as the soul and spirit. Empiricism refers to the belief that truth
and knowledge can be acquired through experiences and observations. Dualism refers
to the idea that the world and human nature can be divided into two parts, the body
and the spirit. Natural selection is a theory proposed by Charles Darwin that states that
only behaviors and thoughts that promote survival and adaptation are selected and passed
down to other generations. Tabula rasa is the theory that all humans are born knowing
nothing; they are essentially blank states. Knowledge is gained through experiences.

Challenge Question:

3. Linda is seeing a therapist because she is having problems in her relationships.

Linda reports being moody and grouchy due to a problem with her thyroid.
She also states that she feels like she has no one to talk to because her family
has never been one that talks about feelings. Linda expresses some negative
and self-defeating thoughts. Which of the following statements best reflects the
approach Linda’s therapist should take?

(A) The therapist needs to treat Linda from a cognitive psychology approach
because Linda’s thoughts are the cause of her problems.
(B) The therapist should use a sociocultural approach to help Linda understand
how her family’s views have caused her interpersonal difficulties.
(C) The therapist should help Linda improve her self-concept and take
responsibility for her choices.
(D) The therapist should focus more on making sure Linda is treated for
her thyroid problem since that is affecting her moods, which affect her
relationships.
(E) The therapist should take an approach that addresses Linda’s medical issues,
familial influences, and thought processes because they are all contributing to
Linda’s problems.

22 AP Psychology
The correct answer is. D:
The therapist should take an approach that addresses Linda’s medical issues, familial
influences, and thought processes because they are all contributing to Linda’s problems.
The problem with Linda’s thyroid affects her moods, which has a negative impact on her
relationships. However, Linda’s culture does not seem to value discussing feelings, but
Linda needs to be able to talk about her feelings and how things are affecting her. Linda’s
thoughts are also negatively affecting her feelings and her relationships. Therefore, the
therapist should not ignore any one of these areas because all of these areas are contributing
to Linda’s difficulties. Neither Linda’s thoughts nor her family environment are solely
responsible for contributing to her interpersonal problems. While there is nothing wrong
with addressing self-concept issues with a client or working with a client to help the client
accept responsibility for her problems, there is no indication that either of these scenarios
is what is causing Linda’s problems. Linda does need to be receiving treatment for her
thyroid problem because it is affecting her moods, but focusing more on that issue will
not address the cognitive or sociocultural factors that are also contributing to Linda’s
difficulties.

Chapter 1: History and Approaches 23

 Chapter 2: Research Methods

Key Terms, Concepts, and People

Descriptive Correlational Experimental

Naturalistic Observational Archival
Case study Longitudinal Cross-sectional
Controlled Matched pairs Self-selection
Confounding variables Internal validity Generalizability
Sampling bias Sample characteristics Sample size
Heterogeneous Homogeneous Response rate
Correlation coefficient Predictor variable Criterion variable
Scatterplot Statistical analysis Missing records
Selective attrition Historical differences Experimental research
Independent variable Dependent variable Control group
Treatment group Operational definition Random Selection
Random assignment Confound Participant
Repeated measures
Independent samples Demand characteristics Experimenter bias
External validity P-value Sampling error
Null hypothesis Statistical significance Frequency distribution
Normal curve Standard deviation Skewness
Positive skew Negative skew IQ distribution curve
Z score Nuremberg trials Tuskegee study
Informedconsent Confidentiality Deception
Ethical guidelines Debriefing

Chapter 2: Research Methods 25