Landslide susceptibility analysis and mapping in sastha valley of

periyar river basin

Preji P & Biju Longhinos
College of Engineering, Trivandrum, Kerala, India

ABSTRACT
Earth attracts objects towards its surface through the gravitational force and keeps everything in place. In the case
of a slope, this gravitational force may cause the materials to move along it causing what is known as landslides.
This study mainly focuses on analyzing the landslide susceptibility in Sastha valley of Periyar river basin, Idukki
district, Kerala. The study area shows some paleo-landslide movements indicated by sparse tea plantations and
sharp meandering of the river flowing through the valley. This motivated to analyze the stability of the slopes through
an extensive field investigation in the area. The stability analysis is carried out under both steady and transient
states using SLOPE/W and SEEP/W software. A factor of safety map of the study area is also prepared from the
GIS-TISSA model. Finally, a landslide susceptibility map of the area is generated by leveraging the results from both
field study and GIS model.

1 INTRODUCTION Kerala is a land of beauty and wonders blessed with

Earth attracts objects towards its surface through the
gravitational force. This constant vector quantity keeps
everything in place. In the case of a slope, gravity
becomes a curse under certain circumstances and
leads to hazards to people, animals, and properties.
The gravitational force on a slope has two components,
one which is perpendicular to slope and one which is
parallel to the slope. In certain conditions, the
perpendicular component may decrease and the
parallel component increase to overcome the frictional
force that resists the motion of particles. This leads to
the movement of materials forming the slope. Such
instability of the slope occurs when soil, rock, regolith,
and vegetation moves downward or outward under the
force of gravity is called the landslide.The conditions
that trigger landslides can be geological, morphological,
physical and due to human activities.
Because of the rapid growth of urbanization and
population, the incidents of reporting landslides are
increasing day by day. Earth’s natural environment
comprising the topography, forests, grasslands, and
habitats of native flora and fauna are getting affected by
it. Moreover, it has a serious impact on human life
ranging from property damage, injury and to even
death. On account of the serious impact of these
hazards on human life and property, many researchers
began to investigate the geotechnical aspects of
landslides. The selection of suitable remedial measures
to control the movement of earth slopes and to secure
their safety represents the most important geotechnical
engineering activity. Landslide investigations and
forecasting have got greater attention in recent years
due to the unrecoverable damages caused by it.
natural resources. Due to the geographical location,
weather conditions, population, and unsustainable land
use the state is prone to several natural and human-
induced disasters. Among them, the landslides
especially debris flows (urul pottal in local vernacular)
are the most common. Studies reveal that in Kerala,
landslides occur in the high land region that contains
steep slopes with over-saturated soil due to prolonged
rainfall and population growth. Hence about 1500 km²
area in Western Ghats of Kerala is vulnerable to the
landslide (Kerala State Disaster Management Authority,
2012). As a result, more than 257 human lives were lost
since 2010.
The occurrence of landslides is frequent in Idukki
district of Kerala, particularly along road cuttings and hill
slopes causing damage to life and property. The
geographical characteristics of the district (e.g., dense
forests, steep hills, deep valley and heavy rainfall)
made 60% of its area prone to landslides. Also, several
projects such as tourism development, hill highway
projects and residential projects are going to deploy in
Idukki. The waving topological features emphasize the
need for careful analysis and sustainable land use in
the Idukki district to handle the landslides. Many
researchers investigated these problems to map the
vulnerable area and assessed mitigation strategies that
protect people, property and various resources.
However, inventing better methods for landslide
susceptibility mapping and hazard assessment is
required not only to cope with the development process
and scientific cultivation but also to keep everything
(including natural and manmade resources) safe.
1.2 Study Area

1.1 Scenario in Kerala Study area known as Sastha valley forms a part of the
Western Ghats in Vandiperiyar panchayat of Idukki
district in Kerala. It is located at latitude 9.5266º N &

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9.5283º N and longitude 77.0757º N & 77.1092º N. This
valley is an important catchment area of Periyar River
and on the South; it is surrounded by Sabarimala hill
ranges. An important road connecting to Sathram -
pilgrimage point of Sabarimala devotees is passing
through this valley. Landslides are frequent at many
places in this road. The panchayat is planning for future
development of this area to attract more tourist and
Sabarimala devotees. One of the peculiarities of this
area is that it shows some signs of paleo landslides i.e.
the landslides that were occurred in some geological
past. This is indicated by the changing course of the
stream flowing in the valley at many places.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
The objective of this study is to conduct an extensive
investigation of the landslide on the selected area, the
Sastha valley, to prepare a landslide susceptibility map
for the area. To achieve this goal, this paper follows a
structured methodology that comprises software-based
and GIS-based slope stability analysis. The software-
based stability analysis is conducted based on the field
investigation in the selected locations of the Sastha
valley. Selection of these locations depends on the
observed paleo-landslide symptoms. Since the selected
area is prone to heavy rainfall, one of the key ideas
behind the software-based analysis is to use the
historical rainfall data to understand the behavior of the
slope under rainfall and other climatic conditions.
Integrating the result from software analysis and GIS
method this study prepares a landslide zonation map
that shows vulnerable locations in the area.
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Landslide is one of the major natural hazards on the
earth. According to the study conducted by Ubechu and
Okeke (2017), several attributes such as the rate at
which material move, type of material and the nature of
movement along with the topology/morphology of the
area determine the type of landslide. Namdar and
Yahay (2014) approach the landslide as a geo-hazard
induced by geological, geotechnical and
geomorphological features of the area. The erosion
process that occurs due to rainfall and less vegetation
changes the geomorphology of a site. Thus, soil
mineralogy is an important factor associated with
landslides. Soil bio-engineering measures are a kind of
landslide mitigation technique (Bhattacharjee 2016;
Raut and Gudmestad 2017). These techniques utilize
the living materials to strengthen the soil and rocks by
leveraging the abilities inherent in plants (e.g.,
spreading shoot and root system for biomass
development).
There are several pieces of works that analyses
landslides quantitatively and qualitatively. These works
can be classified into two categories: 1) approaches for
risk analysis, mitigation and monitoring 2) approaches
for susceptibility analysis and hazard zonation mapping.
Restrepo et al. (2016) present a quantitative risk
assessment method, especially the geotechnical risk for
natural hazards. This method includes the probabilistic
analysis of hazards and vulnerabilities and the
numerical representation of the risk. Weather conditions
are one of the important factors that trigger landslides.
So the analysis of slope stability under the climate
change is crucial for landslide risk management.
Almeida et al. (2017) propose a physical model that
deal with uncertainties in landslides under climate
changes, especially under rainfall. Also, researchers
use GIS method to analyze the landslide to identify
better mitigation strategies (Pereira et al. 2016;
Sitányiová et al. 2015). Developing an early warning
system is an important step in landslide risk
management. Naidu et al. (2017) developed a simple,
cost-effective early warning system by correlating
rainfall threshold with the factor of safety (FS) for
landslides in Amboori, Kerala.
Apart from the normal landslides, Paleo-landslides
are continuous events subjected to the climate changes
such as heavy rainfall, earthquake and
geomorphological factors. Hence, slope stability
analysis for landslide susceptibility assessment requires
careful analysis of the soil properties under the
influence of paleo-landslide. Some researchers
explored this area for analyzing slope stability (Husein
et al. 2010; Hammond et al. 2011; Gallego et al. 2008;
Francioni et al. 2018).
Furthermore, several pieces of works investigated
the landslides in Kerala. A devasting landslide which
took place at Muvattupuzha, Ernakulam, Kerala on 27th
June 2015 was studied by Ajin et al. (2016). From the
study, the authors concluded that the root cause of the
disaster was manmade one due to the unscientific
cutting of the hill. They also inferred that the existing
slope is not at all stable implies by the low factor of
safety. Abraham et al. (2013) prepared the landslide
hazard zonation maps in and around the Thodupuzha-
Idukki-Munnar road in Idukki district, Kerala in their
study. They adopted a geospatial approach which
includes preparing various thematic maps on a GIS
platform using remote sensing and field data.
Sajinkumar et al. (2017) studied a headward retreat
landslide that occurred behind the Government college
Munnar. The main objective is to assess the landslide
affected area, identify the causative factors and to
suggest suitable measures to minimize the landslide
hazard. The study involved mapping the area using the
total station, determination of geotechnical properties of
soil, vertical electrical soundings to infer soil thickness,
analyzing the stability, deriving the rainfall threshold
based on rainfall data. Also, Jishnu and Ajith (2015)
used remote sensing and GIS to generate the landslide
hazard zonation maps of Wayanad district of Kerala.
In summary, the landslides are one of the major
natural hazards that have to be detected before it
happens. Most of the existing works focus on the
analysis of the landslide areas to take appropriate
mitigation measures. There are few works that try to
identify the locations vulnerable to landslides. These
methods generate landslide zonation maps for the area
under investigation thereby generates early warning
systems and proper safety measures. Developing such
methods either uses field-based or GIS-based
investigations. Inspired by these methods, this study
aims to generate a landslide zonation map with the
result taken from the field study and GIS-based
mapping. As the Western Ghats of Kerala is found to be
one of the major landslide-prone areas, the
investigation extends to one of the important location
called Sastha valley in Kerala.
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3 METHODOLOGY
Because of the topographical peculiarity and trace of
paleo slides this study follows a hybrid methodology to
generate a landslide susceptibility map for Sastha
valley. Figure 1 explains the flow of the methodology.
The work starts with the field investigation which
consists of reconnaissance survey, identifying critical
locations and collecting undisturbed soil samples at
both fields and saturated conditions from the locations
identified. The samples obtained from the field
investigations are then subjected to laboratory
experiments to determine geotechnical parameters. A
software-based stability analysis is conducted on the
locations under steady and transient conditions. The
results from software are validated using an explicit
equation. A GIS-based model is also employed to
analyze the Factor of Safety of slopes in the study area.
Finally, the landslide zonation map of the study area is
prepared from both field investigation and GIS-model.
Figure 1. Workflow
3.1 Field Investigations
Field investigations form an integral part of landslide
susceptibility analysis and mapping. It is mainly
grouped into three stages namely mapping of the area,
geological and geotechnical investigations. The
objective of these investigations is to collect data
forevaluating the stability of the slope, determining the
conditions under which failure may occur and
ascertaining remedial measures that are rational and
feasible in the study area.
3.1.1 Mapping of the Area
The area under the study should be mapped in detail.
Field maps are prepared that gives the plan of the
affected area and the typical cross-section which can
be used for analysis. General observations are also
made covering the conditions of the slope, covering the
aspects such as the extent and nature of vegetation
cover, surface runoff characteristics, presence of
springs etc. Erosion of the toe and tension cracks of the
crown area is ought to be observed in detail. The
toposheet of the area is also studied as a part of the
field investigation.
3.1.2 Geological Investigations
Geological investigations comprise of preparing a plan
of the landslide area incorporating the geological data.
Structural geological features such as bedding planes,
joint planes, faults, folds, shear zones, and
unconformity are studied in the field in detail and
plotted.
The rock types in the slide area are identified and their
qualities are assessed. The presence of any soft
pockets of beds or interlayers is carefully observed
during the field study. Geomorphological features such
as elevated and depressed zones, break in slope,
erosional and depositional zones, and mass movement
are carefully observed and marked for further
investigation.
3.1.3 Geotechnical Investigations
Geotechnical investigations are carried out with the
objective of determining the nature and strength
characteristics of the material comprising the slope.
Disturbed and undisturbed samples of soil or rock are
collected from the critical locations identified in the
study area. Disturbed samples are made use for
determining the index properties, and grain size
analysis. Undisturbed samples are collected from open
pits or boreholes using an appropriate type of sampling
tubes. Good quality undisturbed samples are a basic
requirement for reliable evaluation of shear strength
parameters.The depth and seasonal fluctuations of the
water table also form an important component of the
data required for landslide investigation.
3.2 Experimental Investigations
The experimental investigations mainly comprise of
determination of density as well as shear strength
properties of soil samples collected. The density of soil
is weight per unit volume of the soil. It is obtained by
simply taking the ratio of weight to volume of the
sample. Field density of the sample is the density at in
situ water content. Saturated density is the density at
which sample is fully saturated with water. The shear
strength property of the soil is determined by
conducting direct shear tests. The test is performed at
both field and saturated conditions.
3.3 Software Analysis
Stability of slopes is determined under both steady state
and transient conditions using software analysis.
SLOPE/W is used for analyzing the stability of slopes
under steady conditions. A combination of both
SLOPE/W and SEEP/W is used for transient analysis.
3.3.1 Steady State Analysis Using SLOPE/W
Generally, there are five steps to define a SLOPE/W
stability problem. The first step in evaluating the
stability of a terrain in SLOPE/W is to outline the
geometry of the slope. Geometry is defined based on
the concepts of regions and points.After defining the
geometry the next step is to assign the strength
properties of the material forming the slope. The most
commonly adopted one is the Mohr-Coulomb method in
3
which parameters such as c and Φ are used to describe
the material properties. In order to establish a critical
mode of failures, trail slip surface extents are to be
demarcated. This forms the third step in the stability
analysis. The position and shape of the slip surfaces
can be controlled.The next step is to properly define the
pore-water pressure regime which forms a vital part of a
slope stability analysis. For an effective stress analysis,
realistic pore pressure conditions are required to be
defined.Defining the surcharge loads that are supposed
to act on the slope forms the last step in the analysis.
The surcharge loads can be point loads, and uniformly
distributed loads.
3.3.2 Transient Analysis Using SEEP/W
The first step in the transient analysis is to create the
geometry of the slope under the steady-state condition
in SEEP/W. Then the required boundary conditions are
applied to geometry. After that, a transient seepage
analysis is started with an initial steady state as parent
one. The corresponding rainfall data is then applied as
the step function in the water flux boundary condition.
The analysis is then carried out to determine the pore
water pressure distribution. Then a SLOPE/W analysis
is carried out with this transient as the parent to
determine the FS under transient conditions.
3.4 Software Validation
This module describes the validation of SLOPE/W
software. Several pieces of work used Taylor chart to
find the variation of the FS with respect to slope angle
and stability number. By analyzing Taylor charts the
Said and Vali, (2011) propose an explicit equation
which has proven accurate results. According to this
equation, the FS of soil can be represented as,
tan(φa
FS  [1]
tan( φ ) approach to generate a new zonation map
m
2
b b  4ac
φm  [2]
2a
6
a  5.9466  10 [3]
5
b  0.00807  3.41  10    / 180 [4]
5 2
c  0.042186  0.004905 β  6.44  10 β 
[5]
7 3
4.07  10 β height 10 cm.
c
λ  [6]
γHtan(φ)
Where, φm =mobilized friction angle in degrees, =slope
angle in degrees, c = cohesion in kPa, = unit weight of
soil in kN/m3, H = height of slope in meters and =
internal angle of friction in degrees.The explicit equation
is only applicable for saturated soil conditions and it can
be adapted to complete submergence, complete
sudden drawdown, steady seepage, and zero
boundaries neutral force.
3.5 GIS-TISSA Model
It is a GIS-based tool for Infinite Slope Stability Analysis
(TISSA). It is a newly created computer program that
calculates FS with continuous rasters as input. The
input rasters are:
 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the study area.
 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
obtained from Landsat 8 imagery. NDVI indicates
root cohesive strength and tree surcharge.
 Soil map of the area obtained from National
Bureau of Soil Survey (NBSS)
The tool processes these input rasters to prepare the
slope map and hill shade map and finally creates the
zonation map of the area.
3.6 Landslide Zonation Map Generation
Field investigations and GIS-based approaches are two
independent directions to find out the stability of the
slopes. Field study uses experimental and analytical
procedures to find out the FS of the soil. One of the
limitations of this method is it can identify vulnerabilities
of selected locations rather than giving global
information about the study area. On the other hand,
the GIS-based approach gives the global view of the
study area based on topography. However, these
approaches cannot give fine-grained geotechnical
aspects of the locations. The map generation module
takes the advantage of both field study and GIS-based
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Field Investigations
An extensive field investigation was carried out on the
study area by conducting reconnaissance survey with
some geological and geotechnical insights. The
presence of paleo landslides was clearly observed in
the area. It was indicated by the meandering of the river
that flows through the valley. Based on the
investigations 15 critical locations were identified in the
area. The Google earth view of these locations is
shown in Figure 2. Undisturbed core samples were
collected both at the field and saturated conditions from
the locations using a PVC pipe of diameter 6 cm and of
4
 Table 2. Direct shear test results of sample locations
under saturated condition.

Saturated Water Cohe Φ

Sample
Density(g content sion (degr
location
/cc) (%) (kPa) ees)
1 1.692 13 5 27
2 1.837 19 3 30
3 1.623 14 6 23
4 1.656 16 1 30
5 1.819 20 4 34
6 1.713 11 3 34
Figure 2. Location map of the area and samples
7 1.733 22 5 33
collected.
8 1.705 12 4 28
9 1.636 15 2 24
4.2 Experimental Results 10 1.672 13 8 20
The samples collected from the field were taken to the 11 1.624 21 6 22
laboratory for carrying out experimental investigations. 12 1.696 18 6 26
The main properties determined were density and shear 13 1.686 20 1 30
strength parameters of the soil. Direct shear tests were
performed to determine the shear characteristics and 14 1.618 14 4 26
density was determined by simply taking the ratio of the 15 1.615 24 2 30
weight of the sample by its volume. The test results for
the sample at field conditions are reported in Table
1.From the results, it can be inferred that the samples 4.3 Steady State Stability Analysis Results
are showing a high value of cohesion at field condition.
The test results for the sample at saturated condition The stability of slopes of critical locations was analyzed
are given in Table 2. The results indicate that in the after the experimental investigations. A steady-state
saturated condition the cohesion value of the soil is analysis is carried out on SLOPE/W with properties of
decreased drastically. It is inferred that the presence of the soil that do not change with time. The
water reduced the inter-particle forces between the corresponding results for the field and saturated
particles and thus reduced the cohesion between them. condition are given in Table 3. The results show that the
slopes identified have a good FS under field conditions.
Also, under the saturated conditions, the FS reduces
Table 1 Direct shear test results of sample locations significantly for all the locations. From the analysis
under field condition. results around 10 locations were identified as critical.

Angle of
Sample Field Cohesion
internal Table 3. FS of selected locations under field and
location density(g/cc) c (kPa)
friction Φ saturated conditions
1 1.497 16.7 26
FS FS
2 1.544 18.0 25 Sample
(Field (Saturated
location
3 1.424 16.0 27 Condition) Condition)
1 2.423 0.929
4 1.428 16.0 27
2 2.826 1.57
5 1.516 17.1 24
3 1.536 0.765
6 1.543 14.3 23 4 1.942 0.897
7 1.420 13.4 25 5 2.698 1.312
8 1.522 12.6 27 6 1.875 1.006
9 1.423 15.3 26 7 1.726 1.052
10 1.480 14.0 25 8 1.968 1.003
11 1.342 15.2 27 9 2.233 0.871
12 1.437 16.0 27 10 2.455 0.901
11 2.505 0.81
13 1.405 17.1 24
12 1.635 0.955
14 1.419 11.3 23
13 2.126 0.901
15 1.302 10.4 25 14 1.346 0.497
15 1.236 0.409

5
Table 4. Software validation result with the values of parameters of the explicit equation

Soil properties Equation parameters Factor of Safety

Sample Field
C’ Φ
location density λ a b c øm Calculated Analysed
(kPa) (degrees)
(kN/m3)
1 5 11.850 27 0.0695 0.0000594466 -0.00757751 0.177311 30.8811 0.852 0.929
2 12 12.070 33 0.1284 0.0000594466 -0.00860706 0.177311 24.8738 1.400 1.570
3 6 13.095 23 0.0393 0.0000594466 -0.00636872 0.209577 27.9529 0.800 0.765
4 1 14.250 30 0.0145 0.0000594466 -0.00695855 0.161394 31.8715 0.929 0.897
5 12 14.260 34 0.0766 0.0000594466 -0.00753178 0.184865 33.2935 1.027 1.312
6 3 15.373 34 0.0167 0.0000594466 -0.00631554 0.192558 32.6867 1.051 1.006
7 5 12.110 33 0.0533 0.0000594466 -0.00746641 0.169588 29.7696 1.135 1.052
8 8 13.050 28 0.0953 0.0000594466 -0.00785868 0.184865 30.6126 0.899 1.003
9 5 15.120 24 0.0623 0.0000594466 -0.00745274 0.177311 31.9169 0.715 0.871
10 12 14.370 25 0.1033 0.0000594466 -0.00799904 0.184865 29.6398 0.819 0.901
11 6 16.130 22 0.0773 0.0000594466 -0.0077134 0.177311 29.8583 0.704 0.810
12 12 13.190 26 0.1306 0.0000594466 -0.0084743 0.184865 26.8852 0.962 0.955
13 1 12.000 30 0.0172 0.0000594466 -0.00700626 0.161394 31.4029 0.946 0.901
14 4 8.205 26 0.0466 0.0000594466 -0.00666699 0.20069338 40.8579 0.564 0.497
15 2 14.936 30 0.0162 0.0000594466 -0.00647795 0.18486563 42.6064 0.628 0.409

4.4 Software Validation Result
The stability analysis results obtained from SLOPE/W
was validated using an explicit equation. Since the
equation is complex, a Python code is used for
computing the result using the equation.The results
show a close agreement between equation and
SLOPE/W and thus validated. The corresponding
validation results are shown in the Table 4.
4.5 Transient stability Analysis Results
waterpressure was high after a considerable rainfall has
occurred. From the figure, it is clear that PWP is
negative in the month of May for all the locations after
that it increases gradually and becomes maximum in
the month of July where average monthly rainfall is
less. This trend gives a perception that PWP
increasesnot at the time of rainfall but a period followed
by the rainfall. The PWP then shows a gradual increase
from the month of August to October. After that, it
shows a steady increase owing to the large rainfall
occurred in the month of October.

The steady state stability analysis is carried out based

on the assumption that soil properties are not changing
with time. But in reality, the soil is subjected to varying
climatic conditions. So a transient slope stability
analysis is carried out incorporating the effect of rainfall
in the study area. SEEP/W software is used for this
purpose.

4.5.1 Characterization of Rainfall Data

The past rainfall data recorded for the study area shows
a decreasing trend in the rainfall intensity for past few
years. A good rainfall data was recorded for the year
2014. The rainfall data for the year 2014 for months
from May to December was collected. The average
monthly rainfall for all the months is then calculated and Figure 3. Rainfall data 2014
shown in Figure 3.

4.5.2 Variation of Pore Water Pressure 4.5.3 Variation of FS

The transient analysis was carried out for locations The variation of the FS with average monthly rainfall for
2,5,14 and 15. The variation of pore water pressure the 4 locations obtained from the transient analysis is
(PWP) for each location with average monthly rainfall is shown in Figure 5. From the results, it can be inferred
shown in Figure 4. The results show that pore that FS decreases in the month of June and July and

6
then gradually increases during August and then shows
a gradual decrease during September and October.
After that, it shows a steady decrease towards
December. It is thus inferred that FS varies inversely
with the pore water pressure. The FS for the locations
14 and 15 becomes very less during the month of
December.
Figure 4. Variation of pore water pressure subjected to
climatic conditions
Figure 5.variation of FS under climatic conditions
4.6 GIS-TISSA Model
GIS-TISSA model is a newly created ArcGIS tool for
calculating the FS with continuous raster. The main
working procedure of this model begins from taking
digital elevation map (raster form) of the area as input
followed by preparing hill shade map and finally
computing the FS of the soil. The slope map of the
study area is created in GIS using the Digital Elevation
Model (DEM) of the study area as shown in Figure 6.
Based on this a FS map of the study area is prepared
as shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6. Slope map generated from GIS-TISSA model
Figure 7. Landslide zonation map from GIS-based
method
4.7 Landslide Zonation Map
Based on the field investigation and GIS model a
landslide zonation map of the study area is prepared.
Itis shown in Figure 8. The map contains 10 critical
locations selected from field investigation and 4 critical
locations selected from the GIS-based approach for the
study area.
5 CONCLUSION
Analyzing and preparing landslide zonation map is one
of the important direction towards avoiding the impacts
of landslides on human life and properties. Since
Sastha valley is an important location for landslide
investigation, the landslide susceptibility of this area
was analyzed in this study. Among the 15 location
selected about 10 locations selected were found to be
critical having the factor of safety less than 1 after the
stability analysis.The factor of safety reduces drastically
in saturated condition compared with field conditions.
This emphasize that the prolonged rainfall and other
climatic conditions may leads to the degradation of the
stability of the slopes. By analyzing
7
Figure 8. Revised landslide susceptibility map for the Sastha valley
the impact of rainfall it was found that antecedent
rainfall has more influence on pore water pressure
compared with daily rainfall. Also, Factor of Safety
shows an inverse relation with pore water pressure. It
has its lowest value after the peak rainfall. Moreover, a
relatively high factor of safety results was obtained from
the GIS-TISSA model. These observations conclude
that unsustainable land use in this area will leads to
landslides causing heavy damages. Thus, the zonation
map based on the field investigation and GIS method
can be used to identify the locations that are vulnerable
to landslide.
In future, paleo landslides movements are to be
closely monitored. It can give a good insight into
landslide mechanism occurring in the valley.The
stratigraphy of soil and its properties is the other
direction of investigation. It can give a better idea of
failure mechanism and nature of slip surface of the
landslides.
6 REFERENCES
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