History by Tausif Zakr

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HISTORY BY TAUQEER ZAFAR

ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY FOR IAS
GENERAL STUDIES(PRELIMS)

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GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-1
ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIAN HISTORY
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION - 2550 BC - 1750 BC
1. Rise — As a result of cultural evolution of farming culture in North-west.
2. Urban Civilization — Cities, Urban Planning.
3. Town planning based on Grid-pattern — Roads cut another at right angles.
4. Secular Civilization.
5. Multi-ethnic Civilization—4 races were present: (a) Mediterranean, (b) Proto-Austroloid,
(c) Mongoloid, (d) Alpine (The first two being more dominant).
6. Bronze Age Civilization.
7. River-Valley Civilization.
8. Trade with Mesopotamia, Central Asia and Gulf.
9. Lothal was a great port.
10. No iron.
11. No spoked wheel — But solid wheel.
12. Limited evidences of rice & horse.
13. Worship of proto-shiva, mother goddess, tree, animals.
14. Painted Pottery.
15. Wells & Dams but no canals.
16. Decline — Various factors are considered : Flood, Aridity, Ecological Imbalance, Aryan
invasion.
VEDIC AGE — 1500 BC - 600 BC
1. Aryans, who came from Central Asian steppes in 1500 BC gave rise to Vedic culture.
2. Aryans were war-like people engaged in fighting using powerf
powerful swords & horse-driven
chariots.
3. Rise of 16 kinds of Priests in 1000 BC onwards.
4. Varna System — About 1100 BC.
5. Rita — Cosmic / Moral order.
6. Gotra
7. 3 Ashramas — Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha.
8. Iron — About 1000 BC
9. No coin, No state, No officials, No administrative units, No standing army.
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GENERAL STUDIES
10. Institution of slavery — Reference, of women slaves for domestic purposes given to
priests.
11. Male deities were dominant.
12. Sacrifices — (a) Royal like Vajpeya, Aswamedh, Rajsuya etc. performed by Chiefs,
(b) General performed by common people (The text Brahmanas deal with sacrifices).
13. Pastorla Society & Economy — Cattle was important.
14. Existence of Primitive Assemblies — (a) Vidath, (b) Sabha, (c) Samiti.
THE PERIOD 600 BC - 300 BC
1. First states — 16 Mahajanpadas (Magadh was the most important).
2. Some states were Republics like Lichhavis, Sakyas etc.
3. First coins — Punch-marked coins (mainly silver).
4. Second ubranisation — In the Ganga Valley region.
5. Rise of 64 Heterodox sects — The more important were (a) Buddhism, (b) Jainism, (c)
Ajvikas, (d) Charvakism.
6. Varna became rigid — Varna dharma (duty of member of each Va
Varna) was defined.
7. 4th Ashramas — Sanyas.
8. 16 Sanskaras.
9. 8 Forms of marriage.
10. Decline in the Position of Women — This kept on declining in subsequent period.
11. Rise of Guilds (Craftmen later traders).
12. First Stupa (Piprahwa).
13. First reference of Chandal, a mixed caste.
14. Period of Invasions : (a) Iranian Invasion — By Darius I, (b) Greek Invasion — By
Alexander.
15. Age of first sanskrit grammer — Astyadhyayi by Panini.
16. Beginning of Geometry from sulva sutra (a text on construction of life altars for
sacrifices).
17. First Brahamnical Law Book — Dharma Sutras.
THE MAURYAN PERIOD — 300 BC - 200 BC
1. The Mauryan Empire — Whole of Indian sub continent except extreme south and north-
east (included present Pakistan and Afghanistan).
2. The Mauryan Empire — Whole of Indian subcontinent except extreme south and north-
east (included present Pakistan and Afghanistan).
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GENERAL STUDIES
3. Megasthenes (Greek ambassador) visited to the court of Chandragupta Maurya (the
founder).
4. Kautilya's Arthashastra : (a) Sent missionaries outside India to propagate Buddhism,
(b) Organised 3rd Buddhist Council at Patliputra.
5. Ashoka was Buddhist — (a) Sent missionaries outside India to propagate Buddhism,
(b) Organised 3rd Buddhist Council at Patliputra.
6. Punch marked coins which was popular during this period was silver Pana.
THE PERIOD 200 BC - 300 AD
1. Coming of Foreign ruling groups — First Indo-Greeks followed by Sakas, Pahalvas /
Parthians and Kushanas.
2. Menander was the greatest Greek king — A Buddhist — The book Milinda-Panho is
related to him.
3. Kanishka was the greatest Kushana King — A Buddhist — Built stupa at Peshawar /
Purushpur — Organised 4th Buddhist Council.
4. Age of many Stupas — Bharhut, Amravati, Peshawar, Nagarjunakonda.
5. Age of many Caves — (a) Chiatyas — Buddhist worship place, ((b) Viharas —
Residence of any monk) — At Karle, Kanheri, Bhaja, Junnar, Nasik (All in Maharashtra)
and Udaigiri-Khandagiri (Jaina caves in Orissa).
6. Emergence of three schools of stone sculpture art — (a) Gandhara (Greek-Hellenistic
influence), (b) Mathura, (c) Amravati.
7. Golden Age of Ancient India of (a) Trade, (b) Indo-Roman Trade, (c) Coins (Many coins
by foreign groups), (d) Urbanisation, (e) Craft.
8. Rise of Bhakti.
9. Beginning of image worship.
10. First temples.
11. Rise of Mahayana sect and Hinayana sect in Buddhism.
12. Rise of Vaishvanism & Saivism.
13. Rise of Bhagwatism (cult of Vasudeva Krishna).
14. Age of the Satvahanas in Maharashtra.
15. Sangam age in south — Sangam Literature.
16. First Smriti (Brahmanical Law Book) By Manu — Known as Manu Smriti.
17. Beginning of Land Grants system under Satvahanas in Maharashtra.
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GENERAL STUDIES
THE GUPTA AGE — 300 AD - 550 AD

1. The Gupta Empire — Founder Chandragupta I — The second ruler Samudragupta
launched a great military campaign.
2. Chinese traveller Fahien visited.
3. Foundation of Nalanda University by Kumargutpa I.
4. Golden age of Science : (a) Aryabhatta, (b) Varahmihir, (c) Invention of Zero & Decimal
System, (d) Knowledge of Eclipse, (e) Knowledge of Sine, Co-sine, (f) Knowledge of
Algebra.
5. Golden Age of Sanskrit : (a) Sanskrit plays (Kalidas the gratest), (b) Sanskrit Inscription
(Harisena's Prayag Prashati gives description of Samudragupta's military Campaign) —
Prashati is equlogical inscription, (c) Sanskrit dictionary — (Amarkosh by Amarsimha),
(d) Sanskrit Law Books (Known as Smriti) — By Narad and Yajna Valkya, (e) Sanskrit
works on six system of philosophy, (f) Puranas.
6. Consolidation of six system of Philosophy — Sankhya, Yoga, Vaisesika, Nyaya, Purva
Mimamsa, Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa).
7. Age of Temples — Deograh, Bhitargaon, Sanchi, Nachna Kuthara.
8. Caves — (a) Ajanta (Buddhist Paintings), (b) Bagh (Secular Painting).
9. Rise of Theory of Vishnu's 10 awataras (incarnation).
10. Largest no. of Gold coins.
11. Decline in the position of women.
12. Rise of Kayastha — A new caste.
THE POST-GUPTA AGE — 55- AD - 750 AD
1. Rule of Harsha.
2. Age of Banbhatta (in the court of Harsha) — Wrote Harshacharita and Kadambri in
Sanskrit.
3. Hieunstang, the chinese traveller visited to the court of Harsha.
4. Itsing the chinese traveller visited.
THE EARLY MEDEIVAL PERIOD — 750 AD - 1206 AD
1. Age of feudalism.
2. Age Rise of Rajputs.
3. Age of foreign invasion : (a) Arab conquent of Sind by Mohammad Bin Qasim in 712-
713 AD, (b) Invasion of Mahmmud Ghajni — 100-1027 AD, (c) Invasion of Mohammad
Gauri —1175-1206, (d) Establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi 1206.
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GENERAL STUDIES
4. The age of Greatest Temples in North India — Known as Nagara Style of Temples : (a)
The Temples of Orissa by Eastern Gangas, (b) Temples of Khajuraho by Chandelas, (c)
Tmples of Mount Abu, (d) Temples of Gujarat like Somnath Temples.
5. The age of Temples in South India under the Cholas and the Rashtrakutas — (a) the
Rashtrakutas built Cave Temples and Rock cut Temples in Ellora and Elephanta, (b) The
Cholas built free standing temples in Thanjavour / Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram.
6. The age of 3rd urbanisation beginning about 900-950 AD.
7. The age of very limited circulation of coins.
8. Great historian Kalhan who wrote first pure historical text Rajtarangini.
9. Great writer Alberuni who wrote Tarikh-ul-Hind / Kitab-ul-Hind in Arabic.
THE SULTANATE OF DELHI — 1206-1526 AD
1. Ruled by 4 dynasties : (a) Ilbari dynasty — 1206-1290 — Important rules : Qutubuddin
Aibak (Founder), Iltutmish, Razia Sultan, Balban, (b) Khalji dynasty —1290-1320 —
Important rulers : Jalauddin Khalji (founder), Allauddin Khalji, (c) Tughlaq dynasty —
Mo
1320-1413 — Important rulers : Ghiasuddin Tughlaq (Founder), Mohmmad Bin
Tughlaq, Firoz Shah Tughlaq, (d) Syed dynasty —1414-1451, (e) Lodi dynasty — 1451-
1526 —Important rulers : Bahlul Lodi (Founder), Sikander Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi. Last
ruler defeated by babur in the first battle of Panipat in 1526.
2. Amir Khusaro the famous poet and writer in Persian and Urdu —Developed Quawalli —
Invented Sitar — promoted Urdu — Known as Tuti-e-hind.
3. Rise of Urdu as a mixed langauge of Persian and Hindi / Khadi Boli.
4. Coming of Sufi's Islamic mystics who followed liberal philosophy — Divided into
various orders known as Silsila like Chisti (Came first), Suharavardi, Firdausi, Qadria :
(a) Their place known as Khanqah, (b) Mentor known as Pir / Sheikh / Murshid, (c)
Discipline known as Murshid, (d) Adopted Sama — Musicial signing.
5. Development of Islamic architecture known as Arcuate — Important features : Arches,
Domes, Minarates, no depiction of living beings, Ornamentation by Geometrical design,
Floral design and calligraphy in Arabic script.
6. Many buildings constructed during the period : (a) Qutubminar, (b) Siri Fort, (c) Firoz
Shah Kotla etc.
7. Growth of Bhakti Movement which focused on 2 themes and Religious equality. It
developed in many regional forms : (i) Maharashtra Dharma in Maharashtra— Important
saints : (a) Jnaneshwar, (b) Namdev, (c) Eknath, (d) Tukaram, (e) Ramdas, (ii) Chaitnya
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GENERAL STUDIES
Movement in bengal, (iii) Monotheistic Movement of Kabir and Nanak in North India,
(iv) Vaishnav Bhakti Movement in North India of Tulsidas, Surdas, Mirabai, Ramanand,
(v) Movement of Narsi Mehta in Gujarat, (vi) Movement of Shankar Dev in Assam,
(vii) Movement of Dadu in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
8. Age of urban revolution and technical revolution.
9. Age of Karkhanas (Royal production units).
10. New coins : (a) Silver Tanka, (b) Gold Tanka, (c) Copper Jittal.
11. Age of great historian Jia-ud-din Barni.
12. Comingof Portugese Trader —1498.
13. Iqfa System — Land-based administrative-revenue — military system.
14. Token currency by Mohmmad Bin Tughlaq.
15. Market Control / Policy of Administered Prices / Rationing by Alauddin Khalji.
16. Introduction of Charkha in 14th century.
17. Introduction of Paper in 13th century.
THE MUGHAL PERIOD — 1526-1545 — 1555-1803
1. Age of Trade Revolution — Role of European Trading Companies.
2. Golden Age of Medieval Urbanisation.
3. Mansab system by Akbar — Mansab was military dual rank one was zat and second was
sawar.
4. Jagir was land given as salary to holder of Mansab (Mansabdars).
5. Ain-i-Dahsala system by Akbar — It was a land revenue system.
Note: It was improved version of Zabt / Zabti system introduced by Shershah.
6. Age of introduction of many new products mainly from the new world by the Portugese
like Tobacco, Potato, Papaya, Tomato, Guava, Pineapple.
7. Introduction of Maize, Coffee, Capsicum, Sweet Cherry.
8. Introduction of Saqia/Persian Wheel — A water lifting device from well based on gear
system.
9. Standard coins were silver Rupaya and Gold Muhar / Ashrafi (Both introduced by
Shershah).
10. Many revolts during the reign of Aurangzeb — (a) Jat Revolt, (b) Satnami Revolt, (c)
Sikh Revolt.
11. Coming of Duth (1606), English (1612-13), Danes (1616), French (1664) for trade.
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GENERAL STUDIES
12. Main items of trade from India — Spices, Pepper, Cotton, Indigo, Textile, Saltpeter, Raw
Silk, Opium (English Only).
13. Coming of many foreigners — (a) Ralph Fitch (English) — 1584 —Akbar, (b) Hawkins
(English) —1612 — Jehangir, (c) Thomas Roe (English) — 1615 — Jehangir, (d)
Tavernier (French) — 1640 — Shahjehan, (e) Bernier (French) — 1656 — Shahjehan.
14. Humayun, Akbar, Jehangir and Shahjehan promoted painting.
15. Features of painting : (a) Miniature, (b) Book Illustration, (c) Portrait, (d) Birds &
Animals (e) Court Scenes, (f) Fight Scenes, (g) European Effect : (i) 3-D, (ii) Halo, (iii)
Shadow & Light, (iv) Angels.
******
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GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-1
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
Indus Civilisation – A General Survey
 Society
 Presence of various classes priests, merchants, craftsmen, peasants, labourers (social
status is reflected in different forms of dwellings) out of these the peasants the
labourers and the traders formed the majority.
 Customs and Amusements
 A good number of toys- Clay cart, Rattles, Bulls with mobile heads. Monkey with
movable arms, Dice, Chess-board.
 Hunting, Fishing, Cock-fighting.
 Cosmetics
 Tweezers, Ear-scoop, Piercer, Antimony rods, lvory comb, Mirrors, Hair pins, Round
buttons, Minor razors Kohi pots and sticks.
 Dresses and Ornaments
 Females were scantly dressed, they wore a short skirt.
 The male wore a robe, sometimes embroidered.
 Cotton was used, no evidence of linen and wool.
 No evidence of footwear.
 Special care of hair, reference of pony tail, plait, bun and coiled hair.
 Curly hair (Evidence from A Clay figure from Mohanjadaro)
 Beards (Not very long). Shavent upper lips.
 Neckless, Beads, Girdle, Bracelet, Fillets, finger rings, Bangles, Nose Ornaments,
Anklets.
 Religion
 Predomiance of Mother Goddess.
 Male deity – Pasupati Shiva
 Animal worship – Unicon (One humped built)
 Tree worship – Pipal
 Fertility Cult – Phallic worship
 Nature worship.
 Amulets and talisman.
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GENERAL STUDIES
 Evidence of fire cult (Lothal & Kalibangan)
 Mythical Heroes
 Burials
 Cemeteries at Harappa, Mohanjodaro, Lothal, Kalibangan and Roper Located around
the outkirts.
 Three forms of burials complete burial, Fractional burial and psot cremation burial.
 General practice was body lying on the back and head to the norht.
 Coffin burial from Harappa.
 Pot burial from Surkotada.
 Joint burial from Sukatada.
 Joint burial (Male & Female) fromLothal.
 Pit burial from Kalibangan.
 Animals & Birds
 Elephant, Cat, Dog, Camel, Ass, Tiger, Buffalo, Bear, Rhino, Goat, Unicorn, Pigs,
Fowls, Ox, Fish, Stag, Antelope, Partridge, Sheeps.
 Metals
 Copper, Silver, Gold, Lead, Tin, Ingol (Lead, Silver), Electrum (Silver+Gold)
 Tools
 Needles Razors, Sickles, Fish-hook, Saws, Chappers, Spades, Kni
Knives, Chests,
Spoons.
 Professions
 Potters, Copper and Bronze worker, Stone worker, Builder, Brick Market, Priests,
Faience Workers, Farmers, Traders.
 Rarities
 Rice, Horse, Round Cylindrical Seals, Plough, Whetstones.
 Absence
 Iron, Windows, Temple, Fork, Hair dyes, Round columns, Silk Fab
Fabrics, Swards,
Metallic Money water closets Brick-kilns, Furnaces, Lamps, footwear's Linen, Wool,
Golden finger, Helmets.
 Languages & Script
 Yet not deciphered, pictographic, approximately 396 sign have been listed, written
from right from left and left to right in alternate line, the style known as
BOUSTROPHEDAN, inscriptions are short. A
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GENERAL STUDIES
ART AND CRAFT

POTTERY
 Manly two types plain pottery and Red and Black pottery with Decoration, the majority
being the former.
 Widespread use to potter's wheel made up of wood, use of firing technique, use of kiln.
 Variety of pleasing Designs – Horizontal stripes, Check, Chess-Board Pattern, Intersecting
Circle (Pattern Exclusively found), Leaves & Petals, Natural Motif-Birds, Fish, Animals,
Plants, Human Figure rare ( A man & A child found from Harappa) and Triangles.
 Pottery had plain bases, few ring bases have been found.
 Polyhrome pottery was rare * Discovered at Nal, Baluchistand and AMRI, Pre-Harappan,
Period).
 Spouted pottery of Babylonia not available.
 Large jars for grains have been found.
 Pots from Lothal show high skill
 Plain, undercoated pottery more common in Mohanjodaro.
 Harappa & Mohanjodaro's pottery are monichrome.
 JHUKAR POTTERY used two colours red and black on cream of pinkish ship and it entirely
different.
SEALS
 Seals are the greatest artistic creation of the Harappan people-Cutting & polishing
craftsmanship is excellent.
 No of seals discovered is approx 2000.
 Made of steatite (soft stone). Sometimes of copper, shell, Agate, lovry, Faience, Terracotta.
 Size - ½ inch to 2½ inch.
 Shape – Square Rectangular, Button, Cubical, Cylinder, Round
 Two main types
(a) Square – carved animal & inscription, small boss at the back.
(b) Fectangular – inscription only, hold on the back at the back.
 Dean-White appearance.
 Display symbols- Circles, Crosses, Bots, Swastiks, Leaves of the pepal tree.
 Most frequently depicted animal – Unicorn.
 Other animals : Elephant, Tiger, Rhino, Antelobe, Crocodile.
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GENERAL STUDIES
 Purpose : marked ownership of property, Use in applying to bales of merchandise,

(Discovery of such seals from beside the dockyard of total) and used as amulate.
 Chanhudaro has yielded only square stamp seals.
 Jhukar has yielded stone and metal seals with inscription.
 Pashupati Seal has been found from Mohanjodaro. It depicts Siva seated on a stool flanked
by and elephant, a tiger, a rhinocerous, a buffalo and two antelopes/goats. Marshall
identified it with proto-Siva.
 'PERSIAN GULF SEALS' have been discovered from Lothal.
BEADS
 Beads were abundant & varied.
 Made of Gold, Silver, Copper, Bronze Faience, Steatite, Shelts, Semi-Precious stones.
 Mainly made of steatite, Such beads are barrel-Shaped.
 Bead Maker's shapes have been from Chandudaro and Lothal.
STONE SCULPTURES
 Employment of soft stone (Steatite, limestone and alabastor) mainly in the creation of stone
sculptures.
 Size is always moderate, no life-size sculptures have been found.
 Served as cult objects and icons.
 Carving of animals are rare.
 Not found in plenty, a few places have been discovered so far. And many of them are badly
mutilated and fragmentary.
 Most of the sculptures come from Mohanjodaro and a few from Harappa.
 The masterpieces are the Bearded priest of Mahanjodaro and two male figures, a Dancer and
a Youth with muscular body from Harappa.
BRONZE FIGURES
 Very few in number and employer cast bronze.
 An animal figure form mohanjodaro resembles horse.
 In the category of the Human Figures a great number is of Females.
 Some of the masterpieces are a Horned figure and a man from Mohanjodaro, Models and
casts a Bull with moving Head.
DISTRIBUTIONS OF CROPS
 Mohanjodaro - Wheat, Cotton, Barley
 Chandudaro - Wheat, Barley, Mustard
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GENERAL STUDIES
 Harappa - Wheat, Barley, Pea, Jowar, Millet, Seasamum
 Banwali - Wheat
 Kalibangan - Wheat, Barley, Pea
 Lothal - Rice Seasamum Millet
 Hulas - Wheat, Barley, Rice, Cotton, Pulses, Almond, Millet
 Surkotada - Millet
 Rajodi - Millet
 Kuntasi - Wheat, Barley, Jowar, Millet
 Rangour - Rice
HARAPPAN TRADE
 Evidences (a) identified
Sumerian texts make a mention of MULUHA which is identif
with Indus civilization and two intermediate trading stations
TILMUN/DILMUN (BANRAIN) and MAKAN/MAGAN
(MAKARAN COAST).
(b) UR,
Appearance of Indus seals in the Mesopotamian cities of UR
KISH, SUSA, TELL, ASMAR, LAGASH.
(c) Cylindrical seals of Mesopotamian type have been found in
i Indus
valley (Mohanjodaro).
(d) "Persian Gulf Seals" of Intermediate trading stations have
ha been
discovered from Indus region (Lothal).
(e) Evidence of imitation of Mesopotamian cosmetics by the
Harappan people.
(f) Evidence of coffin buriat, an exotic practice associated with
Mesopotamia from Harappa.
(g) Appearance of figures of "Humped Bull" from susa
(Mesopotamia).
(h) Discovery of ''Reserved ships were" of Mesopotamian type from
Harappa & Lothal.
 Internal Trade – With Saurashtra, Maharastra, South India, Rajasthan, Parts, of
WESTERN UP.
 External Trade – With Mesopotamia of Sumeria (Moder Iraq) Bahrain.
 Items of Imports – Gold, Silver, Copper, Tin, Laois, Lazuli Amethyst, Agate, Jade,
Shells.
 Items of Exports – (a) Agricultural Products.
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GENERAL STUDIES
(b) Wheat, Barley, Peas, Oil Seeds.
(c) Finished products
Cotton Goods, Pottery, Beads, Shells, Tarracotta, Products
Lvory Products
Main Imports and AREAS
Gold North Karnatka, Afghanistan, Persia
Silver Afghanistan or Iran
Copper Rajasthan (Khetri), South India, Arabia, Baluchistan
Lead East India/South India
Tin Afghanistan, Bihar
Lapis Lazuli Afghanistan,
Turquoise Perisa
Amethyst Maharastra
Agrate Saurashtra
Jade Central Asia
Shells Saurashtra, Deccan
Chalcedonies Saurashtra, West India
Carnelians Saurashtra, West India
BRONZE FIGURES
 (a) A great uniformity in town planning, the fundamental layout of prominent urban
settlements exhibits apparent similarities.
(b) Based on 'Grid Pattern' streets and lanes cutting across one another at right angles
dividing the city into a number of rectangular blocks. Main streets ran from north to
south and were as 30 feet. Streets and lanes are not paved.
 Entire city complex was bifurcated into two distinct parts, the citadel a fortified area
which housed important civic and religious public buildings Including granaries and
residences of the ruling class and the 'Lower Town' somewhat bigger in area and
invariably located east of the former, meant for commoners. Evidence of fortification of
the lower town as well from a few urban centre like Sukotad and Kalibangan and
evidence of division of the city into three parts instead of two from dhauivlra.
 Use of standardized burnt bricks on massive scale in almost the types of constructions
(an extraordinary feature of the contemporary civilizations) complete absence of stone
structures.
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GENERAL STUDIES
 Elaborate and planned underground, drainage system. Houses ware connected to the
main grain equipped with manholes. Mostly made up to brick s with mud mortar. Use of
gypsum and line to make it watertight. Cesspits were there inside the houses to deposit
solid waste. Bricks culverts meant for carrying rain and storm water have also been
found.
 (a) Houses were plain and did not exhibit any refinement and beauty. So far s the
decorative value of the houses was concerned they lacked it. In general they gave plain
and undeecorative lock.
(b) An average house comprise a courtyard and four to six living rooms, a bedroom, a
kitchen and a sell. Presence of staircase given indication of the storey. House had side-
entrances and windows were conspicuously absent.
(c) House varied from a single roomed tenements to houses with a number of room and
having even a second storey. Floors were generally of beaten earth coated with cow
dung. Fire-olaces are common in rooms. Wall were thick and square holes in them
suggest of use of wooden beams. Every house was separate by another by a narrow apace
of 'no man's land'. Staircases were usually wooden but some mean up of burnt bricks
were used in larger rooms, round pillars were absent. Kitchen was small in size. A round
oven meant for baking chapattis has been found.
SETTLEMENTS WITH SPECIALITIES IN TOWN PLANNING
 Surkotada (a) Fortification by stones.
(b) Fortification for lower town.
(c) Use of bricks
 Kalibangan (a) Fortification of lower town
(b) Use of mud bricks
 DHOLVIRA (a) Division to town in three parts – citadel, middle,
midd
town & lower town
 Chandudaro (a) Absence of citadel
 Lothal (a) front entrances in the houses
 Amri (a) No division of the town
(b) No fortification
 Kot Diji (a) No division of the town
(b) No fortification
 Harappa (a) Blocking of one gate in later phases
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GENERAL STUDIES
TOWNS ASSOCIATED WITH VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
 Laven (a) Stone tools factories.
 Sukkur (a) Stone tools factories
 Lothal (a) Stone tools factories
(b) Metal working factories
 Balakot (a) Shell ornament
(b) Bangle marking factories
 Chanhudaro (a) Bead making factories
(b) Shell – Ornament factories
(c) Metal working factories
(d) Bangle making factories
PLACES AND THEIR RIVERINE LOCATION
PLACES RIVERINE LOCATION
 Mohanjodaro Indus
 Harappa Ravi
 Kalibangan Ghaghar
 Lothal Ghogawa
 Daimabad Prawara
 Chandudaro Indus
 Kot Diji Indus
 Desalpur Bhadar
 Rajori Bhadar
 Manda Chenab
 Banwali Rangol
 Alamgirour Hindon
 Gumla Indus
 Kotala Nihang Satluj
 Rangpur Bhadar
 Sutkagender Bask/Dastkaur
 Balakot Vidar
 Sutakakoh Shadikaur
 Bhagwanpura Saraswati
 Ropar Satluj
8
GENERAL STUDIES
 Rakhigarhi Ghaghar
 Amiliano Mol Mallr
 Akhnoor Chenab
 Kunal Ghagghal
 Allahdion Mal Mallr
 Shurtghai Oxus (Kokacha)
 Sakikarpur Indus
 Dholavira Madsar & Manin
 Mehar Indus
 Kuntasi Jhinjhoda
 Vainiwai Beas
 Chokpurben Siyal Ravi
 Dabarkot Loralai
 Jalipur Ravi
 Mehargarh Botan
PORT ZONES
 Nagoshwar Gujarat
 Somnath Gujarat
 Tunda Makarn Coast
 Bhagtrav Gujarat
 Khaira Kot Makran Coast
 Balakot Makran Coast
 Prahag Makran Coast
 Lothal Gujarat
 Sutakakoh Makran Coast
 Sutodagendor Makran Coast
 Allhdino Indus
 Kuntasi Gujarat
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION SITES
1. Sindh : Judirodar, Mohenjoadaro, Amri, Kotadiji, Pandwahi,
Gajishah, Kotras, Buth Damb Buthi, Tarkai, Qulila, Sukur,
9
GENERAL STUDIES
Allahdino, Chandudaro, Rohari, Lhmujudare, Allmurah,
Jhukar, JHandar.
2. Baluchistan : Mehargarh, Mugal ghundai, Bdam Sadat, Periano,
ghundai, Kill Gul Muhammad, Sur Jangal, Rana Ghundai,
Shahi Thump, Anjira, Kuli, Naaushari, Nindowan,
Gumala, Dabarkot, Balakot, Sutakakoh, Sutakagendor,
Saraikhola, Dera ismail Khan, Rahman Dheri.
3. Afghanistan : Mundigak,k Shurtgahi.
4. West Punjab : Vainiwal, Harappa, Jalipur, Ganerwal, Sanganwal,
Derawar, Srkhoa, Dabarkot, Hangor, Dhaulvira, Lothal,
Surkotada, Bhagtrav, Rangpur, Rojad Desalpur, Malwal,
Kuntasi, Prabhas Patan.
5. Rajasthan : Sothi, Balishwar, Kalibangan, Shishwal, Bra, Ganeshwar.
6. Uttar Pradesh : Lal Quila, Alamgirpur, Manpur, Baragaon, Hutas.
7. Harayana : Salimgarh, Kunal, Banwali, Rakhigarhi, Bhagwanpur,
Mittalthal, Siswal, Hasnpur Dadheri.
8. Punjab : Newaon, Ropar, Kotala Nihang, Sanghol, Hssanpura,
Mahrauna, Bara, Sinswan.
9. Jammu-Kashmir : Manda
FINDINGS AND EVIDENCES
1. Cemeteries 'H' & P 37 : Harappa
2. Furrow Field : Kalibangan
3. City dividend into three parts : Dholvira
4. Fragment of Woven cloth : Mohanjodaro
5. Dockyard : Lothal
6. Evidence of Rice : Rangpur & Lothal
7. Evidence of Cotton Burial : Lothal
8. Remains of Bones of House : Surkotada
9. Fire altars : Kalibangan & Lothal
10. Terrocotta Models of ships / boats : Lothal
11. Single – roomed barracks : Harappa
12. Pasupati Mahadev Seal : Mohanjodaro
13. Seal depicting mother Goddess with : Mohanjodaro
a plant growing from her womb
10
GENERAL STUDIES
14. Devastation by flood : Chandudaro, Mohanjodaro
15. Collegiate building : Mohanjodaro
16. Assembly Hall : Mohanjodaro
17. Granaries : Mohanjodaro & Harappa
18. Steatite figure of a bearded priest : Mohanjodaro
19. Brone dancing girl : Mohanjodaro
20. Warehouse : Lothal
21. Working platform : Harappa
22. Terracotta figurine of a house : Mohanjodaro
23. Bead making factory : Chandudaro & Lothal
24. Shell ornament makers factory : Chandudaro & Lothal
25. Metal worker's factory : Chandudaro & Lothal
26. Evidence of joint burial : Harrapa
27. Evidence of pot – burial : Surkotada
28. Terracotta raplica of a plough : Banwali
******
11
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-2
THE VEDIC AGE
REFERENCES & EVIDENCES
1. Origin of India Music ............................................................................................... Sam Veda
2. Mention of the word 'Sudras ..............................................................Rig Veda (10th Mandala)
3. 'Gayatri mantra ........................................................................................................... Rig Veda
4. Mention of the word Gotra ..................................................................................Atharva Veda
5. Soma the intoxicating drink and the god who lends his name of the drink ......... Rig Veda (9th Mandala)
6. Mention of the word 'Varna'................................................................Rig Veda (10th Mandala)
7. Four Fold divisions of society .............................................................Chanduogya Upanishad
8. Purusa Shukta Hymn ...................................................................................................Rig Veda
9. First three ashramas (Brahmacharin, Grihastha, Vanaprashta) .............Chandogya Upanishad
10. Four ashrmas (Brahmacharin, Grihastha, Vanaprashta Samyasin)................. Jabla Upanishad
11. Mention of the Great Flood ..................................................................... Satpatha Brahamana
12. Samsara (Transmigration of soul)...............................................................................Rig Veda
13. Gamester's Lament .....................................................................................................Rig Veda
Ved
14. Battle of ten kings .................................................................................................... Rig Veda
V
15. Sudras as the servant of another to be expelled at will and to be slain at will................ Aitareya Brahamana
16. Satya Meva Jayate ..................................................................................... Mundaka Upnishad
VEDIC LITERATURE
1. THE VEDAS
A. They are four in number.
B. They are collection of hymns, prayers, charms, and sacrificial formulae.
2. THE BRAHAMANAS
A. Elaborate Prose texts.
B. Contain explanation of the hymns, their origin and give precepts of their application.
3. THE ARANYAKA
A. Known as forest books.
B. Deal with mysticism, moral values and philosophical doctrines.
4. THE UPANISHADS
A. Deal with philosophy, metaphysics.
12
GENERAL STUDIES
B. Known as ''vedanta'' meaning ''the end of the vedas'' for the denote the last phase
of the vedic period and reveal the ultimated aim of the vades.
C. They are 108 in number.
D. The earliest upanlishads are "Brihadaranyaka" and "Chanddogya'' written in
prose.
E. Advocated salvation through knowledge (Gnana Marge) realisation rather then
works of faith.
FACTUAL ASPECTS
1. Rig Veda
- Collection of Hymns
- Oldest of all the vedas
- Contains 1028/1017 Hymns for Suktas
- Contains 10 'Mandalas' & 8 Ashtakas.
2. Yajur Veda
- Collection of rituals for performing
rming different sacrifices.
- The only veda party in prose.
- Divided into two parts Krishna/Black Yajurveda (comentery in prose) and
Sukla/White Yajurved (sacrificial formulae and rituals)
3. Sam Veda
- Collection of humns taken from the Rig Veda and set to tunes for the purpose of
singing.
- Known as the Book of Chants.
- Hymns area meant of signing at Soma sacrifices.
4. The Atharva Veda
- Collection of charms, magic, spells.
- Preserves many popular cults and superstitions. Contains non-Aryan elements (folk
elements)
- The hymns are meant for warding off evils & demons, winning over friends and gain
material success.
VARIOUS SAMSKARAS & RITES
- PUMSAVANA to secure the birth of a male child.
- JATAKARMAN Ceremony for the new-born child.
- NAMAKAFIANA Ceremony of naming the child.
13
GENERAL STUDIES
- UPANAYANA Ceremony of invitation, the child enters life of a
student.
- YAJNOPAVITA Child ‘is invested with sacred thread and received
into Aryan Society.
- SAMAVARTANA Ceremony on the competition of studentship and
coming back home.
- AGNIHOTRA Daily oblation in sacred fire.
- VRATYA-STOMA outside
Sacrifice/rites by means of which persons outsid
the pale of Brahmanic fold were admitted into the
orthodox society.
VEDIC DEITIES
1. Indra (i) War-God and Weather-God (ii) associated with storm and
thunder (iii) Also known as PURANDRA or breaker of forts.
2. Agni (i) Fire-god (ii) Mediator between god and the humans.
3. Varuna Ethically
(i) God of cosmic order end the universal monarch (ii) Ethical
the highest
4. Prithvi (i) Personification of the Earth
5. Pushan (i) Solar god. (ii) Guarded cattle and all living creatures. ((iii)
regarded as the god of shudras.
6. Savitri (i) Personified the sun in its morning and evening aspects.
7. Surya (i) Chief sun god
8. Usas (i) The goddess of dawn
9. Rudra rowdy
(i) The howler, amoral, an archer - god. (ii) depicted as a ro
man of wild temper an object of fear and horror
10. Vishnu (i) God having solar characteristic. (ii) The preserver and pr
protector
of the people.
11. Tavistri (i) God of magic powers.
12. Yama (i) God of the dead
13. Prajapati (i) The creator god.
14. Brihaspati (i) God of prayer.
15. Soma (i) God of plants.
VARIOUS POLITICAL FUNCTIONARIES
A. Purohita Priest
B. Senani Commander - In - Chief
14
GENERAL STUDIES
C. Suta Charioteer
D. Ratnins General term for higher function aries viz. purohita, senani, gramini
E. Mahisi Chief queen.
VARIOUS ROYAL CEREMONIES
(a) Rajasuya - Royal consecration (accession to throne)
(b) Vajapeya - Literal meaning drink of strength. A kind of rejuvenation
ceremony. It strengthened the status of the king among his
subjects. Chariot-race (17 chariots) was an important feature of it.
(c) Aswamedha - Literal meaning horse sacrifice. It was meant for extending
the domain of the King and providing him a status of
'Chakravartin' and bringing about fertility and prosperity of
his Kingdom. A special feature of this ceremony is sacrifice
of the horse. It lasted for a year.
(d) Purushmedha - Extreme and dreadful form of sacrifice in which a man was
allowed to enjoy himself for a year during which all his
whishes and were fulfilled and at the end of the year he was
sacrificed.
(e) Punar - Abhisheka - A ceremony of renewed consecration which made the king
eligible for all kinds of royal dignity.
(f) Aindra Mahabhishekha - A sacrifice meant for providing the king superiority and
supremacy over all kings and making him 'Elarat', the sole
ruler, Aswamedha is associated with it.
(g) Abhisheka - Besprinkling ceremony.
GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS KNOWN TO THE ARYANS
(a) RIG VEDIC PERID
The core region was 'Sapta-Sindhava', the land of the Indus and its principal Western
tributaries Gomati (Gomal), Krumu (Korram), Kubha (Kabul) and Suvastu (Svat) and
eastern tributaries the five rivers of Punjab besides the valleys of Saraswati and
Drishadvati corresponding to Eastern Afghanistan and West & East Punjab.
- No knowledge of sea.
- Knowledge of the Himalayas,
(b) LATER VEDIC PERIOD
- Mention of Seas.
- Mention of the Vindhyas
15
GENERAL STUDIES
SIX VEDANGAS
The Vedangas were considered important for understanding.
A. Siksha - Phonetics / Pronunciation
B. Chhandas - Metre
C. Vyakarana - Grammer
D. Nirukta - Etymology (Explanation or words)
E. Jyotisha - Astronmy
F. Kalpa - Sacrificial rituals
The first two were required for reading the vedas, the third and fourth for understanding
ixth for the implementation of the sacrifice.
the vedas and the fifth and the sixth
DEITIES BELONGING TO VARIOUS PLANES
a. Terrestrial deities - Agni, Soma, Prithvi
b. Atmospheric Deities - Indra, Rundra, Vayu, Marut, Parjanya
c. Celestial Deities - Surya, Usha, Vishnu, Varuna, Savitr, Dyaus, Asvins,
Mitra, Pushan.
PAINTED GREY WARE (1000 B.C. TO 600 B.C.) — CHARACTERISTICS
a. Grey to ash-grey in colour.
b. Painted in black and sometimes in a deep-chocolate colour on the outer as well as inner
surface.
c. Important Sites – Ahichchhatra, Rupar, Bhawanpur, Noh, Alamgirpur, Hastinapur,
Atrajikhera, Jakhera, Mathura, Panipat, Purana Quila, Bairat, Sonepat, Jodhpura, Sravasti
VARIOUS VIEW ABOUT ORIGINAL HOME OF THE ARYANS
a. Sapta Sindhu Region - A.C. Das
b. Central Asia - Max Mullar
c. Arctic Region - B.G. Tilak
TERRITORIAL DIVISIONS
1. Aryavarta - Northern India
2. Madhyadesa - Central India
3. Dakshinapatha - Southern India
4. Uttarapatha (Udichya) - North – West India
*******
16
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-3
RELIGION & PHILOSOPHY
SIX SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY
SANKHYA
o The oldest School.
o Founder was Kapila
o Atheistic in nature.
NYAYA
o Founder was Akshapada Gautama.
o School of logic or analysis.
o Salvation could be attained though older thinking and logic.
YOGA
o Founder was Patanjali
o Main text was Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
VAISHESHIKA
o Founder was uluka kandada (literally eater of atoms)
o Doctrine of atomism – material objects are made up of atoms.
o Believed that atoms were different from soul – a dualistic approach.
MIMAMSA
o Literally means art of reasoning and interpretation.
o Main text was sutras of Jamini.
o Provides explanation of the vedas.
VEDANTA
o Literally means the end the veda.
o Basic text is Brahmasutra of Badaryana (200 BC)
o Associated with the philosophy of upanishads.
o Advocates the concept of Brahma as the only reality and views the whole world as
unreal.
o Two lengthly commentaries were written on it by Sankaracharya and Ramanuja
o Also known as Uttara Mimasa.
17
GENERAL STUDIES
FACTS ABOUT SAIVISM
1. Development and popularised in South India around 500 AD by the saints Nayanars, 63
in number.
2. Agmas, 18 in number and said to have been compassed by the various aspects of Siva
himself are the greatest work in saivism.
3. Various forms of siva :
(i) Nataraja – Lord of dance, invented 108 forms of dances, tandavada, a fierce
dance in one of them.
(ii) Dakshinamurti – A God south facing
(iii) Ardhanariswara – Half –siva and half paravti represeting the union of God with
his sakti.
4. In south India, daughter of a Pandayan king name Minakshi is assoicated with siva as
this spouse and the Minakshi temple of Madurai had been contracted to celebrated the
event of marriage of Siva with Minakshi.
VARIOUS SECTS OF SAIVSM
(A) PASUPATAS / NAKULISAPASUPATAS
 Founded by Lakulisa/Nakulisa/Kaulin/Lakutin.
(B) KALMUKHAS / KAPALIKAS
 Extreme forms of Saivism
(C) VIRASAIVAS / LAIGAYATS
 Founded by Basava, the prime minister of Bijjala, the Kalachuri King.
 Popular in Karanatka region.
FACTS ABOUT BHAGVATISM
1. Vasudava –Krishna of Vrishni race was the chief God who discussed its philosophy in
Bhagvad – Gita.
2. Megasthenese refers of Krishna as Herakles of Souraseni tribe.
3. Ten awataras
(a) Matsya (Fish) (b) Kurma (Tortoise) (c) Varaha (Boar) (d) Narasimha (man - lion) (e)
Vamana (Dwarf) (f) Parasurma (Rama with axe) (g) Rama (h) Krsna (i) Buddha (j)
Kalkin (as a man on a white horse with a sword in his hand, the awatara yet to come in
Kaliyuga.)
4. The Besnagar Pillar inscription is associated with Heliodurs son of Dion and a native of
Taxila, and ambassador from the court of the Indo-Greek king Antialkidas to King
18
GENERAL STUDIES
Bhagabhadra (Sungas) who erected a garuda-dhwaj at Besnagar and claimed himself a
Param-Bhagvata.
5. Developed and popularised in South by twelve saints known as Alvars.
FACTS ABOUT BUDDHISM
PERSONAL HISTORY OF GAUTAM BUDDHA
1. Title Buddha, Sakyamuni, Tathagata
2. Birth Place Lumbini (Modern Rumindei/Rupan - Delhi) in
Kapilvastu (Piparwaha)
3. Birth Year 563 BC
4. Clan Sakya
5. Class Kshatriya
6. Gotra Name Gautama (Gotama in Pali)
7. Father's Name Suddodhana
8. Traditionally his wife known as Bhadda, Kanchana, Subhaadraka, Bimba, Gopa,
Yasodhara
9. Son Rahul
10. Horse Kanthaka
11. Teacher under whose guidance Alara Kama & Ruddaka Ramaputta
Siddhartha remain for quite some
time before he attained enlightment
12. Got enlightement at Uruvela (modern Dodhyagaya) on the bank
ba of the
river Niranjana.
13. Delivered first Sermon at Deer Park in Sarnath (Isipatna)
14. Death (Year) 483 DC at the age of 80 yrs.
15. Death (Place) Kushingar (Kushinara) in U.P. Capital of the mallas
FOUR NOBLE TRUTH / CATTARIARIYASACCANI
1. 1. Sorrow (dukkha) The world is full of sorrow
2. The cause of sorrow (dukkha samudaya) / is desire
3. Cessation of sorrow (dukkha – nirodha)
4. The path leading to the cessation of sorrow (dukkha – nirodhagamini pratipad) is
Ashtangikamarga)
19
GENERAL STUDIES
THREE JEWELS IN BUDDHISM
a. BUDDHA (Enlightment)
b. DHAMMA (Doctrine)
c. SANGHA (Order)
SYMBOLS SIGNIFYING DIFFERENT EVENTS OF BUDDHA'S LIFE
 Birth - Lotus & Bull
 Renunciation - Horse
 Enlightment - Bodhi tree
 First Sermon - Wheel
 Death - Stupa
FOUR GREAT EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF BUDDHA
1. Mahabhiniskarman – Renunciation
2. Nirvana – Enlightment
3. Dhammachakaparivartan – First sermon
4. Mahaparinirvana of Parinirvana – Death
BUDDHIST COUNCILS
FIRST COUNCIL
A. PLACE - SATPARNI CAVE (NEAR RAJAGRIHA)
B. PRESIDED OVER BY - MAHAKASSAPA
C. UNDER - AJATSATRU
D. OUTCOME
(i) All the teachings of Buddha were divided into two pitakas
(ii) Vinaya Pitaka – established under the leadership of Upali.
(iii) Sutta Pitaka – settled under the leadership of Ananda.
SECOND COUNCIL
A. PLACE - VAISALI
B. PRESIDED OVER BY - SABA KAMI
C. UNDER - KALASOKA / KANKAVRMIN
D. OUTCOME
(i) The council failed to bring about a compromise between the two opposing groups.
(ii) The council ended in a permanent split of the Buddhistorder into Sthaviravadins and
Mahasangikas
20
GENERAL STUDIES
THIRD COUNCIL
A. PLACE - PATLIPUTRA
B. PRESIDED OVER BY - MOGGALI PUTTA TISSA
C. UNDER - ASHOKA
D. OUTCOME
(i) The philosphical interpretations of the doctrines of Buddha were collected into third
Pitaka called Abhidhamma Pitaka.
(ii) Heretical monks numbering sixty thousand were expelled from the order.
FOURTH COUNCIL
A. PLACE - KUNDALAVANA IN KASHHMIR
B. PRESIDED OVER BY - VASUMITRA
C. UNDER - KANISKA
D. OUTCOME
(i) Rise of Mahayana and Hinanyana.
(ii) Complied commentaries (Upadesa Sastras & Vibhasa Sastra) of the three pitakes
(iii) Decided certain controversial questions of differences that arose between the
sarvastivada teachers of Kashmir and Gandhara.
KINGS WHO GAVE PATRONAGE OF BUDDHISM
Ashoka, Kanishka, Menander, Harsha, Dharmapala, Kujula, Kadphis
Kadphises, Satvahabas,
Bimbisara, Ajatastru (Magadha), Prasenjita (Kosala) Udayana (Kausambi)
(Ka
FAMOUS BUDDHIST CENTERS
(1) Bharhut (2) Sanchi (3) Sarnath (4) Bodhgaya (5) Nalanda (6) Purushapura (7) Taxila
(8) Mathura (9) Amarvati (10) Karle (11) Kanheri (12) Nagarjunkonda (13) Odantipura
(14) Benaras
VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM
MAHAYANA
1. Believed in the divinity of the Buddhas
2. Worshipped the images of several Buddhas and Bodhisattvas
3. 'Sanskrit' became the official language.
4. It had two chief philosophical schools, the Madhyamik and Yogachara.
5. Prominent place give to the Boddhistavs – who were being of great kindess and helped
the humanity through their own suffering.
6. Teachers the salvation for all.
21
GENERAL STUDIES
HINAYANA
1. Believed in the original teachings of the Buddha.
2. Popular in Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Combodia, Laos etc. but lost its popularity in India.
3. Adopted Pali as the Language for teaching and texts.
VAJRAYANA / VEHICLE OF THUNDER BOLT
1. Salvation attained by acquring the magical power.
2. There were alos a number of lesser divinities, called by the names of demons, such as
matangis, pisacis, yoginis and dakinis.
YOGACHARA / VIJANAVADIN
1. Founded by Nagarjuna / Nagasena around 150 AD
BUDDHIST SCRIPTURES
1. Buddhist Scriptures are Pitakas, which are written in Pali language.
2. It consists of three sections called Tripitakas.
I. Sutta Pitaka
i. Largest & most important of the Tripitakas, contains the teachings of Budda.
ii. It is divided into five Groups (Nikayas)
iii. Among the contents of the Khuddaka are Jatakas (a collection of over 500 poems
which describe the previous births of Buddha, many of them being in the animals
forms).
II. Vinaya Pitaka : contains numerous rules for the conduct of the order.
III. Abhidhamma Pitaka : Consists of philosophy of Buddhism.
VARIOUS BUDDHIST WORKS
1. Milinda-Panho (Questions of Menander ) An account of the discussion between Bacteria
Mendar of Milinda and the Buddhis monk Nagasena.
A. Dipavamsa (Island Chronicle) –
i. earliest chronicle and has no literary merit.
ii. Written in Sri Lanka in 400 AD
B. Mahayamsa (Great Chronicle) –
i. contains passages of beauty and vigour.
ii. Written in Sri Lanka 500 AB
C. Culvamsa (lesser chronicle) –
i. contains a succession of monks down to the fall of the kingdom of kandy to the
British.
ii. Written in Sri Lanka in 900 AD.
22
GENERAL STUDIES
1. Madhyamika Karika : Basic text of the Madhyamika School written by Nagarjuna.
2. Buddhacharita : Biography of Buddha written by Asvaghosha
TERMINOLOGY
Boddhistava - A being about to become Buddha, show, chartiy &
kindness Helper of man.
Srmanas/Bhikhus - Buddhist monks
Mahaparinirvana - Final blowing out, death
Mahabhinishkarma - Renunciation, Buddha's leaving home.
Caityas - Grooves of trees worshipped by the Buddhists
Nirvana - Literally means ''the blowing out'' or extinction of craving.
Vihara - Buddhist monastery
NOTED BUDDHIST MONKS
1. Anand with Buddha at the time of death
2. Sariputta - master of dhamma
3. Upali – master of vinaya
4. Anuruddha – master of right mindfulness
5. Magallan – greatest supernatural powers
6. Mahakssapa – President first council
7. Rahul – Son of Buddha
FACTS ABOUT JAINISM
PERSONAL HISTORY OF MAHAVIRA
1. Original Name : Vardhaman
2. Birth : 540 BC
3. Place of Birth : Kundanagrama (Basukunda) in Vaishali, Identical with Basarh
4. Father's name : Siddhartha
5. Mother's name : Trishala/Priyankarni (a licchavi Princess, sister of Chetaka)
6. Wife : Yashoda
7. Class : Kshatriya
8. Clan : Nyaya (Jnatrika in Sanskrit and NATA in pali)
9. Got Enlightment at : Jimrikagarama/Pijupalika under a SAL TREE at 42 yrs.
10. Place of Death : Pavapur (near Rajgriha)
11. Companion : Gosala Maskaripurta
12. At first he followed the : Parsavanath
practices of an ascetic group
Nirgranthas founded by
13. Titles : Mahavira, Nirgrantha, Nayaputa
23
GENERAL STUDIES
TWENTY FOUR TIRTHANKARAS
(a) Rishadev / Adinath (2) Neminath, (3) Parsvanath – Son of kind Kasi Asvasena - Vama –
married to Prabhawati, (4) Mahavir
Five Principles / Vows Observed by A Householders as Anuvratas & By A sadhu as Mahavarats
a. Ahimsa Non-violence
b. Satya Non-lying
c. Asteya Non-Stealing
d. Aparigraha Non-Possession
e. Brahmacharya Celibacy
The last principle was added by Mahavira whereas former four principles were advocated by
Parasvanatha
THREE JEWELS / THREE WAY TO ATTAIN KAIVALYA
a. Right Knowledge Understanding of religious principles.
b. Right Faith / Liberation Belief in Jinas
c. Right Action / Conducts Observance of 5 vows (Anuratas / Mahavratas)
PHILOSOPHY
1. Rejected the authority of the vedas and the Vedic rituals
2. Advocated an austere and simple life.
3. Did not believe in the existence of God.
4. Believed in karma and the transmigration of soul.
5. Gods are lower the Jina.
6. World not created, maintained and destroyed by a personal God but by a universal law.
7. Monastic life is essential for salvation.
8. Extreme non-violence.
PRAKRIT
JAINE LITERATURE : MOST OF THE TEXT HAVE BEEN WRITTEN IN PRAKRI
1. 14 Purvas The text books of old jain scriptures.
2. 12 Angas Jaina doctrine / Rules of conduct history of mahavir
3. 12 Upangas Associated with each Angas myth, dogmas.
4. 10 Prakinas Doctrinal matters / in verse form
5. Kalpasutra History of Janism from it birth, written By Bhadrabahu.
24
GENERAL STUDIES
JAINA COUNCIL
I. First Council
Place Pataliputra
Outcome The sacred teachings of Mahavira were compiled into twelve Angas to
replaces the lost 14 purvas.
II. Second Council
Place Vallabhi (Gujarat)
Outcome i. 12th Anga drawn at the first council was lost.
ii. All the remaining ANGAS were written in Ardhamagadhi.
PATRONS
Kharvela, Chandragupta, Maurya, Amogvarsha, Chalukyas, (Gujarat), Kumarapala Kadmabhas,
Bimbisara, Gangas, Rashtrakutas, Udayin, Samprati, Somadeva (Chalukyas), Nitimarga (Ganga)
SECTS OF JAINISM
1. Digambaras
i. Sky Clad or naked
ii. Leader was Bhadrabahu
iii. Arose out of the group which had to Sravanabelgola in Karnataka at the time of femine.
2. Swetambaras
i. Wore white garments.
ii. Leader was Sthula Bhadra
Architecture Associated with Jainism
(1) Rock-cut caves at Badami – having the images to jain Tirthankaras which belong to early
Chalukya period). (2) rock cut caves at Aihole – having the images of jain Tirthankaras
which belong to early Chalukya period. (3) Hathigumpha cave of Kharvel. (4) Khandagiri
caves of Orissa (5) Udaigiri caves of Orissa. (6) Shravanabelgola in Karnataka – The huge
statue of Bahubali called Gomatesvara. (7) Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu (Rajasthan)
HINDU COSMOGONY
1. According to Hindu cosmogony the cosmos passes through cycles.
2. The basic cycle of Kalpa, a day of Brahma equivalent to 4320 million years.
3. Within each Kalpa there are fourteen mavantaras. We are now it the seventh
manavantaras of the kalpa of which the manu is known as manu Vaivasvata.
4. Each manavantaras contains seventy one Mahanaugas.
5. Each mahayuga is divided into four yugas known as Krta, Treta, Dvapara and Kali. Their
Lengths are 48000, 36000, 24000 adn 1200 years respectively.
25
GENERAL STUDIES
6. We are at present in Kaliyuga which began in 3102 B.C. which is believed to be the year
of the Mahabarata war.
VARIOUS GODS AND GODDESSES
God/Goddesses Region Represents God/Goddesses Region Represents
Jagganath Puri Vishnu Vidhob Pandarpur Vishnu
Venkateshwar Tirupatti Vishnu Meenakshi Madurai Wife of Shiva
Neelkanth - Shiva Trayambak - Shiva
Adinath - Shiva Vitthal Pandarpur Vishnu
Rangnath Shrirangam Vishnu Viruksha - Shiva
Ardhnarishwar Vijaynagar Shiva Dakshina Murti Vijaynagar Shiva
Ishan - Shiva Jagjjnani - Parvati
VARIOUS GUARDIANS / LOKPALS

1. India East
2. Varuna West
3. Kubera North
4. Yama South
5. Soma North-East
6. Agni South-East
7. Vayu North-West
8. Surya South –West
VARIOUS DOCTRINES
PROPOUNDER DOCTRINE
1. Ramanujcharya Vishishta Advaitvad
2. Shankaracharya Advaitvad
3. Madhavacharaya Dvaitavad
4. Vallabhacharya Shudhadvitavad
5. Nimbakacharya Dvaitadvaitavad
6. Bhaskarcharya Bhedabhedvad
7. Chaitnya Achintyabhedabhedavad
8. Basava Vir Saivavad
*******
26
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-4
THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
REFERENCES AND SOURCES
1. Division of Indian Society into seven castes Megasthense
2. Absence of Slavery Megasthense
3. Chronology and list of Mauryan Kings Puranas
4. Conversion of Chandragupta Maurya to Jainism– Parisistparvan of
his abdication of throne and going to Sravanbelgla Hemachandra
5. Ashoka's favour to Ajivikas Barabar Hill cave inscriptions
6. Construction of Sudarsana Lake Junagarh Rock Inscription of
Rudraman-I
7. The name Ashoka Maski Gujarra, Nittur and Udegolam
Edicits
8. Bindusar asked Antiochus I of Syria for some sweet Hegesander (quoted by Atheneus)
wine, dried figs and a philosopher
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
1. Tirthas Highest category of officials form the inner council apart from council
of ministers. They were eighteen in number.
2. Adhyakshya High ranking officials next to Tirthas concerned mostly with
economic functions and some military duties. The were twenty-seven
twenty-se
in number.
3. Mahamattas Higher ranking officials irrespective of the duties assigned to them.
There are references to them as a ministerial of advisory council
counc as
well. The Arthasastra uses this term in the sense of a minister.
minister
4. Amatyas secretaries, who
High ranking officers who acted as present day secr
functioned in administrative and judicial capacity.
PROVINCES DURING THE MAURYAN AGE
a. Uttarapatha Taxila
b. Dakshinapath Suvarngiri
c. Prachaya Patliputra
d. Kalinga Tosalt
e. Avatiratha Ujjain
f. Aparant Saurashtra
27
GENERAL STUDIES
IMPORTANT MAHAMATTAS
1. Vaharikamahamatta Judicial Officer
2. Dhammamahamattas Officer for dharma
3. Itijhakamahamattas Officer in charge of women/harem.
ESPIONAGE
1. Cara Secret agents mentioned in Arthashastra
2. Gudha – Purusha Secret agents mentioned in Arthashastra
ARMY
 Army administration was run by six committees (according to Megasthense)
 Each committee consisted of ive members (according to Megasthense)
 Each committee was entrusted with particular branch namely infantry cavalry elephants,
chariots, admiralty and transport & supplies.
CITY ADMINISTRATION
 Run by a city council known as Astyanomi.
 City council consist of six sub councils/committees.
 Each committees had five members.
 Head of the city administration was Nagrika.
FACTS ABOUT ASHOKAN EDICTS & INSCRIPTIONS
1. Maski, Gujjara, Nettur and Udegolam Inscription give the name Ashoka.
2. Ashokan edicts were deciphered by James Princep in 1837.
3. The Topra & Meerut Pillars wre brought to Delhi by Firoz Shah Tughlaq.
4. The Kausambi Pillar was brought to Allahabad by Jehangir.
5. Two major rock edicts at Manshera & Shahbazgarhi are in Kharosthi scrip.
6. Most of the Ashokan edicts are written in Brahmi scrip.
7. The language used in Ashokan edicts except kandahar is prakrit.
8. The inscription in fragmentry condition found at Lampaka/Lamghan is in Aramaic.
9. In edicts Ashoka Generally refers to himself by the Devanampiya Piyadassl.
10. The Allahabad pillars (brought from Kausambi) contains the inscription of Samudragupta
and Jehagir also.
11. Major rock edicts are fourteen in number.
12. Total number of pillar edicts is thirteen, they are inscribed on tem pillars—out of thirteen
seven are major pillars edicts four are man or pillar edicts and two are commemorative pillar
edicts.
28
GENERAL STUDIES
13. Schism edicts (one each) are found on Allahabad, Sanchi and Sarnath Pillars.
14. The longest among the major rock edict is 13th rock edict.
15. 7th Pillar edict is longest among all the edicts.
16. The Allahabad pillar contains first six pillar edicts, Queen's edict, Kosam Schism edict,
Prasasti of Samudragupta written by Harisena and Some decrees of Jehangir.
Kharosthi scrip was derived from persian Aramic.
VARIOUS EDICTS
1. Major Rock Edicts
Contains—Personal history of Ashoka
2. Minor Rock Edicts
Contains—Personal history of Ashoka
3. Major Pillar Edicts
Contains—These are appendix to rock edicts
4. Minor Pillar Edicts
Contains—
Contains—Ashoka's obsession with Dhamma
5. Kalinga Edicts
Contains—System of administration in Kalinga
6. Bhabru Edict
Contains—
Contains—Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism and his reverence for this religion.
religion.
7. Barabar Cave inscription
Contains—Donation of the caves to Ajivikas
NAMES OF CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
Sandrocottus — Strabo, Aprian, Justin
Vrishala — mudrarakshasa
NAMES OF BINDUSAR
1. Amitraghata — Sanskrit literally slayor of forces
NAMES & TITLES OF ASHOKA
Piyadassi — Official name (probably used after coronation)
Devanampiya — Royal title (A general royal title of the period)
King of Magadh — Bhabru edict
Piyadassi Raja — Barabar hill cave inscription.
FOREIGN EMISSARY / AMBASSADOR IN THE MAURYAN COURT
1. Megasthenes - by Seleucus — to the court of Chandragupta Mauryas
2. Deimachos - by Antiochus I, — to the court of Bindusar
King of Syria
29
GENERAL STUDIES
3. Dionysios - by Ptolemy II — to the court of Bindusar
Philadelphos, king of Egypt
ANIMAL CAPITALS SURMOUNTING THE ASHOKAN PILLARS
1. Rampurva I Single Lion
2. Lauryia-Nandangarh Single Lion
3. Basarh Single Lion
4. Rampurva II Single Bull
5. Sarnath Four Lions
6. Sanchi Four Lions
7. Sankisa Single Elephant
RELIGIOUS BELIEF OF THE MAURYAS
1. Chandragupta Jainism
2. Bindusar Ajivikas
3. Ashoka Buddhism
4. Dasaratha Ajivikas
SUCCESSORS OF ASHOKA
1. Ashoka died in 232 BC. He had many sons but only one son Tivar has been mentioned in
rock edicts.
2. There is a reference of Mahendra, son of, Asanghmitra.
3. There is a reference of a son of Ashoka named Jalauk who established an independent state
in Kashmir after death of his father.
4. In 191 BC after Shatghanush, Brihadrath became the king of Magadh. He was the brother of
Shatdhanush and last king of Maruya dynasty.
5. His commander was Pushyamitra Shung whow as an influential person. Pushyamtira killed
Brihadrath with the ehlp of army and captured the throne of Pataliputra. Hence in 184 BC
powerful Mauryan-empire came to an end.
******
30
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-5
FOREIGN RULING GROUPS - 200 BC TO 300 AD
INDO-GREEK
1. a. First important Greek king was Demetrius.
b. He issued bilingual coins.
2. a. Another important Greek king was Menander or Milinda.
b. He accepted Buddhsim.
c. The book Milinda-Panhi is a collection of his questions and answers given by Buddhist
thinker Nagsena.
3. a. Another important king was Antialkdas.
b. His ambassadar Heliodorus came to the court of a shunga king and created a garudadhauj
at Besnagar or Bhilsa and called himself a Parmbhagvat.
4. a. Greeks issued a large no. of coins.
b. They were the first to issue gold coins.
c. They introduced Hellenistic Art into India, the impact of which can be seen inteh
Gandhara Art.
THE SHAKAS
1. a. Nahpana was a Shaka king who belonged to Kshaharat Dynasty.
Dynast
b. He was defeated by the Satvahana king Gautamiputra Satkarni.
c. He adopted the title of Mahakshatrap.
d. He adopted the title of Rajan also.
2. a. Rudradaman was a famous Shaka king.
b. His Junagarh/Girnar Inscription, 150 AD is the first inscription in Chaste Sanskrit.
c. This inscription makes a mention of repair of Sudarshan Lake of Saurastra by
Rudradaman's governor in Saurastra Sutivashakh, the expense was borne by king's
exchequer.
THE PAHALAVAS / PARTHIANS
1. The only important king was Gondophernes.
2. St. Thomas reached India during his time.
THE KUSHANS
1. They belonged to Yuechi tribe.
2. a. First king was Kujula Kadiphises.
b. He issued copper coins.
31
GENERAL STUDIES
3. a. Another important king was Wima Kadiphises.
b. He was a Saiva.
4. a. Kanishka was the greatest Kushana King.
b. He adopted the title Devaputra which was inspired by the title Swargputra of the chines
emperor.
c. His capital was Purushpur (Peshawar).
d. He introduced Vikram era. 78 AD.
e. His rule extended from Afghanistan to Mathura and Banara.s
f. Being inspried by his teacher Parva he convened a Buddhist council at Kundalyana in
Kashmir whose President was Vasumitra and Vice-President was Aswaghosha. Vibhas
Shastra was complied.
FACTS ABOUT THE SHUNGAS
1. Shunga Dynasty was founded by Pushyamitra Shunga is 185 B.C. by assaissinating the last
Maruyan king Brihadratha. The reference of the assaissination is the Purans and
Harshacharita.
2. The Sungas were Brahmins.
3. The great grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of Pushyamitra Sunga. He wrote
Mahabhasya, a commentary on Panini's grammer.
4. Reference from Malvikaagnitra and Patanjali — Performance of Aswamedha sacrifice by
Pushyamitra.
FACTS ABOUT THE KANVAS
1. Dynasty was founded in 72 B.C.
2. The founder was Vasudeva Kanva.
3. The Kavas were Brahmins.
******
32
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-6
POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE GUPTAS
CHANDRAGUPTA - I
1. After Ghatotkaca, his son Chandragupta I came to the throne.
2. He married the Licchavi princess, Kumaradevi as is evident from the epithet
Licchavidauhitrah, applied to Samudragupta in inscriptions.
SAMUDRAGUPTA
1. He had a no. of military exploits to his credit. His achievemnts formed the subject of an
elaborate panegyric composed by the court poet, Harisena and Samduragupta choose to
leave a permanent record of his conquests by the side of the ethical
et exhortations of Ashoka
on one of his pillars, now inside the fort at Allahabad.
2. He is called Kaviraja which shows that he was a poet of no mean order.
CHANDRAGUPTA - II
1. He was Samduragupta's son by Dattadevi.
2. Chandragupta II found against the Saka ruler of Western India.
3. Chandragupta II started a silver currency in close imitation of that of the Ksatrapas after the
occupation of their territory.
4. Fa-hian stayed in the imperial city of Pataliputra for three years, learning Sanskrit. Finally he
proceeded to Tamralipti (Tamluk, Mindnapur district), where he embarked for Ceylon and
Java on his voyage homeward.
KUMARGUPTA - I
1. Certain gold coins of Kumargagupta I prove that he performed the Asvamedha sacrifice.
SKANDAGUPTA
1. Great even of Skandagupta's reign was the restoration of the embankment of the Sudarsana
lake, which had burst with excessive rain-fall.
2. On some of his silver coins he bears the more famous title of Vikramaditya as well.
3. In the Kahaum inscrpition he is called ksitipasatapatih or lord of a hundred kings.
4. He fought against the Hunas.
33
GENERAL STUDIES
FACTS ABOUT SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY

MATHEMATICS
GEOMETRY
1. Vedic people knew the methods of making square equal in area to triangle, rectangles,
circles and to sum & differences of squares i.e., making of square equal in area to sum and
differences of square.
2. In the second phase development is associated with the contribution of Brahmagupta. His
greatest contribution being the Cyclic Quadrilateral.
ARITHMETIC
1. Formulation of the theory of zero, was the greatest contribution of the ancient Indian
mathematicians. Decmial system of notation was also developed in India.
ALGEBRA
1. Algebraic method was first attempted by Aryabhatta. He was the 1st Indian Algebraic. His
work Aryabhattiam delas with rules for solution of a large no. of algebraic problems. He also
deveoped the system of arithmetic progression and geometric progression.
2. Brahmagupta around 700 A.D. developed the rules for operating with negative quantities
and with zero.
TRIGNOMETRY
This was given a new direction by Aryabhatta who introduced sines which was known as
Jaya.
ASTRONOMY
1. The first to make great contribution was Aryabhatta who wrote a book Aryabhattiam.
The measurement of the circumference of earth by Aryabhatta is very near to modern
estimation. He propounded the theory that the earth is round and that it rotates around its
own axis.
He gave a new theory regarding the cause of eclipse and rejected the earlier concept which
was related with the myth of Rahu as a reason for eclipses. He said eclipses are the result of
the shadow of moon and earth : He also put forward the theory of planetory movement.
2. Varahamihir who was a great astronomer of this period wrote Brihatsamhita;
Pannchasiddhantika, Yogamaya, Laghukatha, Vivahapattal.
He described about the motion of Nakshatras and its impact on the human life.
In his works we also find description of various varities of gems and its characteristic along
with the description of auspicious times of marriage and omens.
34
GENERAL STUDIES
3. Other great astronomer of this period was Brahmagupta, his works are Brahamasphuta
Siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka. We anticipated newton by declaring that all things fall to
earth by law of nature, for it is the nature of the earth to atract and keep things. This theory
was revolutionary in nature though it was not elaborated and explained properly.
4. Bhaskara II also contributed to astronomy and wrote a famous book "Siddhanta Shiromani",
where there is a separate chapter on mathematics known as Lilavati. This separate chapter is
so voluminous that it can be taken as a separate book.
5. As regard the development of Astronomy we find the progress of Astronomy in various
forms in the ancient times.
1st form : Pitamaha Siddhantha begining 300 A.D.
2nd form : Vashistha Siddhantha about 300 A.D.
3rd form : Paulis Siddhantha about 380 A.D.
4th form : Romak Siddhantha about 400 A.D. (which shows the wester influence)
5th form : Surya Siddhanta about 450 A.D. - 500 A.D.
MEDICAL SCIENCE
1. The beginning in the field of Medical Science was in the form of Ayurveda (science of
longevity): Ayurveda emerges out of Vedas. A large no. of hymns in Atharvaveda are
associated with Ayurveda.
2. The famous teacher "Atreya" taught medicine at Taxila university. His teachings were of
great value and significance and were collected by his disciple Agnivesha; his teachings
were compiled by Charaka in 100 A.D. which came to be known as Charakasamhita.
3. Teachings of Varanasi school gave birth to Sustrasamhita.
4. One of the greatest contribution during the Gupta period was made by Vagbhatta who wrote
Astangasangraha in 600 A.D.
FACTS ABOUT LITERATURE
1. a. First text of Sanskrit grammar is Ashtadhyayi (500 BC). There are 8 chapters and 400
sutras in it.
b. In 200 BC Patanjali wrote the Mahabhashya on the grammar of Panini.
2. a. Panchtantra is the earliest story collection.
b. It is compiled by Vishnu Sharma.
c. This book is of Gupta period.
3. a. Hitopadesh is second famous collectino of Indian stories.
b. Narayan is its writer.
4. a. Brihatkatha is a book of tales.
b. It is written by Gunadhaya.
35
GENERAL STUDIES
5. a. Katha Sarit Sagar written by Somadev is the translation of Brihatkatha in Sanskrit.
b. Kathasarit Sagar was written for the entertainemnt of queen Suryavati of king Naresh of
Kashmir.
6. a. Ritusamhar was the first text of Kalidas.
b. Six sesons are described systematically in it.
7. a. Raghuvansh is the greatest epic of Kalidas.
b. It contains the description of characters of 40 kings of Ishkavaku dynasty.
8. a. Malvikagnimitra is the first play of Kalidas.
b. Agnimitra is a Shunga rular and Malvika is his maid servant.
9. a. Abhijanashkuntalam is the best text of Kalidas.
b. It contains the description of king Dushyant of (Hastinapur).
10. a. Two famous plays of Vishakhadutta are Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.
Maurya and in
b. In Mudrarakshas, there is a description of Chandragupta Maur
Devichandraguptam description of Gupta ruler Ramgupta.
11. a. Mrichchhkatika is written by Shudrak.
b. It contains the love story of Brahman Charudatta and the famous courtesan of Ujjayani,
Vasantsena.
12. a. Bhavbhuti wrote the three play Malatimadhava, Mahavir Charita and Uttarancharita.
13. a. Dandi wrote three texts— Kavyadarsh, Dashkumar Charit and Awantisundarikatha.
14. Facts about Mahabharata :
a. Initially 8800 Verses knowna s Jayasamhita.
b. (Expanded) 24000 Verses known as Bharata.
c. (Expanded) 10000 Verses known as Satsahasri Samhita or Maha
Mahabharat.
15. Facts about Ramayana :
a. Initally 600 Verses
b. (Expanded) 12000 Verses
c. (Expanded) 24000 Verses
16. a. Harishena was a great Prashasti writer.
b. He wrote Prayag Prashasti.
17. a. Vishakhdutta was a fmous dramatist.
b. His Mudrarakshash is a political play.
c. It contains diplomatic tactics.
18. a. Subandhu was a famous prose writer.
b. His famous work is Vasvadatta.
36
GENERAL STUDIES
c. According to Banabhatta, the arroagance of poets came to an end because of his book.
19. a. Amarsimha wrote famous lexicogrophy Namlinganushashan / Amarkosa in sanskrit.
b. This is earliest lexicography in sanskrit.
20. a. Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhattiyam.
b. He belonged to Patliputra.
c. His desciples were — Srisen, Pradumna and Vijayanandi.
d. His principal desciple was Lalla who wrote Lallashidhanta. He also wrote a commentary
on Aryabhatta's work.
21. a. Varahmihir wrote Laghujatak, Brihajataka Vivahpatal, Yogmaya, Brihatsahita and
Panchsiddhantika.
b. The 14th cahpter of Brihatsamhita deals with Indian geography.
c. He wrote on three branches — Tantra, Jataka, Samhita,
d. He belonged to Magadha.
e. In order to earn livelihood he went to Ujjain.
f. Yavan (Greek) Siddhanta finds mention in his work.
BOOKS AND AUTHORS
BOOKS...............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................... AUTHORS
1. Buddhacharita.................................................................................... Asvaghosha (100 AD)
2. Saptasataka / Gathasaptasati (Prakrit).............................. Hala (100 AD) a Satvahana King
3. Mrichhkatika (Little Play Cart)........................................................ Sudraka (500-600 AD)
4. Ratnavali...................................................................................................... Harshavardhana
Harshavardh
5. Nagananda................................................................................................... Harshavardhan
Harshavardhana
6. Priyadarshika............................................................................................... Harshavardhana
7. Mudra Rakshasa............................................................................................... Visakhadutta
8. Kadambari ........................................................................................... Banabhatta (700 AD)
9. Harsha Charita.................................................................................... Banabhatta (700 AD)
10. Brihat Katha.......................................................................................... Gunadhya (200 AD)
11. Charak Samhita (First book on medicine)................... Charak (contemporary of Kanishka)
12. Susruta Samhita (First book on Surgery).................................................. Susruta (400 AD)
13. Astyadhyayi (First book on sanskrit grammer).......................................................... Panini
14. Mahabhasya (on saksrit grammer).......................................................... Patanajli (200 BC)
15. Amarkosa (lexicography)................................................................................... Amarsimha
................................................................................... (During the reign of chandragupta II)
37
GENERAL STUDIES
16. Devichandraguptam......................................................................................... Visakhadutta
17. Mattavilasa Prahasana (A burlesque)................................ Mahendravarman (Pallava king)
18. Hitopadesa............................................................................................................... Narayan
19. Panchatantra................................................................................................... Vishnusharma
FOREIGN ACCOUNTS - CHRONOLOGICALLY
1. Herodotus's Accounts — Greek (454-425 BC)
2. Ctesias's Accounts — Greek (416-398 BC) Ctesias or Ktesias was a physician.
3. Periplus of the Erythraean Sea - GReek — By a Greek sailor who made a voyage to the
Indian coast about 80 A.D. He is left a record of Indian ports, Harbours and merchandise-
Erythraean sea refers to red sea — Description of trade in Indian Ocean. Arabian sea and
Red Sea.
4. Natural History — Latin — by Pliny — In first century A.D. — He wrote about Indian
animals, plants and minerals.
5. Indica — Written by Arrian — Written in 100 AD in Greek — Wrote about India — He
utilized the accounts of Megasthenes and Eeratosthenes.
6. Geography — Greek — By Ptolemy — Written in Second Century AD on scientific times
— He gave the shape of India (like a kite).
7. Geography — by Strabo — Written in Greek.
8. Accounts of Cosmas — by Indicopleustes — Wrote about Mihirkula.
9. Record of the Buddhist countries — by Fahien.
10. Fo-Kwo-Ki (Travels of Fahien) — Fahien.
11. Si-yu-ki (Buddhist Records of the Western World) — by Hiuen Tsang — He refers to
Mihirkula.
VARIOUS DHARMASTURAS
GAUTAMA DHARMASUTRA
APASTAMBA DHARMASUTRA
BAUDHYANA DHARMASUTRA
VASISTHA DHARMASUTRA
HIRANYAKESI DHARMASUTRA
VISHNU DHARMASUTRA
HARITA — DHARMASUTRA
SANKHA - LIKHITA - DHARMASUTRA
VARIOUS SMRITIS
MANU SMRITI
38
GENERAL STUDIES
YAJNAVALKYA SMRITI
NARADA SMRITI
VISHNU SMRITI
BRAHASPATI SMRITI
VARIOUS COMMENTARY & BHASYA
1. Vishwarup wrote a comentary known as Balasera on Yavjnavalkya's Smriti.
2. Meghatithi wrote a commentary on Manusmriti.
3. Vijnaneshwar wrote a commentary known as Mitakshara (on civil law) on Yajnavalkya's law
book.
MITAKSHARA & DAYABHAG LAW
MITAKSHARA LAW
1. Father as the trustee of property
2. Sons & Grandsons have right to properly even before the death of father.
DAYABHAGA LAW
1. Father as the trustee of the property.
2. Son's right to properly after the death of father
COINAGE IN ANCIENT INDIA
1. Coins were introduced in India in 550 BC.
2. These early coins were known as Punch-marked coins bearing only a variety of symbols.
3. Indo-Greeks were first to introduce gold coins - they also initated the practice of issuing
bilignual coins- they were also first to issue coins which could be attributed to particular
kings with certainty.
4. The largest number of Copper coins were issued by the Kushans.
5. Portrait-coinas was introduced by Indo-Greeks.
6. Kushana Kings issued Dinara like coins.
7. The coinsof Kumargupta bore the images of Kartikeya Peacock and Garuda.
8. Karspana (silver & copper punchmarked) was the standard currency during the Mauryas.
9. Satvahanas issued coins in four metals; silver, copper, potin, and lead (the last one being
predominant).
10. The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins.
39
GENERAL STUDIES
VARIOUS COIN TYPES

1. Nishka : Gold ornaments used as medium of exchange during Vedic age.
2. Satmanas : Early coin type, the largest of the time, made of silver weighing
1,80 grain.
3. Karspana : Early coin type, the most popular one, made of gold, silver, copper
and lead.
4. Pana : Silver coin of early period weighing 57.8 grain. Popular during the
Mauryas.
5. Masika/Masa : Silver and copper coin, weighing 3.6 grain in case of silver and 9
grain in case of copper.
6. Kakini : Copper coin seighing 2.25 grain. Popular during the Maruya
period.
7. Dinara/Suvarna : (a) Gold coin of Kushana, weighing 124 grain.
(b) Gold coin of the Guptas based on Kushana model
weighing 144 grain Silver coin of the Guptas.
FACTS ABOUT INSCRIPTIONS
BHOGHAZ KOI INSCRIPTIONS
1. Gives information about the oldest group of Aryans.
2. Gives names of vedic gods—indra, Varuna, Mitra & Nasatayas.
HATHIGUMPHA INSCRIPTIONS
1. Of Cheit king Kharvela (king of Kalinga)
2. Situated at Udayagiri hills.
3. Gives chronological description of Kharvela's reign.
BESNAGAR / VIDISA / BHISLA INSCRIPTION
1. Of Greek ambassador Heliodorus.
2. Heliodorus calls himself Parambhagvat.
3. He dedicates the pillar erected by him tot he God of gods Vasudev.
UTTARMERUR INSCRIPTION
1. Two inscription at Uttarmerur dated 919 & 921 AD respectively.
2. Of the Reign of Parantanta—I.
3. Throw light on the local self government during the Chola period.
4. Make reference of Sabha, Variyams etc.
40
GENERAL STUDIES
AIHOLE INSCRIPTION
1. Situated at a Vishnu temple in Aihole.
2. Written in Sanskrit by Ravikirti a follower of Jainism and a courtier of the Chalukyan king
(of Badami) Pulkaeshin II.
3. Makes a mention of vicotry of Pulkaesin II over Harshvardhan and adoption of the title
Parmeshwar to commemorate the vicotry.
JUNAGARH ROCK INSCRIPTION
1. Of Rudradaman.
2. Period 150 AD.
3. First inscription in cahste Sanskrit.
4. Mention of construction of Sudarshan lake damming the waters of the rivers Palashni &
Suvarnasikta originating from Raiwatak mountains by the Governor of Saurashtra
Pushyagupta during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.
MEHRAULI IRON PILLAR INSCRIPTION
1. Accepted as the inscription of Chandragupta II.
2. Description of exploits of the king Chandra.
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS
TAKSHASHILA
1. Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya, Prasenjit, Jivak (Important Physician of Magadh), got
education here.
NALANDA
1. According to Huentshang it was founded by Shakraditya who is identified as Kumar Gupta I
2. Mainly Buddhist educational centre.
3. The no. of students was about 10,000.
4. In order to enter one had to pass in entrance examination conducted by Dwarpandit.
VIKRAMSHILA
1. Founded by Dharmapal.
2. It was a centre of Budduhist education.
KANCHIPURAM
1. Patronized by Pallava rulers.
2. Brahmanical educational centre.
3. Centre of Sanskrit.
41
GENERAL STUDIES
FACTS ABOUT ART & ARCHITECTURE

MAURYAN ART
1. Megasthenes description of Patliputra — The biggest city of India — knwon as Palibothra—
length is 80 Stadia and width is 15 stadia — surrounded by a wooden palisade — Has 64
gates.
2. Ashoka built the Great Stupa at Sanchi.
3. Ashoka built Dharamrajjika stupa at Akshila.
4. Ashoka founded the city of Lalitpatan in Nepal.
5. His queen Vidisa-Mahadevi built a Vihara at Sanchi.
6. Kumhrar is a place near Patna which contains two tanks Katu & Chaman. It has yielded
ruins of the mauryan palace.
7. Ashoka constructed Bodhi-temple at Bodhgaya.
SHUNGA-SATVAHANA ART
1. Stupas at Bharbhut, Bodhgaya and Sanchi were expanded.
2. Railings & Toranas were built in Sanchi Stupa.
3. Mahabhodhi Sangharam was constructed at Bodhgaya.
VESARA STYLE
1. Associated with Chalukyas of Badami.
2. This style is amalgamation of Nagara & Dravida style.
3. Three important cantres—Aihole, Badami & Pattadakal.
4. Aihole has 70 structures. It is known as the city of templees, Ravikirti built the Meguti
temple here. Two famous temples at Aihole are Durga Temple & Ladhkan Temple.
ELLORA TEMPLES
1. Built by Rashtrakutas.
2. Krishna I built Kailash temple, (A rock cut temple).
Lambeshwar temple,
3. Important temples are — Dasawatar temple, Ravan ki Khai, Lam
Rameshwar temple, Nilkanth temple.
TEMPLES OF SOLANKIS
1. Two Jaina temples (of marble) at Mount Abu — Adinath temple and Tejpal temple.
2. Suntemple at Modhera.
3. Kurnarapala reconstructed Somnath temple after it was plundered by mahmud of Ghazani.
TEMPLES OF KHAJURAHO
1. Built during 900-1200 A.D.
42
GENERAL STUDIES
2. 25 in number.
3. Built by Chadellas.
4. They are in Nagara style.
5. Buddhist, Jaina & Hindu impact
6. Entrance known as Makar-Torana.
7. Famous temples are Kendriya Mahadeo, Parsvanath, Viswanath and Chaturbhuj temples.
TMPLES OF KALINGA GROUP / ORISSA
1. Temples are in Nagarana style.
2. Temples are at Bhuvaneshwar, Puri and Konark.
3. Built during 800-1300 AD.
4. Nat-mandir & Bhoj-mandir are characteristics of Orissan temples.
5. Garbhagriha is known as Deol.
6. Jagmohan is important part of temple.
7. Sun temple of Konark is known as Black Pagoda.
SUN TEMPLES
Famous sun temples are at Konark, Martand (kashmir) Mandasaur, Aihole (Ladhkhan
Temple), Modhera (Gujarat), and Multan.
MONUMENTS OF GUPTA PERIOD
PLACE TEMPLE / STUPA
1. Devgarh (Jhansi) : Dashavtar Temple
2. Bhoomra : Shiv Temple
3. Tigva (Jabalpur) : Vishnu Temple
4. Udyagiri : Vishnu Temple
5. Sarnath : Dhamekh Stupa (Made of Bricks)
6. Bhitari : Temple of bricks
7. Nalanda : Baudh Vihar
8. Bhitargaon (Kanpur) : Temple made of Bricks
******
43
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-7
SOCIAL LIFE IN ANCIENT INDIA
PRACTICE OF SLAVERY
1. According to Megasthenese there was no slavery in India (It was his wrong perception).
2. According to Manu, there were seven kind of slaves.
POSITION OF SUDRAS
1. First reference in Purush Sukta in 10th Mandala of Rigveda.
2. The duty of Sudra was to serve Dvija. (According to Manu).
POSITION OF WOMEN
1. Women associated with Rigvedic period — Vishwara, Ghosha, Lopamudra, Shaswit, Apala,
Niwavari, Shikata, Indrani.
2. Women associated with later vedic period - Maitri, Gargi, At Atriaya.
3. Yajnavalkya accepted the right to property of women.
4. According to Manu the women did not have right to properly. They have only right to
Stridhan. In Arthashastra, the maximum limit of his was 2000 pa pana.
5. Purdah System started from 300 AD, it became widely prevalent after the invasion of
Muslims.
6. First reference of sati is found in Eran Inscription dated 510 AD — According to this
commander Gopraj of Gupta king Bhanugupta was killed fighting against Hunnas and his
wife became Sati.
MARRIAGE TYPES
There were eight kinds of marraige first mentioned in sutras (600 BC - 300 BC)
1. Brahma, thenormal type where a dowry is given.
f
2. Daiva, a daughter given to the householder as a sacrifical fee.
3. Arsa, a token bride price of a cow or a bull paid instead of a dowry.
4. Prajapatya, no dowry, no bridge price.
5. Gandharva, often clandestine, marraige by consent of two parties syamvara (self choice)
being a special form.
6. Asura, marraige by purchase allowed by Kautilya.
7. Rakasaga, marriage by capture practised by warriors eg. Prithviraja.
8. Paisaca, seduction of a sleeping, mentally permissable to Brahmanas and were religious and
indisoluble. Gandharva was respected and allowed to kshatriyas and other except
Brahmanas.
******
44
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-8
ANCIENT HISTORY SOME IMPORTANT FACTS
SIXTEEN MAHAJANPADAS
MAHAJANAPADAS CAPITALS
1. Gandhara Taxila
2. Kamobja —
3. Assaka (Ashraka) Potna
4. Vatsa Kaushambi (on the bank of river Yamuna)
5. AVanti Ujjain
6. Shurasena Mathura
7. Chedi —
8. Malla Kushinara
9. Kurus Hastinapur
10. Panchala —
11. Matsya Viratanagara
12. Majjis (A confederacy of rupublic) Vaishali
13. Anga Champa
14. Kashi Banaras
15. Kosala Sravasti
16. Magadha Pataliputra
Girivraja or Rajagriha (1st Capital) Pataliputr
(2nd Capital)
VARIOUS DYNASITIES
DYNASTY CAPITAL YEAR FOUNDER
Haranyaka Rajgriha 542 BC Bimbisar
Sishunaga Patliputra 413 BC Sihunaga
Nandas Patliputra 362 BC Mahapadma Nand
Mauryas Patliputra 321 BC Chandragupta Maurya
Guptas Patliputra 320 AD Chandragupta I
Pushyabhutis Thaneshwar 600 AD Naravardhana/Prabhakarvardhana
Rashtrakutas Manyakheta 757 AD Dantidurga/Dantivarman
Pallavas Kanchipuram 560 AD Simhavishnu
Early/Western Chalukyas Vatapi/Badami 543 AD Pulakesin I
Eastern Chalukyas Vengi 630 AD Vishnu Vardhana
Later / Western Chalukyas Kalyani 973 AD Tailapa / Taila II
45
GENERAL STUDIES
Cholas Thanjavur/Tanjore 850 AD Vijayala
Palas Mudyagiri/Monghyr 753 AD Gopala
Senas Vijayapura 1118 AD Vijayasena/Samantasena
Chandellas Bundelkhand/Jejakabhukti 916 AD Yasovarman
Gurjara Pratihara Kannauj 800 AD Nagabhatta I/Nagabhatta II
Paramaras Dhar/Ujjain 974 AD Upendra/Krishna Raja
Chauhans Ajmer/Sakambhari 973 AD Vigraharaja II
Gahadavalas Kannauj 1090 AD Chandradeva
Sharqis Jaunpur 1934 AD Malik Sarwar, Sultan-us-sharq
Sisodias Mewar 1509 AD Hammir
Rathors Marwar 1241 AD Rao Jodha
Vijayanagara Hampi/Vijayanagara 1336 AD Haihara & Bukka
Bahamanis Gulburga/Bidar 1347 AD Alauddin Hasan, Bahaman Sha
Shah
Nizam Shahi Ahmednagar 1490 AD Malik Ahmed Bahri
Adil Shahi Bijapur 1490 AD Yusuf Adil Shah
Qutub shahi Golcunda 1518 AD Sulta Quli
Barid Shahi Bidar 1528 AD Ali Barid
Imad Shahi Berar 1490 AD Fathullah Khan
Yadavas Devagiri 1189 AD Bhillama
Pandayas Madurai 1216 AD Jatavarman, Kulashekhara
Hoyasalas Halebid/Dwarsamudra 1306 AD Ballala I
Sultanate of Delhi Delhi 1206 AD Qutub-ud-din-Aibas
Ilbari Delhi 1206 AD Qutub-ud-din-Aibak
Khaljis Delhi 1290 AD Jalaludin Khilji
Tughlaqs Delhi 1320 AD Ghiyasudin Tughlaq
Saiyyads Delhi 1414 AD Khizr Khan
Lodis Delhi 1451 AD Bahlul Lodi
Mughals Agra/Delhi 1526 AD Babur
Sungas Vidisa 185 BC Pushyamitra Sunga
Kanvas Patliputra 71 BC Vasudeva
Satvahanas Paithan/Pratisthana 50 BC Simuka
VARIOUS ERAS
a. Buddha era 544 B.C.
b. Mahavira era 527 B.C.
c. Saptarsi era or (Aukika era, in use in Kashmir) 3076 B.C.
d. Vikram era (By King Vikramaditya who overthrew the Sakas of Ujjayani) 58 B.C.
e. Saka era (By Kanishka) 78 A.D.
f. Kalachuri era 248 A.D.
g. Gupta era (By Chandragupta II) 319-320 A.D.
46
GENERAL STUDIES
h. Harsha era 606 A.D.
i. Lakshamana era (By Lakshmana Sena of Bengal) 1119 A.D.
j. Nevari era 879 A.D.
k. Kollam era (of Malabar) (By Chalukya Vikramaditya VI of Kalyani) 825 A.D.
l. Chalukya-Vikram era 1075 A.D.
m. Ilahi era (By Akbar) 1584 A.D.
n. Licchavi era 110 A.D.
o. Era of Kaliyuga 3102 B.C.
VARIOUS TAXES
1. Bhaga — Royal share of produce 1/6 of the total, first reference
refer
in Arthasastra.
2. Bhoga — Perodical supplies of fruit, flowers, firewood etc. to the
king (in the nature of kings rights & privileges).
3. Bali — (a) A type of land revenue.
(b) Petty cess besides kings normal share - Arthasastra.
(c) Additional & oppressive tax - Ref. Jatakas.
(d) Emergency tax from which Chief Ministers were
exempted - Ref. Millind Panho.
4. Bhaga Bhoga/Bhogabhaga — Land revenue and supplies of first flower etc. to the
king.
5. Bhagabhagokara — (a) Finds mention in the land grans of the Guptas.
(b) Combination of Bhaga, Bhoga and Kara.
6. Udranga — (a) First mentioned in Gupta epigraphs.
(b) A tax on permanent tenants.
(c) Sometimes a tax on fish and other water products.
7. Malla-kara or Turshkadana — Import levied by central government to deal with the
menance of marauding tribes.
TERMINOLOGY — SOCIAL & ECONOMIC
1. Ayyavole — One of the most important tuilds of South.
2. Manigraman — An important guild in Kerala.
3. Nanadeshi — Guild of traders having membership from different regions
and castes.
4. Ghatiyantra — Irrigation device (Ref. from Banabhatta).
5. Araghatta — Irrigation device.
47
GENERAL STUDIES
6. Devdana — Land grants to religious establishments (temple etc.)
7. Kutumbin — Important member of village, having landed property.
8. Vidusaka — The court jester in the sanskrit drama, a figure of fun,
invariably a brahman.
9. Varnasrama Dharma — A general norm of conduct appropriate to each class and to
each stage in the life of the individual.
10. Dvija — Literally means Twince-born. Refered to the three upper
classes vig. Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vaisyas who were
supposed to be born twice, once at their natural birth and a
again at their initiation, when they were invested with the
sacred thread and received into the Aryan society.
11. Apad Dharm — Literally means "Duty when in stress". Implies what a man
may legitimately do when he cannot earn a living by the
normal deeds performed by his class.
12. Ghatikas — South Indian education Institutions.
13. Anuloma — (Hypergamy), Literally means in accordance with tthe
direction fo the hair. The wife's status was below the status
of the husband.
14. Brahmadeya — justice and
Land grants accompanied with power to do justi
punish.
15. Stridhana — which the right of
Property in the form of jewellery etc. over whi
the women was recoganised. After the woman's death it
passed over to her daughter.
16. Ganika — Prostitutes.
17. Niyoga — The practice of allowing a widow to cohabit with hher
husband's younger brother till the birth of a male child.
Prohibited by Dharmashastra from Gupta period onwards.
18. Agrahara — Land grant (consisting of whole of a village of brahmins) to
brahmins.
48
GENERAL STUDIES
VARIOUS PORTS
EASTERN COAST
Tamralipti — Also known as Tamluk and Gang of Periplus. The most
famous port during the Mauryan and post-mauryan period on
eastern coast.
Arikamedu — Pouduca of Periplus Traces of Roman settlement.
Korkai — Also known as Colchoi.
Masulipatnam — Masalia of Periplus
Negapatnam — Also known as Nikam
Kaveripattanam — Also known as Puhar or Poompuhar. Famous port of Sangam
Age.
WESTERN COAST
Barygaza — Also known as Broach and Bhrigukachha.
Barbaricum — Near the mouth of the Indus.
Sopara — Also known as Soparaka.
Kalyan — Also known as Kalliena.
Quilon — Most important in medieval times.
Cambay — Known as Khambayat in Arabian Sources, known as
Stambhatirtha in sanskrit literature.
Goa — Entreport of horse trade during medieval times.
MERCHANTS GUILDS
Sreni — General term for guilsd
Sangha — General term for guilds
Nigama — Specific term for guilds
Sartha — Mobile guilds
*******
49
GENERAL STUDIES
GENERAL STUDIES
PRELIMINARY EXAM
ANCIENT HISTORY
SOME IMPORTANT FACT

FACTS
50
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC-2
DELHI SULTANATE
QUTUBUDDIN AIBEK
 Founder of the Sultnate of Delhi, became the first independent Muslim ruler of India.
 Known as Lakh-Bakhsh (giver of lakhs) because of his generosity.
 Died while playing Chaugan (Polo) from a fall from horse.
 Laid the foundation of Qutab Minar after the name of a Sufi Saint Khawaja Qutubuddin
Bakhtiyar Kaki.
 Built two mosques "Quwat-ul-lslam mosque" at Delhi and "Dhai Din ka Jhonpara" at
Ajmer.
SHAMSUODINIL TUTMISH
 Introduced silver 'Tanka' (175 grains) & 'Jittal' two principal coins of the Sultanate
period.
 Completed the construction of Qutub Minar.
 Created Turkan-i-Chahalgani', a select body of Turkish nobles who played a decisive
role in the government.
 Coming of Mongols under the leadership of Chingiz Khan to the frontiers
f of India (1220
AD)
GHIASUDDIN BALBAN
 First Sultan to put forward his views about kingship according to which the king was the
shadow of God, his representative and king's rule by divine sanction.
 Created a seoerate military department (Diwan-i-Ar-lz)
 Regulated Court ceremonial after Persian model, introduced SIJDA (prostration),
PAIBOS (Kissing the monarach's feet) and celebration of Persian 'NAUROZ*.
 Effected a radical change in his dress, social behaviour and manners.
 Destroyed the 'group of fourty.' (Turkan-i-Chahalgani).
 Adopted the policy of 'Blood and iron' in governance.
ALA UDDIN KHALJI
 Like Balban, he believed in the majesty of the monarch and in his being God's
representative on earth.
 During his time the army was directly recruited by the army minister (ariz-i-mamalik). It
was paid in cash from the royal treasury. The pay of trooper was 234 tankas a year, while
8
GENERAL STUDIES
one with an additional horse was paid 78 tankas more. The soldiers were supplied with
horses, arms and other equipment at the expense of the State in Order to do away with
corruption and to prevent proxy at a military review or in the field of battle, Ala-ud-din
instituted the practice of recording the descriptive roll (huliya) of individual soldiers in
the army minister's register. To prevent the defrauding of the government by the
substitution of a bad horse for a good one, the branding of horses (dagh system) was
introduced.
 For regulation and control over markets he instituted new official machinery Diwan-i-
riyasat the head of entire market control system shahna-i-mandi the superintendent of
market. And Rais Parwana, the permit officer of markets.
 Brought the farmers in direct relation with the state and curbed and checked middlemen
(Khots, Choudhuris, Muqaddams, Patwaris).
 produce in the Doab area.
Enhanced the state share of the revenue to one-half of the prod
 Created a new department of revenure (Diwan-i-Mustakharaj) to realise arrears.
 Associated with Padmavati episode of Chittor according to Malik Md. Jayasi's book
'Padmavat'.
 Prohibited the sale and use of liquor and intoxicants in Delhi.
 Introduced house tax and pasture tax, ghari & charai respectively.
 Discarded 'Ulema' in the political affairs of the sultanate.
 Put strong resistance to Monqgols the leading role played by his general Zafar Khan.
 Built ‘Alai Darwaja’, ‘Sri fort’, ‘Hazar Situn’, ‘Jamatkhana Mosque’.
 He presented the idea of becoming Sikandar-i-Sani (second alexander) before Alalul
Mulk, the Kotwal of Delhi O His four great generals were—Ulugh Khan, (Malik Kafur)
Zafar Khan, Nusarat Khan and Alp Khan.
GHIYAS-UD-DIN TUGHLUQ SHAH
 He laid the foundation of a big place fort which became known as Tughluqabad.
 (a) He was on bad terms with the famous sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.
(b) The statement Hunz Dilli dur ast (Delhi is yet far off) was made by the saint for
the Sultan when he was returning from Bengal to punish the saint
 The first sultan credited with digging canals for the promotion of agriculture.
MOHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ
 Formulated famine-code' to provide relief to famine-affected people.
 Well- versed .n various branches of learning viz. astronomy, mathematics, medicine the
9
GENERAL STUDIES
slagy philosophy etc.
 Created the department of agriculture (Diwan-i-Amirkohi) to improve agriculture O Tied
to organise the army on the 'decimal sysem' on Mongol pattern.
 Is known as “Mixture of opposites" or a "mad king".
 Shifted capital Delhi to Devagiri (renamed, Daulatabad) in 1326-27.
 Introduced token currency of copper and brass (1329-30).
 Know as a prince of monyers.
 Minimized the monopoly of 'ulema' in political affairs.
 First sultan to advance loans known as sondhar to peasents for digging wells to extend
cultivation.
FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ
 Encouraged setfement of agricultural colonies along canals.
 Made 'Iqta system' hereditary.
 Founded several cities like Firozabad, Fatehabad, Hissar, Jaunpur. Firozpur etc.
 Wrote his autobiography "Futuhat-i-Fiozshahi1.
 Plundered the famous Jagannath tempie_of of Puri.
 Diwan-i-khairat was the special creation of Firuz for helping the poor Muslim parents in
the marriage o their daughters. ItAaaJnjchaiAeof Sayyid Amir Miratv
 The department Diwan-i-Bandgan was also a new creation of Firuz which administered
the affairs of the slaves. The important officials which represented the department were
Chawush-i-ghuri, Deputy Chawush-Nghur, a Diwan and a separate muster- master of
majumdar to look after its genera administration. It had its own treasury. Raised a huge
force of slaves numbering 180000.
 Imposed an additional tax at the rate of 1/10 of the total prod
production of such cultivators as
were benefited by the new scheme irrigation. Known as Haqi Shairb but it did not yield
any revenue to the States as used to be credited to the privy purse of the Sultan.
 The most famous madarsah of the age was Madarsah-i-Firuz Shahi established in his
newly founde city of Firuzabad. It was placed under the supervision of Maulana
Jalaluddin Rumi a scholar of great repute.
 He built Kushk Firuz or Kotla Firuz Shah—It was a palace fortress. Situated on the bank
of the river Jumna. Another interesting object in the Kotla of Firuz Shah was the Asokan
pillar.
 Created an Endowment Fund.
10
GENERAL STUDIES
 Established an Employment Bureaue to provide work to unemployed.

 Started practice of granting old-age pension.
 Started charitable kitchen.
 Obtained investitures from the Calipa.
SIKANDAR LOP
 He made Aara his capital in 1504, which had been mere village and a dependency of
Bayana upto the year, in order to make it a military cantonment and a base of operations
against Dholpur, Gwalior, and Malwa.
 Introduced a new gaz known as gaz-i-sikandari of 32 digit.
******
11
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC - 3
MUGHAL EMPIRE
BABUR (1526-30)
 Belonged to Chashtai section of ihe Turkish race.
 Originally from Farghana (Trans-oxiana) Born in 1483.
 Wrote an autobiography "Tuzuk-i-Babri" (Persian translation known as Babar Namah
"Babarnamah") in Turki.
 He was a first-rate poet of Turki and his "Diwan" in that language is an outstanding work
of poetry.
 1526 and defeated the latter.
Fought the First Battle of Panipat against Ibrahim Lodhi in 1526
 Got victory over Rana Sanga of Mewar in the Battle-of-Khanua in 1527. Conquered
Chanderi in (1528.
 Introduced a new fighting strategy known as “Tuluqhna" during first
f battle of Panipat in
1526.
HUMAYUN (1530-40, 1555-56)
 Constructed a grand acropolis at Delhi known as Dinpanah. Made it the Capital City.
 Sher Khan defeated Humayun in the battle of Chausa in 1539.
 In the battle of Kanauj, Sher Khan defeated Humayun in 1540.
 Died on account of a fall from stairs of his library, Sher MandaLat Delhi.
AKBAR (1556-1605)
 Fought second battle of Panipat (1556) against Hemu, he Hindu Prime Minister of
Muhammad Adil Shah and defeated the latter.
 His guardian and regent was Bairam Khan during 1556-60.
 Abolished the practice of enslaving of war prisoners (1562).
 Abolished pilgrims tax (1563).
 Abolished Jizya 1564.
 Concluded first matrimonial alliance with the Rajput King Bharmal.Jruler of Amber
(Jaipur). He was First Rajput King to accept the suzerainty of Akbar, (1562).
 Fought battle of Haldighati against Maharana Pratap Singh of Mewar in 1576.
 Contest with Chand Bibi (Ahmednagar), operation was led by Abdur Rahim Khan
Khana.
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GENERAL STUDIES
 Learnt the principles of 'Suleh-i-kul' from his most notable tutor Mir Abdul Latif.
 Erected "jbadat Khana’ (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri (1575) to hold discussions
on religious issues.
 Issued "Mahzar” (1579).
 Promulgated Din-i-llahi also known as Tauhid-i-llahi (Divine monotheism) in 1582.
Birbal was the first Hindu to join it.
 Some prominent Christian missionaries who visited the court of Akbar w.ere : Ridolfo
Aquaviva, Antonio Monserrate and Jerome’Xaviet,
 He was Burried at Sikandara near Agra.
 (a) Constructed three great forts Agra fort, Allahabad fort and Lahore fort.
 (b) The buildings of Akbar were made up of red stone mainly.
 (c) Founded a new capital city, Fatehpur Sikri (1572-80) which contains edifices of high
Sultana's Palace,
quality like BulandDarwaza, Diwan-i-am, Diwan-i-Khas, Turkish S
Panch Mahal, Jama Masiid etc. Agra and Lahore also served as his capital cities.
 A skilled musician and player of 'Naqqara' (Kettle drum).
 Some of the great musicians like Jansen. Baba Ramdas. Baba Haridas adorned his court.
 The mode of calligraphy favourite to Akbar was ‘Nastaliq’.
 Some of the prominent painters who were in the court of Akbar wee Khwaja Abdus
Samad, Dasawanth & Basawan.
 Mahabharata known as “Razm-Nama”, aalso
Made Persian Translation of Maha lso got Ramayana
translated into Persian.
 Organised army and introduced Mansabdari System. (1575-76).
 Abolished Sati, legalised widow remarriage, raised age for marriage (14 for girls and 16
for boys.
 Prohibited polygamy.
 Assumed the title of Zill-i-llahi (shadow of God).
 Abolished the practice of taking the wives and children of defeated rebels as captives in
1582.
 Introduced Gaz-i-tlahi, of 41 digit a new yard for land measurement (33 inches in length)
in 1588.
 3 In 1581Introduced Dah-sala system (important role of Todar Mal)
 3 Akbar’s empire was divided into 12 subas41575). Late number nose is 15 (1605).
13
GENERAL STUDIES
JEHANGIR (1605-27)
 PcpuAarty known as 'Salim'. Born ay Lahore in 1569.
 Promulgated twelve edicts/ordinances for the general welfare and better government to
mark his coronation. Capital city was at Agra.
 Married Mehrunnisa (daughter of Mirza Ghiyas Beg) later known as Nurmahal &
Nurjahan.
 Formation of Junta (Clique) comprising Nurjehan, her father Mirza Ghiyas Beg
(liimaud-Qaiila), her brother Asaf Khan and Jehanair’s eldest son and son-in-law of Asaf
Khan Khnrram which practically played decisive role in running the government for
many years.
 Coop of Mahabat Khan took place who captured Jahangir & Nurjahan in Lahore.
 Coming of two English emissaries of King James of England. Captain Hawkins and Sir
Thomas Roe for favourable trade concessions. As a result of their efforts English
factories were set up at Surat, Agra, Ahmadabad & Broach.
 Laid out many gardens—Shalimar Bagh at Kashmir.
 A building constructed during his reign was Mosque at Lahore, Itimaud-Daula’s Tomb
near Agra and Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandara.
 Wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-l-Jehangri in Persian.
 He was buried at Shahadara near Lahore. Died near Lahore while returning from
Kashmir.
 Connoisseur of Painting. Mughal painting reached its zenith under him.
 Introduced (Du-Aspah’ & SifvAspah system (literally tropper with 2 or 3 horses) in
Mansabdari system.
SHAHJEHAN (1627-57)
 Real name Khurram. Born in 1592, Died in 1666.
 Married Arjumand Banu Begam (later Mumtaz Mabal).
 Witnessed a war of succession among hisjour sons. Later on imprisoned till death by
Aurangzeb.
 Built magnificent edifies like the Red Fort (Red Stone), the Jama Masjid (Red Stone),
the Taj Mahal (Marble), the Moti Masjicl (Marble) at Agra.
 Ousted the Portuguese from Hugli and occupied it in 1632.
 Foreign travellers Bernler (French) Travernler (French) and Manuccl (Italian) visited his
court.
14
GENERAL STUDIES
 His court historian was Abdul Hamid Lahori and wrote Padshanama.
 Got built the Peacock throne Takht-i-Taus (1628-35) and Taj Mahal (1632-56).
 A great singer, had a melodious voice—influenced many sufis through his voice. Wrote
Wash is.
 Buried in the Taj Mahal Agra, originally with as Mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz
Mahal.
AURANGZEB (1657-1707)
 Adopted the title of Alamgir (Conqueror of the world), Padshah (Emperor) and Ghazi
IHoly Warrior).
 Confronted a number of rebellions
(a) Jats under Gokala, Rajaram and Churaman successively.
(b) Satnamis (Mundiyas) by the followers of Birbhan.
(c) Sikhs, after the execution of the ninth guru Teg Bahadur led bv the tenth guru
Govind Singh.
(d) Marathas, after humiliation and imprisonment of Shambhaji.
(e) Rajputs by Rathors of Mamar after the death of Jaswant Singh, on account of
Aurangzeb's refusal to recognise Ajit Singh (Posthumous son of Jaswant Singh)
as the legal heir.
 Reimposed Jizya in 1679.
 Discontinued the practice of inscribing the Kalima (Muhammadan confession of faith)
Ch the coins.
 Abolished the celebrations of the Nauroz (new year's Jay Sati (1663), Jhorakha-darshan,
music and singing.
 Appointed Muhtasib censors of ptubljc morals to enforce Quranic law strictly).
 Discontinued the ceremony of weighing the emperor JTuladan) orchis birthdays.
 Executed Shambhaji (Son of Shivaji) in 1690.
 Annexed Bijapur and Golkunda to Mughal empire. (1685-87)
 His tomb is at Daulatabad. A proficient piaver of veena 3 Forbade singing at court.
Reimposed Pilgrims Tax.
 Forbade the cultivation of "Bhang".
 Built Pearl Mosque (Moti Masiid) inside the Red Fort at Delhi. Regarded as'Zipda Pir' (a
living saint).
 Appointed board of ulemas to compile a digest on law which came to be known as
Fatwa-i-Alamgiriva.
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GENERAL STUDIES
 War of Succession
(a) Battle of Bpriargarh (1657)—Sutalman Sukoh defeated Shah Shuja.
(b) Battle of Dhacmat (1657)—Imperialist forces under Raja Jaswant Singh was
defeated by combined forces of Murad and Aurangzeb.
(c) Battle of Samugarh (May 1658)—Para Sukoh was defeated by Aurangzeb.
(d) Battle of Rupnagar (June 1658)—Murad was defeated and captured at Mathura
and confined to Salimgarh fort and later Gwalior fort, he was executed in 1661
(e) Battle of Khajwah (1659)—Shah Shuja was defeated by Aurangzeb. Shuja fled
to the forests of Arakan
(f) Battle of Deoral (1659) defeated Para Sukoh second time, who fled to SinjLbut
Malik Jivan.
was surrendered auranzeb by an Afghan chief of Dadar named Mali
Aurangzeb crowned himself second time after this battle.
ROYAL WOMEN RELATED TO SULTANATE & MUGHAL PERIOD
 Babar’s daughter Gulbadan Begum knew Turkey & Persian and wrote Humavunnamah.
(a) Nuriehan did social work.
(b) She invented new designs of clothes and fashions and perfumes.
(c) She was versed in Persian and Arabic.
(d) She built Itmad-ud-Daula's tomb and Jehangir's tomb.
(a) Shahjehan's wife Mumtajmahal (original name Arjunmand Banu Begum) gave patronage
to the Sanskrit Scholar Vanshidhar Mishra.
(b) She inspired Shahjehan to launch military campaign against the Portguese.
(a) Shahjehan's daughter Jehanara served her father when he was imprisoned by Aurangzeb.
(b) She wrote poems in Persian.
(a) Shahjehan's another daughter Roshanarfrstood by Aurangzeb during war of succession.
(b) Aurangzeb gave her the title Shah Beaum-and Rs. 5 lakh.
(c) She tried to hide the illness of Auiangzeb and kept control over royal seal, seal.
(a) daughter Zebunnisa saved Shahnabaz Khan.
(b) She was well-versed in calligraphy. She knew Shikast, Nastaliq and Naskh styles of
Calligraphy.
(c) She opened a Translation Department.
16
GENERAL STUDIES
WOMEN RULERS OF MEDIEVAL INDIA
WOMAN RULER PERIOD DYNASTY STATE
Raziya Sultan 1236-1240 llbari Delhi
Rani Rudrama 1260-1291 AD Kakatiya Dwarsamudra
Mardoom Jahan 1461-1469 AD Bahmani South Bahamani
Rani Durgawati 1560-1564 AD Gond Gandkatnga
Chand Bibi Sultana 1595-1596 AD Ahmedshai Ahmednagar
Begumbadi Sahib 1654-1663 AD Adilshahi Bijapur
Tarabai 17-1707 AD Bhonsle Maratha State
DEPARTMENTS UNDER DELHI SULTANATE

 Diwan-i-Wizarat
(a) Head was Wazir
(b) Looked after Finance
 Diwan-I-Arz
(a) Military department
(b) Organised by Balban
 Diwan-i-lnsha
(a) Department of royal correspondence
 Diwan-i-Qaja
(a) Head was Quazi
(b) Department of judicial administration
 Diwan-i-Waquf
(a) Department of land grants and state expenditure
(b) Constituted by Jalaluddin Khalji
 Diwan-i-Mustkharaj
(a) Department of revenue collection
(b) Constituted by Alauddin Khalji
 Diwan-i-Riyasat
(a) Department of Market Control
(b) Constituted by Alauddin Khalji
 Diwan-i-Amirkohi
(a) Department of agriculture
(b) Constituted by Md. Bin Tughlaq
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GENERAL STUDIES
 Diwarw-Bandgan
(a) Department of Slaves
(b) Constituted by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
 Diwarv4-Khairat
(a) Department of Welfare Works
(b) Constituted by Firoz Shah Tughlaq
FACTS ABOUT ARCHITECTURE - DELHI SULTANATE
 Muslim architecture is based on arch, dome and minarets.
 First real arch built in Balban's tomb.
 Fist dome built in lltutmish's mansoleum.
 First real dome built in Alai Darwaja — This is also known as Saljuki dome.
(a) Muslim ornamentation (Arabic)—flowers, leaves, geometrical designs, verses of Quran.
(b) Muslim ornamentation (Persian)—coloured tiles, pietra dura, use of marble
(c) Islam forbade use of figures of living beings particularly-human figures in
ornamentation.
(d) Calligraphy based on verses of Quran was known as Kufi.
 First Muslim building was Kuwat-ul-lslam built. By Aibak.
 Gandhak ki Bawali is a step well built by Litutmish in Delhi.
 Iltutmish's tomb (near Kuwat-ul-lsiam) is-the most ornamented monument.
 lltutmish built Sultan Ghari near Qutub Minar. It is mausoleum of his son Nasiruddin
Mahmud.
 Khalji's used Red sandstone in their buildings.
 Alauddin built Hauz-i-khas or Hauz-i-Alal
 Alauddin builtJamaitkhana which was first true muslim monument.
 (a) Tughlaqs introduced slowing walls known as salami.
(b) They introduced four-centred arch (particularly in Firoz's. buijdings).
(c) They used greystone.
(d) Their buildings were massive and without much ornamentation.
(e) They introduced octagonal basis of tomb.
 (a) Ghiasuddin Tughlaq's tomb is pentagonal
(b) Iban Batuta says that his palace is built up of gold like bricks.
 (a) Beginning of gctagonal tombsjn 1368-69.
(b) First tomb is fomb of khan-i-JehanTelangani.
18
GENERAL STUDIES
(c) Other octagonal tombs are — Tomb of Mubarak Sayyid. Tomb of Sikandar Lodi,
Shershah's Tomb at Sasaram, Islam Shah Sur's Tomb.
 (a) Lodis initiated the Age of Tomb.
(b) Math ki Masjid was built by PM of Sikander Lodi
(c) Sikander Lodi's tomb has double dome — this is the first building having double dome.
FACTS ABOUT ARCHITECTURE - MUGHAL PERIOD
 Mughals introduced new elements in architecture—
(a) Double Dome in developed form (In Humayun's Tomb and Taimahal)
(b) Artificial canals & gardens.
(c) Pietra dura (First use in the Tomb of Itimadud-Daula.
(d) Use of marble.
 Akbar's architecture had following features—(a) use of red sandstone (b) Massive buildings
(c) Characterised by strength (d) Hindi influence (e) Influence of Provincial stylees.
 Akbar's Monuments
(a) Agra Fort
(b) Lahore Fort
(c) Ajmer Fort
(d) Allahabad Fort
(e) Fatehpur Sikri
— Akbar Lived here for 12 years.
— He left because of scarcity of water.
— Jami Masjid—Inside it lies Tomb of salim Chisti this is in Gujarat style.
— Boland Darwaja—Built in commemoration of victory of Gurjarat.
 Jehangir's Mousoleum was built by Nurjehan at Shahadara near Lahore no dome- eight
angle minerals.
— Inside it Tomb of Nurjehan.
 Shajehan's Monuments
 (a) Tajmahaj.
— Chief architect - Ustad Isa, citizen of Agra.
— Marble from Makrana (Jodhpur)
— Double Dome
 (b) Red Fort, Delhi
— Rang Mahal - Emperor's Palace and most beautiful.
19
GENERAL STUDIES
— Nahar-i-Bahist.
— Later Aurangzeb constructed Moti Masjid.
— Diwan-i-Aam, where Mayur Sihansan was placed
 (c) Jama Masjid, Delhi
— Chief Characteristic - a series of domes.
VARIOUS CITIES OF DELHI
 The earliest site of Delhi was known as Indraprastha.
 Fortified settlements were erected by the Rajputs near Surajkund in 900-1000 AD.
 d Qila-I-Raj-Pithaura near Lalkot in 1052 AD.
Prithvi Raj Chauhan constructed
 A fortified settlement was established by Qutubuddin Aibak at tthe end of 1200 AD.
 Muizzuddin Kaiqabad erected a fort known as Kilakhari.
 Alauddin Khalji constructed Siri fort in 1303 AD.
 Ghaisuddin Tuglaq built Tuqhalaaabad in 1321.
 Md.Bin Tuglaq constructed Adilabad.
 Md. Bin Tuglaq founded other city knows as Jahapanah in 1329.
 Firoz Shah Tughlaq built Firuzabad in 1354.
 Khizarabad was constructed during the rule of the Sayyids.
 Mubarakabad was constructed during the reign of Sayyids.
 Humayun constructed Dinpanahjo 1533.
 Shershah built PuranajQuila at the site of Jahanpanah.
 Ismail Shah constructed Saljmgarh in 1550.
 Shahjehan founded Shajehanabad in 1648.
VARIOUS CITIES AND THEIR FOUNDERS
CITIES/TOWNS FOUNDERS
Jodhpur Rao Jodha of Marwar
Jaunpur Firoz Tughlaq (on the site of Jamanpur) named after
Jauna Khan (Md. Tughlaq)
Hyderabad Md. Quli, 1590, a new capital of Qutub Shahi kingdom
of Golcuhda
Ahmedabad Ahmed Shah of Gujarat, on the site of the old town
Asawal
Mustaphabad Mahmud Begarha
Muhammadabad Mahmud Begarha
Shahjehanabad Shahjeha
Fiatelhpur Sikri Akbar
Mahabalipuram Narsimhavarman
20
GENERAL STUDIES
Bikaner Bika (son of Jodha)
Fatehabad Firoz Shah Tughiaq
Hissar Firoz Shah Tughiaq
Firozpur Firoz Shah Tughiaq
Patliputra Udayin
Jaipur Raja Swai Jai Singh
Amritsar Guru Ramdas (3rd Guru)
Srinagar Agboka
Gangaikondachola Puram Rajendra of Chola dynasty
Ajmer Ajayraja (Chauhans)
Agra Sikandar Lodi
Hushangabad Hushang Shah
Nauraspur Ibrahim Adil Shah II
Nauraspur Harihara I and Bukka I
Calcutta Job Charnok
Rai Pithora Prithviraj Chauhan
Tughlaqabad Ghiasuddin Tughiaq
Adilabad Md. Bin Tughiaq
Jahapanah Md. Bin Tughiaq
Dinapanah Humayun
Khizrabad Khizr Khan
Salimgarh Islam Shah
Daulatabad Md. Bin Tughiaq
Allahabad Akbar
Zafarbad Zafai Khan
Siri Alauddin Khalji
HISTORICAL MONUMENTS AND BUILDERS

HISTORICAL MONUMENTS BUILDERS
Sanchi Stupa Ashoka
Bharhut Stupa Sungas
Amravati Stupa Satavahanas
Peshwar Stupa Kanishka
Sarnath Stupa Guptas
Chaitya of Karle Satavahanas
Chaitya of Bhaja Satavahanas
Ajanta Painting Guptas
Shore temple (Mahabalipuram) Narasimha II (Pallava)
21
GENERAL STUDIES
Kailashnath temple (Kanchipuram) Narsimha II (Pallaya)
Vaikuntha Permual Temple (Kanchipuram) Nandian Verman II
Virupaksha. Temple (Pattadkal) Chalukyas of Badami
DasavaJara Temple (Deograh) Guptas
Mahabodhi Temple (Bodhgaya) Palas
Kailashnath Temple (Ellora) Krishna I (Rashtrakhuta)
Elephanta Caves Rastrakutas
Brih'adesvara Temple (Tanjore) Rajaraja I (Chola)
Lingraj Temple (Bhubaneshwar) The Eastern Gangas
Jagannath Temple (Puri) Anant Varma (Eastern Ganga)
Sun Temple (Konark) Narasimha I
Kendriya Mahadev Temple (Khajuraho) Chandellas of Bundelkhand
Sun Temple (Modhera) Solanki of Gujarat
Adinath (Vimla Vasahi Temple) Dilwara Vimua, Minister of Bhima I
Neminath Lima Varahi Temple (Dilwara) Vastupala and Tejpala, Ministers of Bhima II
Hoyasaleswara Temple Hoyasalas (Helebid / Dwarsamudra)
Sun Temple (Martand) Kashmir)
Lalitaditya (Karkota dynasty of Kashmir
Kritistambha (Chittor) Rana Kumbha
Hazara Temple Krishnadevaraya
Minakshi Temple (Maduari) Tirumala Nayak
Gol Gumbaz (Bijapur) Md. Adil Shah
Char Minar (Hyderabad) Md. Quli Qutb Shah
Jama Masjid (Ahmedabad) Ahmed Shah I
Adina Masjid (Pandua) Sikandar Shah
Jamma Masjid (Mandu) Mahmud Khaliji
Qila-i-Kuhna masjid (with Purana Qila Delhi) Sher Shah
Atala Masjid (Jaunpur) Ibrahim Shah Sharqi
Jami Mosque (Jaunpur) Hussain Shah Sharqi
Dakhili Darwaja (Gaur) Barbak Shah
Ekalakhi (Pandia) Jalauddin Md. Shah
Jami Mosque (Mandu) Started by Hushang Shah and comleted by Mahmud I
Ashrafi Mahal (Gold Mohur Palace, Mandu) Mahmud I
Tin Dary/aja (Ahmedabad) Ahmed Shah
Vitthalswami Temple Krishnadeva Raya
22
GENERAL STUDIES
Qadm Rasul (Gaur) Nusrat Shah
Bara Sona Masjid (Gaur) Nusrat Shah
Lai Darwaja (Jaunpur) Raj- Bibi / Consort of Mahmud Sharqi
Jama Masjid (Ahmedabad) Ahmed Shah
Hindola Mahal (Mandu) Hushang Shah
Kumbhalgarh Raja Kumbha Karan
Vijaya Stambha (Chittor) Rana Kumbha Karan
Statute of Gomesteswara/Bahubali (Sravanbelgola) Chammundaraya
Nalanda University Kumargupta (Guptas)
Vikramshila University Dharmpala (Palas)
MUGHAL GARDENS
 Hasht Bahist Laid out by Babar at Agra, now known as Ram Bagh.
 Shalimar Bagh Laid out by Jehangir at Srinagar.
 Nisat Bagh Laid out by Asaf Khan at Srinagar.
 Shalimar Garden Laid out by Shahjehan near Lahore.
 Hayat Bakhsh Laid out by Shahjehan inside the Red Fort.
 Shalimar Bagh Laid out by Shahjehan in Delhi.
 Wazir Bagh Laid out by Dara in Kashmir.
 Chahar Burji Bagh Laid out by Zeb-un-nisa near Lahore.
MUGHAL PAINTINGS
AKBAR
 He established Dept. of Painting—Abdus Samad was made its head—He was given the
title Shirin. Abul Fazl mentions name of 17 painters out of which 13 were Hindus.
 Famous Hindu painters—Daswant, Basawan, Kesu, Lai, Mukund, Madhu,
Madh Jagan,
Mahesh, Tarakhem Karan, Harivansh, Ram, Sanwaldas.
 Famous Muslim Painters—Farukh Beg, Jamshed, Khusrukali, Abdul Samad.
 Chronology of famous painting Hamznamah—Anwar-i-Suahli (Panchtantra)—
Tutinamah—Tarikh-i-Khandan-i-Timuria—Babarnamah—Akabarnamah—Tarikh-i-Alfi
— Ramznamah (Mahabharat).
 He established Tesvir Khana- (Aplace where painting was dove).
JEHANGIR
 He himself was a great painter—In his autobiography Tujuk-i-Jehangiri he claims that he
can recognise paintings of various artists.
23
GENERAL STUDIES
 Famous Hindu painters were- Bisandas, Manohar, Govardhan, Madhav.

 Paintings of nature & natural scenes gained prominence.
 Miniature painting got encouragement during his period.
 Bisandas was expert in painting portraits and in presenting real reflections.
 Mansur was expert in painting birds, flowers and trees.
SHAHJEHAN
 Famous painters were — Md. Fakir Ullah, Mir Hasim, Fakir Ullah, Anup, Chitramani.
 Greater ornamentation of the sides of painting.
AFTER SHAHJEHAN
 Aurangzeb destroyed paintings of Bijapur & Golkanda—He white washed paintings of
Akbar's tomb.
 Farukksiyar & Md. Shah Rangila gave encouragement to Paintings.
MUSIC IN THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD
 (a) Amir Khusro is said to have written several treaties on music.
(b) Later-works credit him with inventing about 19 melodic forms (ragas) of which
Khayal, Tarana and Gawl are the most noteworthy.
(c) (Indian) and Tambura
Sitar is regarded as his invention [Combining Veena (Indian
(Iranian)].
(d) Tabla is also regarded as his invention.
 Sikandar Lodi patronised music on lavish scale.
(a) Sultan Hussain Sharqui of Jaunpur was a grat musician and patron of music.
(b) He invented Kalwanti Khoyal, Jaunpuri Todi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Sindura, Rasuli Todi.
(a) Raja Man Singh of Gwalior (1450-1528) was a great musician,
(b) He wrote a book on music Man Kautuhal.
 The famous sufi saint Pir Bodhan was a great musician.
 Abul-Fazl names thirty-six musicians who played vocal and instr
instrumental music at
Akbar's court; of these ten were from Gwalior. They were divided into seven ranks. The
leading singer was Miyan Tan Sen of Gwalior (1555-1610), and according to Abul-Fazl
India had not seen a singer of his talent for the last thousand years. The literary sources
recount fantastic anecdotes of the effects of his dipaka (lamp) raga. It was believed that
Tan Sen's melodies could make rain fall out of season, while his ragas supposed to set
candles alight.
24
GENERAL STUDIES
 Shahjahan cultivated music in his court and himself acquired considerable proficiency in
the art.
 During Muhammad Shah's reign (1719-48) Mughal military and political glory declined
rapidly but music reached a new peak. Sadarans & Adarans flourished during this time.
 Ibrahim Adil Shah II of Bijapur was both poet and musician. His poems, collected in the
Kitab-i Nawras (The Sanskit Nauarasa— The Nine Emotions), were designed to be sung
in different ragas which are identified as maqams (modes) in the Perso-Arabic system.
FACTS ABOUT COINAGE
 Gold coins of Md. Ghauri bear the image of goddess Kali/Lakshmi on obverse and the
name of the ruler in Nagari script on reverse
 Md. bin Tughlaq introduced token currency of brass and copper on the model of Chinese
currency CH AO (in paper and silk)
 Khawaja Abdus Samad was the master of imperial mint at Delhi during the reign of
Akhar O Akbar’ s gold mohur bore the figures of Sita and Ram O The coins of Harihara
I & Bukka I bore the image of Hanuman.
 The coins of Krishnadevaraya bore the images of Venkatesh and Baiakrishna.
VARIOUS COIN TYPES
 Jittal Standard silver coin of Sultanate period weighing 175 grains and
equivalent to 64 jittal. Introduced by lltutmish.
 Tanka Silver coin weighing 170 grain introduced by Shershah and continued by
the Mughals
 Rupaya Gold coin weighing 169 grains during Mughals(used for gifts &
hoarding).
 Muhar/Asrafi Gold coin of Vijaynangara rulers weighed 52 grain, and was calledpagoda
cal
by foreigners particularly Portuguese. Also known as Hun and Panam.
Pa
 Varaha Square silver coin during Mughals.
 Jalali Chief copper coin weighing 323 grain introduced by Shershah and
continued by Mughals, 40 Dams was equal to 1 rupee
FACTS ABOUT LITERARY ACTIVITIES—THE SULTANATE & THE MUGHAL PERIOD
 Development of Urdu:
(a) The word 'Urdu' is of Turkish origin and literal meaning of the word is army or camp.
(b) Standard Urdu first emerged in Decean and was known as Dakhini.
25
GENERAL STUDIES
(c) The noted literatteur Amir Khusro called it Hindavi. He composed verses in Hindavi
using Persian script.
(d) Urdu was known by various names : Hindavi, Dakhini, Rekhata, Hindustani.
 Facts about Amir Khusro and his writings:
i. His real name was abul Hasan.
ii. He was the most outstanding of the Persian scholars and poets of the period.
iii. He created a new literary style in Persian which came to be known as sabaq-I-Hindi.
iv. He composed verses in Hindavi as well, and paved the way for the development of Urdu.
v. His poetry exhibits his immense love for his country (India).
vi. His lived through the reigns of six sultans- patronized by Jalaluddin Khaliji, Alauddin
Khaliji and Ghiyasuddin Tughalq.
vii. He was a disciple of Nizammudin Auliya the, famous Sufi Saint of Chishi order.
viii. He introduced numerous perso-arabic ragas — aiman, sanam, ghura etc.
ix. He was popularly known as Tuti-e-Hind, the parrot of India.
 Babur, the first Mughal ruler, was an accomplished poet and he wrote his memoirs in Turki
which was later translated into Persian by Abdul Rahim Kahn Khanan.
 Krishnadevaraya's Amuktamalyada is considered one of the great Kavyas in Telugu
literature.
 Diwan is a collection of poems of a poet, e.g. Diwan-Ghalib.
 Prasasti is a piece of writing or poem written in praise of somebody.
 Facts about Dara Shikoh and his writings :—
(a) He was the eldest son of Shahjehan and his most favoured nominee
no for the
throne.
(b) He was liberal and possessed moderate views.
(c) He developed the Persian version of the Upanishads.
(d) Sirr-i-Akbar : Translation of 52 upanishads.
IMPORTANT TRANSLATED BOOKS
Original Work Name of Translation Language Translator
Ramayan — Persian Badayuni, Naquib Khan & Shaikh Sultan
Nal-Damyanti — Persian Faizi
Mahabharat Razamnamah Persian Badayuni, Nakib Khan, Abdul Kadir
Atharaveda — Persian Haji Ibrahim Sarhindi
Kaliadman Ayangaar Danish Persian Abul Fazal
Bhagwadgita, Yog
Vashisht, Upanishad Sirr-i-Akbar Persian Dara Shikoh
26
GENERAL STUDIES
Babarnama (Turki) — Persian Abdur Rahim Khankhana
Rajtarangini — Persian Mulla Shah Mohammed
Panchatantra Anwar-i-Suhaili Persian Abul Fazal
Panchtantra Yar-a-Danish Persian Maulana Hussain Fazi
Tazak (Jyotish Granth) Jahan-a-Jafar Persian Mohammad Khan
Lilawati — Persian Faizi
SCHOLARS AND THEIR PATRONS
SCHOLARS PATRONS
Udayaraja Mahmud Begarha of Gujarat
Hemchandra Kumarpala Chalukyas of Ahilwad
Nagarjuna Kanishka
Amarsimha Chandragupta Vikrmaditya
Ravikirti Pulkesin (Chalukyas of Badami)
Vakapatiraja Yasovarman of Kanauj 720 AD
Bhavabhuti Yasovarman of Kanauj
Harisena Samudra Gupta
Rajshekhara Mahendrapal and Mahipal (Gurjara Pratihara)
Somdeva Prithviraj III
Chandrabaradai Prithiviraj Chauhan
Banabhatta Harsha
Dandin Narasimhavarman (Pallava)
Bharavi Simha Vishnu (Pallava)
Gunadhyaya Hala (Satvahana)
Mahaviracharya Amoghvarsha (Rashtrakuta)
Jinsena Amoghvarsha
Sakityana Amoghavarsha
Jaidev Lakshman Sena (Bengal)
Bilhana Vikrmatiitya VI (Chalukya of Kalyani)
Vijayaneshwar Vikramaditya VI
Lakshmidhara Govindchandra (Gadhavalas of Kanauj)
Sri Harsha Jai Chand (Kanauj)
Kalhan Harsha of Kashmir
Firdausi Mahmud Gazni
27
GENERAL STUDIES
TERMINOLOGY — THE SULTANATE & THE MUGHAL PERIOD
Dam/Paise/Fulus Chief copper coin of 323.5 grains (21 Grams) (40 DAM
= 1 Rupee).
Jital Lowest copper coin (25 Jital = 1 DAM).
Rupee Rounded silver coin of 172 grains actual.
Hasil Collection from land Tribute.
Peshkash Tribute
Saqiya Persian wheel a device for lifting water from wells for
irrigation which worked on a gear mechanism.
Paikasht/Pahikasht other than their
Peasant who cultivated land in villages othe
own.
Jama Dami Assessed revenue in terms of dam.
Khud-Kashta/Malik-I-Zamsn Owners of land in the official documents
docume of resident
cultivators.
Taqavi Advance loans to peasants.
Madad-I-Maash/Sayurghai Grants of land to men of learning for their
their subsistence for
life time.
Karkhanas Workshops for the production of luxury goods.
Batai/Bhaoli/Ghalla-Bakshi Crop sharing
Abwab Various cesses.
Biswa 1/20 part of Bigha.
Khutba A sermon, recited in mosques on Fridays wherein the
name of the ruler was include.
Patwari Village Account.
Zawabit State laws.
Millat The Muslims brotherhood (Entire Muslim Population).
Qanungo Head of the patwar is who as the field officer constituted
constitu
the land revenue establishment at pargana level.
Polaj Land under where regular annual cultivation.
Ain-i-Dahsala A system where the average produce of different crops as
well as the average prices prevailing over the last ten
years were calculated (introduced by Akbar).
Jagirdars Revenue assignees.
28
GENERAL STUDIES
Qabuiiat Paper to be signed by peasants. A mark of acceptance of
state's demand of land revenue.
Kankut Method of revenue assessment in which area was
measured and the revenue realized was assessed in
grain/kind.
Khalisa Crown land i.e. land whose revenue was reserved for the
imperial treasury.
Shiq An administrative unit comprising a number of
paraganas during Delhi Sultnate.
Inam Jagirs Jagirs which involved no obligation of service and were
independent of rank.
Watan Jagirs Jagirs which were assigned to zamindars in their
homelands.
Nauroz The new years day of the zoroastrian calender introduced
by Balban.
Sawar Mansab A Mughal rank that determine the number of cavalry-
cavalry
men.
Zat Mansab A Mughal rank that determined the position of a Mughal
Mugh
mansabdar in the hierarchy as well as his personal pay in
the hierarchy as well as his personal pay.
Waquianavis News writer.
Khan Commander of ten thousand horsemen or more.
Malik Commander for thousand horsemen.
Amir Commander of hundred.
Sipah Salar Commander of less than one hundred.
Muhatsibs Public censors.
Kotwal Police chief.
Gumashtahs Agents
Amalguzar Head of the revenue establishment at local level.
Karoris Senior revenue collectors who collected crores of dams
from the people of the crown lands.
Tanka Silver coin introduced by Iltutmish which became the
standard currency for the sultanate period.
29
GENERAL STUDIES
Zimmi Protected subjects. Non-muslim people who paid Jizyah
and were assured state protection and religious freedom.
Fawazil Balance revenue from Iqta to be deposited in state
exchequer during the sultanate period.
THE MARATHAS FACTS ABOUT SHIVAJI
 Shivaji belonged to Bhonsle Clan.
 His father's name was Shahji Bhonsle.
 His Guardian was Dadaji Kondev.
 Guru Ramdas was his political Guru.
 His coronation was held at Raigarh in 1674. His kingdom was called Swaraj.
 He adopted the titles of Chhatrapati, Haindava Dharmodharak & Kshatriya Kulavatamsa.
 He had confrontation with Afzal Khan of Bijapur in 1659.
 He also had confrontation with Shayista Khan in 1660.
 He had copnfrontation with Jai Singh and signed Treaty of Purandar (1665).
THE ASHTAPRADHAN
Peshyva/Mukhya Pradhan Prime Minister, General administration both civil and
military.
Sar-i-Naubat Chief of armed forces
majumdar/Amatya Finance, Revenue, Accounts
Sachiv/Surunavis/Chitnis Royal Coresondence
Dabir/Sumant Foreign Affairs/Royal ceremonies
Mantri/Waqla-Nawis/Wakins Incharge of records, intelligence and looked after King's
private affairs.
Nvavadhish Justice
Pandit Rao Religious affairs and Chairties.
THE PESHAWAS
 Balaji Viswanath 1713-20
 Baji Rao I 1720-40
 Balaji Baji Rao 1740-61
 Madhav Rao 1761-72
 Narayan Rao 1772-73
 Swai Madhav Rao 1773-95
 Baji Rao Ii 1795-1818
30
GENERAL STUDIES
MARATHA FAMILIES AND THEIR HEADQUARTERS
 Peshwa Poona
 Scindia Gwalior (Initially Ujjain)
 Gaekwad Baroda
 Bhonsle Nagpur
 Holker Indore
 Pawar Dhar
THE MARATHAS TERMINOLOGY
Paga State Cavalry
Swajaya Shivaji's Kingdom
Chautai/Chauth The levy on the neighbouring territories which was
w 1/4
of the land revenue.
Haindava Dharmoddharak Title assumed by Shivaji which meant "Protector
"Pr of The
Hindu Faith".
Bakhar Shivaji's Biography by Sabhasad written in 1677.
Mirasis Resident owner cultivator.
Ashtapradhan Council of eight ministers.
Mauza Lowest unit of the country.
Tarfs Second lowest unit of the country.
Bakhar A marathi term for biographical accounts.
Deshmukh Equivalent to chaudhuris (village headman) of North
India and desais of Gujarat.
Saranjam Land grants to officers.
Sardeshmukhi 1/10 of produce taken by Shivaji being Sardeshmukh,
Sardeshmukh
head of Deshmukhs.
THE SAINTS OF MEDIEVAL INDIA SHANKARCHARYA
 Propounded the philosophy of Advaitavad or Ektatvavad of Vedanta.
 Established many Mathas (Viharas) in different parts of country—Jagannathpuri in east,
Sringeri in south, Dwarka in west and Badrinath in north.
 Defeated Buddhist scholastic teachers in religions debates.
RAMANUJA
 Founded the Srivaishnav sect.
 Expounded the philosophy of visistaadwaita or qualified monism.
31
GENERAL STUDIES
 His commentary of vedanta is complied in Sribhashya and Gitabhashya.

RAMANAND
 Hio twelve disciples, who became famous later on included a Jat Dhanna, a barber Sena,
a cobbler Raidas and a weaver Kabir and two women - Padmavati & Sursari (First saint
who accepted women as desciples).
 Pioneer of Bhakti Movement in North India KABIR
 Most radical disciple of Ramananda.
 Brought up by a weaver at Varanasi.
 By means of sakhas and sakhis he imparted religious instruction to Hindus and Muslims
alike.
 Bijak is the compilation of Kabir's couplets, writteji in Hindi.
 His Sayings
(a) "O Kabir, Sanskrit is the water in a well, the language of the people in the
flowing stream".
(b) "I am neither in kaba nor in kailash .... but present in all creatures".
(c) "God is the breath of all breaths".
 Stood for Hindu-Muslim unity.
 Declared that Allah and Rama were the names of the same god and called him Ram &
Rahim.
 Representative of Nirguna Bhakti sect.
DADU DAYAL
 Resident of Ahmedabad.
 Follower of the ideals of Kabir.
GURU NANAK
 Founder of Sikh religion.
 Decried the caste system, ritualism, the supremacy of the Brahman and Julias.
 Rejected idol-worship.
 Started Langar (free community kitchen).
 Conceived God as Nirankara.
 His teachings were compiled in the Adi Granth.
CHAITANYA
 A devotee of Lord Krishna.
 Founder of modern vaishnavism in Bengal.
32
GENERAL STUDIES
 Original name was Vishwambhar.

 His philosophical doctrine - "Achintyabheda Bhedavada".
 His philosophy is known as Rag Marg (Path of spontaneous love).
 Gave birth to Sankirtan system.
 His initial name was Gourang and Nimai.
 His birth place was Navadwip. He died at Puri.
NIMBARKACHARYA
 Spent; most of the time at Vrindavan.
 Preached the theory of Dwait advaitvad.
VALLABACHARYA
 Believed in the philosophy of Shudhaadvaita.
 His philosophy known as pushtimarg (the path of grace).
MIRABAI
 Devotee of Krishna.
 Follower of the Krishna cult of Vaishnavism.
 Her songs were full of devotion and love, written in Rajasthani & Braja Bhasha.
TULSIDAS
 Renowned author of Ramcharit Manas.
 His other books are-Gitawali, Kavitawali, Vinay Patrika etc.
 Became a saint and went to Ayodhya.
MADHAWA CHARYA
 Expounded Dwaitvad.
 Devotee ofWinu JNAMESVAR OR JNANADEVA
 Saint of Maharastra Dharma.
 Composed his Marathi commentary on the Bhagwad Gita known as Jnaneswari.
NAMDEV
 Associated with Varkari sect.
 Wrote a number of Abhangas.
RAMADAS
 Spiritual guide of Shivaji.
33
GENERAL STUDIES
 Wrote Dasabodha which contains his vast knowledge of various sciences and arts with
the synthesizing principles of spiritual life.
 Expo'under of Dharakari group.
SURDAS
 Foremost poet of Krishna sect.
EKANATHA
 Popularized the vedanta philosophy and the mystic teachings of earlier saints.
TUKARAM
 Saint of Maharashtra Dharma
 Condemned external forms of religion, pilgrimages, vows, fasts, idol worship etc.
 Tried to reconcile Hinduism and Islam. Known as "Kabir of the Deccan"
 widely recited in
Wrote several abhangas which embody his teachings and are widel
Maharashtra,
 He had sufficient impact of Islam. 3 Believed in Monism. SANKARDEV
 Resident of Assam.
 Famous as "Chaitanya of Assam".
BASAVA
 Prime Minister of the Kalachuri King Bijala.
 Wrote Vachanas.
 Expounder of Virsaivism & Lingayat.
SUFI ORDERS
CHISHTI ORDER
Earliest and most liberal sufi order in India.
Sufis of this order lived life of poverty.
Practiced Sama or recitation of music to create ecstasy.
Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti
 Chisti order in India was founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti who settled in Ajmer.
 His tomb in Ajmer developed into a leading pilgrimage centre.
Sheikh Hamiduddin Nagori
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar
Kaki Sheikh Fariduddin / Baba Farid
Nizamuddin Auliya
34
GENERAL STUDIES
 For his mastery over yogic practices he is called a 'sidh' or perfect.

 Amir Khusrau was his disciple.
Gesu Daraz
(b) SUHRAWARDI ORDER
 Did not believe in poor life style of the Sufi saint.
 Accepted state patronage.
 Accepted service of the state.
 Real founder in India was Sheikh Bahauddin Zakaria.
Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud
Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya
(c) FIRDAUSI ORDER
(d) QALANDARIYA ORDER
(e) SHATTARIYA ORDER
(f) QADIRIYA ORDE
(g) NAQSHBANDI ORDER
RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS OF MEDIEVAL PERIOD
Religious Movement Founder Year of Foundation
Chisti Silsilah Khwaja, Muinuddin Chisti 1190 AD
Suharavardi Silsilah Wahauddin Yahya 14th century
Firdosi Silsilah Sirfuddin Yahya 14th century
Dharmdasi Movement Saint Kabirdas 15th century
Mahadavi Movement Syed Mohammad Mahadi 15th century
Shatari Silsilah Abdulla Safari 15th century
Kadiri Silsilah Shaikh Abdul Kadir 1500 AD
Niyakh Movement Dadoo Dayal 16th century
Sikh Movement Gurunanak 16th century
Harikirtan Mandli Chaitnya 16th century
Pushti Marg Vallabhacharya 16th century
Roshnia Movement Miyan Bazib Ansari 16th century
Barkari Movement Eknath 16th century
Dharkari Movement Ramdas 17th century
Nakshbandi Silsilah Khawja Baki Villah 17th century
35
GENERAL STUDIES
FOREIGN TRAVELLERS OF MEDIEVAL INDIA
Marcopolo Itly 1298-1302 AD Pandya
In Batuta Moracco 1333-1342 AD Mohammad Bin Tughlak
Nicolo Conti Itly 1420-1431 AD Jallaluddin
Cheng Hi China 1421-1431 AD Jallaluddin
Abdur Rajjak Iran 1442-1433 AD Devrai II
Athenisiyas Nikitan Russia 1480-1474 AD Mohammad III (Bahmani)
Aduardo Barbosa Portugese 1516-1518 AD Krishnadevarai
Domigoz Paes Portugese 1520-1522 AD Krishnadevarai
Nuniz Portugese 1535-1537 AD Acchyut Devarai
Anthony Manserat Portuguese 1578-1582 AD Akbar
Ralf Fitch Britain 1585-1591 AD Akbar
Caesar Frederick Portuguese 16th century Vijayanagar
John Linskoten Portuguese 16th century Vijayanagar
Captain Hawkins Britain 1608-1613 AD Jehangir
Vijiyam Fitch Britain 1608-1613 AD Jehangir
John Jurda Portguese 1608-1617 AD Jehangir
Nickolas Dowton Britain 1608-1617 AD Jehangir
Nickolas Vithington Britain 1608-1617 AD Jehangir
Tomas Roe Britain 1615-1619 AD Jehangir
Adward Terry Britain 1615-1619 AD Jehangir
Franscisco Paelsert Britain 1620-1627 AD Jehangir
Pitra-Dela-Belly Italy 1622-1660 AD Jehangir
John Lyot Italy 1626-1632 AD Shahjehan
Peter Mundi Italy 1630-1634 AD Shahjehan
Tavernier France 1641-1687 AD Shahjehan & Aurangzeb
Manoochi Italy 1656-1687 AD Aurangzeb
Bernier France 1658-1688 AD Aurangzeb
ARRIVAL OF EUROPEAN TRADERS DURING MUGHAL PERIOD

FOREIGN TRADE FIRST FACTORY
Portuguese Cochin, 1503 AD
Dutch Masullipattam, 1605 AD
English Surat, 1608 AD
Danes Tranqubar, 1620 AD
French Surat, in 1688
*******
36
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC - 4
THE SANGAM AGE
THREE SANGAMS
FIRST SANGAM
 Venue.................................................................................... Tenmadurai
 Presided over by..........................................................August
SECOND SANGAM
 Venue.................................................................. Kavatapuram/Alvai (Submerged in sea).
 Presided over by............................................................................. August & Tolkappiyar.
In this sangam the book Tolkapiyam was written byTolkappiyar.
THIRD SANGAM
 Venue................................................................... Madurai
 Presided over by ................................................... Nakkirar
FACTS ABOUT SANGAM AGE
 Sangam.................................................... A college/assembly of literary figures.
 Devalayam.................................................... Temple.
 Yupas.................................................... Sacrificial ports.
 Variyar.................................................... Tax collector
 Puhar.................................................... Harbour area
SANGAM AGE—POLITICAL SYSTEM
1. King was known as...................................... Ko, Mahnam, Iraivan, Korravan, Vendan etc.
2. Monarchy was a regular pattern of the government.
3. Royal emblems.
4. Pandayas.................................................... Carp.
5. Cholas....................................................... Tiger.
6. Cheras.................................................... Bow.
7. Land tax was known as Karai. It was the main source of revenue and 1/5 of the total
produce. Tax
8. Collector was known as .................................................... Variyar.
9. Tax was known as ............................................................. Vari.
37
GENERAL STUDIES
SANGAM AGE—SOCIETY
 Caste - division was a prevalent.
 BRAHMNS were a part of society. They were ambassadors, priests, ascetics, merchants,
judicial advisors.
 Kshatriya & vaishya were - not regular.
 Sati was common, especially among the higher classes.
 "Kannagi or Pattini Cult" was an established institution. Images of Pattini devi were
placed in temples.
SANGAM AGE—RELIGION
 Influence of Brahmanism manifested in performance of Vedic sacrifices and adoption of
Vedic gods by higher classes, sraddha & Pinda to dead.
VARIOUS DEITIES
 Murugaon........................................................... The god par excellence. Also known as
Subramanya, .................................................. He is god of hillock worshipped by hunters.
 Tirunal.................................................. The god considered to be competitor of Murugan.
 Kannagi............................................................................................... Goddess of chastity.
 Tirumal..................................................................................................... God of cowherd.
THREE KINGDOMS OF SANGAM AGE THE PANDAYAS
 Area................................................. Souther Tamilnadu.
 Capital............................................................ Madurai (earlier Tenmadurai and
Kavatapuram) on the............... Bank of river VAIGAI.
 Seaport......................... Korkai, at the mouth of the river TAMBRAPARNI..................
Spart was SALIYUR.
Important Kings
i. Nedunjeliyan
(a) ............................ The greatest of the Pandaya Kings.
(b) ............................ Mentioned in SILAPPADIKARAN.
(c) ............................ Executed KOVALAN, the hero of the bold 'Silappadikaran'
leading to KANNAIG'S................................. proving her husband's innuecence
and death of the king of shok.
(d) ........................................ Defeated the chotas & the chaeras in the battle of
Talaiyalanganam.
38
GENERAL STUDIES
ii. Nediyun
(a) ............................ Started sea worship.
(b) ............................ Created ruly river.
THE CHOLAS
 Dominion known as TONDAIMANDALAM / CHOLAMANDALAM.
 Area — Nortern Tamilnadu and Southern Andhra Pradesh.
 Capital — Uraiyur.
 Sea port — Puhar / Poompuhar / Kaveri Pattanam (Khaberis of Ptolemy) at the mouth of
the river KAVERI.
 Titles : SENNIS, SEMBIYAS, VALAVAN, KILLI.
Important Kings
i. Karikala
(a) .................. The greatest of the Cholas.
(b) .................. Literal meaning "Man with Charred Leg".
(c) .................. Founded Puhar / Kaveripatnam.
(d) .................. Constructed a huge embankment on the river KAVERI.
(e) .................. Conquered Sri Lanka.
(f) .................. Fought the Battle of Venni and defeated eleven kings.
(g) .................. Defeated the Chera king Perunjeral.
(h) .................. Deposed and imprioned in his early life.
(i) .................. In Sanskrit the literal meaning of his name : 'DEATH OF KALI' or
'DEATH TO ............ ENEMY ELEPHANTS.
(j) .................. Established supremacy over the Pandayas & the Cheras.
(k) .................. Prevented the migration of people from his land to other regions.
(l) .................. His victories are described in the book Pattinapallai.
ii. Nedunjelian
(a) .................. Killed in a battle against the Pandayas and the Cheras.
(b) .................. The las Chola King.
iii. Senganan
(a) .................. Famous in legend (or his devotion to 'Siva'.
(b) .................. Constructed seven temples.
39
GENERAL STUDIES
THE CHERAS
 Area — Kerala
 Capital — Vanji / Karur / Karuvur at the month or on the river PERIYAR.
 Seaport — Musiri / Muziris, second important port was TONDI.
 Titles : VANAVAR, VILLAVAR, KUDAVAR, KUTTUVAR, PORAIYAR,
MALAIYAR.
Important Kings
i. Udiyanjeral
(a) .................. titles applied to him - VANAVARA MBAN and PERUNJORAN
UDIYAN.
(b) .................. maintained a huge kitchen for free distribution of food to the people.
(c) .................. Adopted the title Imayavaramaban in commemoration of bringing
Himalayan stones.
(d) .................. Provided food to warriors in Kurukshetra.
(e) .................. Conteomporary of poet Paranar.
ii. Pirakottiya Senaguttuvan
(a) The greatest of the chera kings.
(b) Known as Red Chera.
(c) Built a temple of KANNAGI.
(d) Campaigned to North India to get a Himalayan stone to make an idol of
KANNAGI.
(e) Founder of the KANNAGI / PATTINI CULT (Reference from
SILAPPADIKARAN).
SANGAM AGE — MISCELLANEOUS FACTS
 According to tradition, the father of Tamil literature is AGASTYA.
 Sangam Age corresponds to the Post-Maurya and Pre-Gupta period of ancient India.
 TIRUKKURAL is considered to be the 5th veda.
 Romans trading with Sangam Kingdom built a temple of Augustus' at Muziris.
 The first literary evidence about the South Indian Kings is found in Megasthenes Indika.
 URAIYUR’ was famous for Pearls and muslim.
 'YAVANAPRIYA' a sanskrit term which came to be used for Indian pepper.
 The coins of A JUSTUS and TIBERfUS predominate the Roman coins found in India.

40
GENERAL STUDIES
MUSLIM, GEMS & PEARLS and SPICES were the most important items of export to
Roman Empire.
 The earliest script that the Tamils used was BRAHMI from late ancient period they
began to use a new angular script known as GRANTHA.
 References about the Sangam Age are found from the Greek and Roman writers of 100-
200 AD. They are PTOLEMY, PLINY, STRABO and anonymous writer of the
PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHREAN SEA.
 “Bible of Tamil
Tirrukural written by TIRRUVALLUVAR is considered to be the “Bi
Land”.
 IInd and XIIIth Rock Edicts of Ashoka give reference to this period.
SANGAM LITERATURE
A. Epics
 Manimegallai —
— Written by poet Sattanar of Madurai.
 Silappadigaram
— Oldest and greatest of sangam epics.
— Written by lllanqo Avadiqal (grandson of the Chola king Karikala).
 Sivaga Sindamani / Jivak Chintamani
— Written by Liruttakkadeyar (a jain by religion)—Vaisya (rom Madura.
 Valayapati
 Kundalkesi
B. Tamil works of earliest period
 Tolkappiyam
— Written by Tokapiyar, one of the 12 deciples of saint Agastya.
— Work on Jamil grammar Agattiyam
— Written by Saint Agattiyar
— Work on grammer of letters & life.
THE SATAVAHANAS
IMPORTANT KINGS
SIMUKA
 founder of the Satavahana dynasty.
SATAKARNI I
 adopted the title of 'Dakshinapathapati.
41
GENERAL STUDIES
HALA
 wrote Gathasaotashati / Saptsati / Satsai in Paisachi Prakrit.
 Gunadhya the writer of Brihat Katha in his court.
GAUTAMIPUTRA SATAKARNI
 called himself destroyer of Shakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Gree) and Pahalavas
(garthians).
 called himself "Ekbrahmin".
YAJNA SHRI SHATAKARNI
 his coins bear impression of ‘ship’, fish and shell.
MISCELLANEOUS FACTS
 Satavahanas tried to establish rule according to the Dharmashastra.
 important officials were called Mahamatras and Amatyas.
 district was called Ahara.
 Kataka and Skandhavarasare terms used in the inscription for military settlements and
camps. These also acted as centre of administration as long as the king stayed there.
 satavahanas exploited iron mines of Warangal and Karimnagar.
 black smith's shops are found in Karimnagar District
 issued coins mostly of lead also potin, copper, bronze.
 did not issue gold coins.
 Andhra region became famous or cotton products (foreign accounts).
 Nagarjunkonda and Amaravati emerged
rged as centres of Buddhist cult
culture and learning.
 Official language Prakrit and script Brahmi.
THE PALLAVAS
SOME FACTS
 Capital was Kanchipuram.
 Dynasty founded by Vishnugopa who was captured and then liberated by Samudragupta.
 However definite history of the dynasty begins with the accession of Simha Vishnu in
second half of 6th century.
IMPORTANT KINGS
MAHENDRAVARMAN
 Himself a dramatist and poet, wrote a play Mattavilasa Prahasan (the delight of the
drunkard), A burlesque.
 Adopted title Vichitrachitta (Curious Minded)
42
GENERAL STUDIES
 Finest rock cut temples were built during his region (e.g. temples at Mahablipuram).
 Known as Caitya- Kari (Builder of Caityas & temples)
 Adopted the title Matta-uilas.
NARSIMHAVERMAN
 In 642 AD defeated Pulkeshin II with the help of the king of Ceylon and sacked vatapi,
took back the territories which were under Mahendraverman.
 Fought the Battle of Manimangalam with Pulkaesin II in which the latter was killed.
 Known as Mahamalla.
 Founded the city of Mamallapuram/Mahabalilpuram.
 Constructed seven rathas at Mahabalipurm.
 Hieun Tsang visited Kanchipuram he called Pallava country Tailopicha and Kanchi
Kinchipulo.
NARSIMHAVARMAN II
 Adopted title Rajasimha.
 Built Kailashnath temple at Kanchi, shore temple at Mahabalipuram and Airavaneshwar
Temple at Kanchi.
 Famous scholar Dandin was in his court.
THE CHOLAS
VIJAYALAYA
 Earlier a feudatory of Pallavas.
 Made Thanjavur/ Taniapuri/ Tanjore the Capital.
RAJARAJA JI I
 Conquered northern Srilanka (Known as Anuradhpura)
 Captured Laccadive and Maldive islands numbering 12000.
(a) Bukot Rajarajeshwara? Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjore.
(b) Splendid Gopuram is its special feature.
(c) His exploits are inscribed on its walls.
 Gave permission to Shailenara ruler Sri Madvijayotunga Varman to build Chudarani
Vihar at Negapattanam.
RAJENDRA
 Chola Expansionist political continued.
 In 1017 annexed whole of Ceylon and imprisoned its king Mahendra V.
 In 1025 campaingned against Shri Vijay Kingdom is south east Asia for their frequent
43
GENERAL STUDIES
interference in trade with China.
 Captured a number of strategic places along the straits of Molucca.
 By 1022 turned his attention towards the north and defeated Mahipala, the Pala ruler of
Bengal.
 Adopted the title Gangaikondachola.
 Founded a New capital Gangaikonda cholapuram or Gangapuri.
 For his successful military campaigns known as ‘Napoleon of the South’.
THE VIJAYNAGARA EMPIRE
 Five sons of Sangama- important position under the Kakatiya of Warangal.
 Ruler of Kakatlya, Prataprudra II defeated by Muhamad Tughlag in 1323 territory by
Muhammad Bin Tughalaq in the south.
 At the opportune time the two brothers were reconverted to Hind
Hindu fold by a Vaisnavite
saint called Madhava Vidyaranya of Shringeri.
 The two brothers founded the city and kingdom of Vijayanagara in 1336.
DEVARAYA II
 Induction of Mustims into the army- provided freedom of religion to Muslims - placed a
copy of Quran before the throne.
 Title- Gajbetkara (hunter of elephants)
 Built a mosque in Vijayanagara.
 Abdur Razzak, ambassador of Shah Rukh of Persia, son of Timur reached in 1443.
KRISHNA DEVA RAYA (1505-29)
 Greatest rule of Vijayanagar.
 In 1513 defeated Gajapati ruler of Orissa and took possession of fort of Udaigiri
Kandividu and Kondapalli.
 Domingo Paes a Portuguese traveler visited. He says about the king - He is a great ruler
and man of much justice but subject to certain fits of rage.
 Barbossa a foreign traveler says about his tolerant attitude “the king allows such freedom
that every man may come............................ whether he is chistian or moor or Hindu”.
 His court poet was Pedanna who wrote “Mnucharitam”.
 Ruler of Tuluva Dynasty.
 Title- Andhra Bhoja, Andhra Pitamah, Abhinav Bhoja, (for he gave liberal patronage to
Telugu Literature).
 Wrote a book Amuktmalyada in Telugu on polity.
44
GENERAL STUDIES
 Worshipper of Virupaksha (Shiva).

 Constructed Hazara Swami and Virupksha temple at Vijayanagara.
(a) Established friendly relations with Portuguese.
(b) Appointed Portuguese soldiers.
(c) Got support of Portuguese governor Albuquerque against Bahmanis.
(d) Gave Permission to Albuquerque to construct a fort at Bhatkal.
THE BHARAMANI KINGDOM
BAHMAN SHAH
 Founded Bahmani Kingdom in (1347)
 Also known, as Zafar Khan
FIRUZ SHAH
 Called Akbar of the South
AHMAD SHAH
 Known as Wali (Saint)
HUMAYUN SHAH
Called, Zalim or Tyrant
 Appointed Mahmud Gawan as his Prime Minister or Khwaja.
MAHMUD SHAH
 After his death (1538) the Bahmani dynasty came to an end
 Meanwhile fine states emerged on the ruins of the Bahamani Kingdom—
(a) Berar — Imad Shahi dynasty
(b) Bidar — Barid Shani dynasty
(c) Ahmadnagar — Nizam Shahi dynasty
(d) Golconda — Qutb Shahi dynasty
(e) Bijapur — Adil Shahi dynasty.
*******
45
GENERAL STUDIES
TOPIC - 5
TERMINOLOGY
THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE
 AMARAM................................. Land with a fixed revenue given to NAYAKS.
 MANYAM................................. Tax free land.
 SIST............................................. Land tax - 1/6.
 VALANGAIS......................................... 'Right - handers', a group of agriculturists.
 IDANGAIS............................................. 'Left handers', a group of industrial class.
 AYAGARS....................... 12 hereditary village functionaries who took over the
functions of the village assembly.
 RAJYA / MANDALAM / CHAVADI................................. Province.
 NADU.................................................... District.
 ASTADIGAJAS............................ Eight eminent scholars in the Court of krishna Deva
Raya.
 VARAHAS............................. Gold coins issued by Vijayanagara rulers, of 56 grains,
issued in their half and quarter denominations.
 PAGODAS............................................ Gold VARAHAS termed as by the foreigners
particularly the Portuguse.
 VIRUPKASHA.......................................... God Shiva, the main God of the early
Vijayanagara rulers.
 LORD VENKETSWARA.................................. Associated with God Vishnu, who
replaced Virupkasha during................................ OF TlRUPATI................................ the
origin of venkata II, as the principal deity.
 Andhra bhoja................................ The names associated with Krishna Deva Raya,
because of ............................... abhinav bhoja...................................... his granting of
liberal patronage to Telugu literature Andhra pitamah.
 AMUKTAMALYADA.............................. A telugu work on olity by K.D. Raya.
 Car festival............................. The concluding event of a festival celebration in a temple
in which the idol of the deity was taken out in a chariot.
 Amaranayakas......................................... Feudatories who held lands of kings and were
bound by military ties.
46
GENERAL STUDIES
 Raichur Doab............................ The region between the rivers Krishna & Godavari, the
bone of contention between the Bahamanis, and the Vijayanagara rulers.
 Chaturvedimangalams............................. Villages given in grants to the Brahmins.
 Brahmadeya..................................... Villages given in grants to the Brahmins.
 Mandalam........................................... Province (in Tamil region).
 Nayankara.............................. Military Chiefs who were granted amaram lands by kings
nayakara system............... They had to pay a fixed annual financial contributions to
NUNIZ). Maintained
imperial exchequer which was generally 1/2 (Reference from NUNI
troops to assist kings in times of war. They were guardian of law and order and
administration in their areas. Office became hereditary later on when the kings became
weak.
 Devadana....................................... Land grant to temples.
THE PALLAVAS
 Damirike / limerike............................................. The Southern region of India mentioned
in Ptolemy's writings.
 Vishnugopa.................................... King of Kanchi, mentioned in Allahabad Prashasti.
 Kinchipulo................................................ Kanchipuram, referred to by Hieun Tsang.
 Talopicha.................................... The Dravida region (country), refferred to by Hieun
Tsang.
THE CHOLAS
 Vellala............................................................. Agriculturists
 Variyam........................................................... Committee
 Alun ganam...................................................... Executive Committee
 Salabhoga.......................................................... Tennures meant for educational purpose
 Manigramam...................................................... Great Nagaram
 NanAdesis........................................................... Merchant guild having wide network
 Valanjiyar............................................................ Merchant guild
 Anjuvanam........................................................... Foreign merchant organization A very
large village.
 Taniyur.................................................................. administrated as a single unit
 Mandalam.............................................................. Province
 Valandu.................................................................. District.
 Nadu/kurram/kottam.............................................. Group of Villages
47
GENERAL STUDIES
THE BAHMANI KINGDOM
 Dabir....................................................................... Secretary.
 Munhians................................................................. Spy.
 Tarafs........................................................................ Province—there were four provinces
Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Bidar, Berar.
 Tarafdar..................................................................... Ruler of province.
 Amir-i-Jumla.............................................................. Head of Finance Dept.
******
48
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THE GUPTA AGE — 300 AD - 550 AD

ART AND CRAFT

 Purpose : marked ownership of property, Use in applying to bales of merchandise,

VARIOUS GUARDIANS / LOKPALS

FACTS ABOUT SCIENCES & TECHNOLOGY

VARIOUS COIN TYPES

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SOME IMPORTANT FACT

 Established an Employment Bureaue to provide work to unemployed.

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HISTORICAL MONUMENTS AND BUILDERS

 Famous Hindu painters were- Bisandas, Manohar, Govardhan, Madhav.

 His commentary of vedanta is complied in Sribhashya and Gitabhashya.

 Original name was Vishwambhar.

 For his mastery over yogic practices he is called a 'sidh' or perfect.

ARRIVAL OF EUROPEAN TRADERS DURING MUGHAL PERIOD

 Worshipper of Virupaksha (Shiva).

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