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LOGIC

I. Propositional Logic

 Proposition – a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both. If a proposition is
true, its truth value is denoted by T; otherwise, if a proposition is false, its truth value is denoted
by F.
 Propositions are usually denoted by small letters. For example:

p: The world is round.

This may be read as: “p is the proposition, ‘The world is round’.”

 If a sequence of propositions is considered, we denote the propositions by p1, p2, etc.

Examples

Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not. If it is a proposition,


give its truth value.

1) p: The sun is the center of the solar system.


2) q: MATH01 is an easy subject.
3) r: Bawalumihidito.
4) s: If Francoliver is an actor, then he is a Filipino.
5) t: I am lying.
6) u: Kianna will surely pass the subject.
7) v: 2 + 5 = 8.
8) w: Why are you late?
9) p1: Buy me a PS4 for Christmas.
10) p2: It is not the case that Kent Darren is a boy.
11) p3: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2
12) p4: If Kyla will be late, then she will not be allowed to take the quiz.

II. Simple and Compound Propositions

 Simple Proposition – one that cannot be broken down any further into other component
propositions.
 Compound Proposition – a proposition formed from simpler propositions using logical
connectors, or some combination of logical connectors.
Examples

Determine whether each of the following statements is simple or compound.

1) p:The teacher is willing to conduct tutorials if more than 10 students will submit the request.
2) q: Mei is a student of Mapua.
3) r: Chef Damian’s dish is not Italian.
4) s: 9.74 is an integer.
5) t: Our MATH01 teacher is handsome and awesome.
6) u: Greet the person seated next to you.
7) v: Due to the strong typhoon, the classes will either be suspended or not.
8) w: Welcome to G132!

III. Logical Connectives

1) Conjunction (⋀): The AND operation of two propositions p and q(𝑝⋀𝑞) is true if both propositions
are true; if not, then the AND operation is false.

p q 𝒑∧𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Examples of Conjunction

a) Ferdinand Marcos became the president of the Philippines and Imelda Marcos is Ferdinand’s
wife. What is the truth value of 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞?
b) Love must be unconditional and love must be selfish. What is the truth value of 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞?
c) Aaron is a girl and Deseree is a student. What is the truth value of 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞?
d) Manila is the capital of Malaysia and Kuala Lumpur is the capital of the Philippines. What is the
truth value of 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞?

2) Disjunction (∨): The OR operation of two propositions p and q(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) is true if at least one of the
propositional statements is true; otherwise, if both propositions are false, then the OR operation is
false.

p q 𝒑∧𝒒
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Examples of Disjunction

a) x is divisible by 2 or x is divisible by 3. What is the truth value of 𝑝∧𝑞 if 𝑥 = 6?


b) x is divisible by 2 or x is divisible by 3. What is the truth value of 𝑝∧𝑞 if 𝑥 = 8?
c) x is divisible by 2 or x is divisible by 3. What is the truth value of 𝑝∧𝑞 if 𝑥 = 15?
d) x is divisible by 2 or x is divisible by 3. What is the truth value of 𝑝∧𝑞 if 𝑥 = 11?

3) Negation (~): The negation of a proposition p (written as ~p) is false when p is true; on the other
hand, the negation of a proposition p is true when p is false.

p ~𝒑
T F
F T

Examples of Negation

a) If p is the proposition, “Christmas Eve falls on December 24,” what is ~𝑝?


b) If q is the proposition, “Filipinos are not fond of eating pasta,” what is ~𝑞?

4) Conditional / Implication (→): An implication 𝑝 → 𝑞 is the proposition, “If p, then q.” If p is true
and q is false, then the truth value is false; otherwise, the truth value is true. In this logical
connective, p is the hypothesis (premise) and q is the conclusion (consequence).

p q 𝒑→𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
a) Converse – computed by interchanging the hypothesis and the conclusion. If the statement
is, “If p, then q,” the converse will be, “If q, then p.” In other words, 𝑞 → 𝑝is the converse of
𝑝 → 𝑞.
b) Inverse – the negation of both the hypothesis and the conclusion. If the statement is, “If p,
then q,” the inverse will be, “If not p, then not q.” In other words, ~𝑝 → ~𝑞 is the inverse of
𝑝 → 𝑞.
c) Contrapositive – computed by interchanging the hypothesis and the conclusion of the
inverse statement. If the statement is, “If p, then q,” the contrapositive will be, “If not q, then
not p.” In other words, ~𝑞 → ~𝑝 is the contrapositive of 𝑝 → 𝑞.

Examples of Conditional / Implication

a) If Allen finishes college, his parents will be happy. What is the truth value of 𝑝 → 𝑞?
b) If Ken uses Lacoste perfume, then Kyla is in love with Judiel. What is the truth value of 𝑝 → 𝑞?
c) If the sun is cold, then Gaurav will pass MATH01. What is the truth value of 𝑝 → 𝑞?
d) If humans are immortal beings, then Mapua University can fly. What is the truth value of 𝑝 → 𝑞?
e) Given the statement, “If you do your homework, you will not be punished,” provide the converse,
inverse, and contrapositive.
5) Biconditional (↔): A biconditional 𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 is the proposition, “p if and only if q.” If both statements
are true or both statements are false, then the truth value is true; otherwise, if one is false, then
the truth value is automatically false.

p q 𝒑→𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Examples of Biconditional

a) The concern will only be addressed if and only if the students will sign the letter.
b) James Reid will stay with ABS-CBN if and only if Nadine Lustre will transfer to GMA 7.
c) The world will not end if and only if Rodrigo Duterte is the president of the Philippines.
d) Dolphins will survive on land if and only if Mapua is a restaurant.

6) Exclusive-Or (⊕):The XOR operation of two propositions (𝑝 ⊕ 𝑞)is true if and only if one is true
and the other is false.

p q 𝒑⨁𝒒
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

7) Exclusive-Nor (⊙): The XNOR operation of two propositions (𝑝 ⊙ 𝑞) is true if both statements
have the same truth values; otherwise, if one is true and the other is false, the truth value will be
false.

p q 𝒑⊙𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

8) Nor (Nor): The NOR operation of two propositions is true if both propositions are false; otherwise,
the truth value is false.

p q 𝒑 𝒏𝒐𝒓 𝒒
T T F
T F F
F T F
F F T
IV. Truth Table

 Truth Table – a diagram in rows and columns showing how the truth or falsity of a proposition
varies with that of its components.
 Tautology (𝝉) – a proposition that is always true.
 Contradiction (𝝓) – a proposition that is always false.
 Contingency – a formula that has both some true and some false values for every value
of its propositional variables.

Examples

Let p and q be propositions. Construct the truth table of the following, and determine if each
formula is Tautology, Contradiction, or Contingency.

1) (𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑝)
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

2) [(𝑝 → 𝑟) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → 𝑟]


p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

3) (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

4) ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ↔ (~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞)


p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

5) [~(~𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ↔ (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑟)] ∨ [(~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) → ~(𝑞 ↔ ~𝑟)]


p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

6) 𝑝 ∨ 𝜏
p 𝝉
T T
T T
F T
F T

7) 𝑝 ∧ 𝜙
p 𝝓
T F
T F
F F
F F

V. Logical Equivalence

 Logically Equivalent Propositions – denoted by 𝑝 ⟺ 𝑞, and occur if they have the same truth
values for all possible truth values of their simple components.

Table of Logical Equivalences

Switcheroo Law (𝑝 → 𝑞) ⟺ [(~𝑝) ∨ 𝑞]


Identity Laws (𝑝 ∧ 𝜏) ⟺ 𝑝 (𝑝 ∨ 𝜙) ⟺ 𝑝
Domination Laws (𝑝 ∨ 𝜏) ⟺ 𝜏 (𝑝 ∧ 𝜙) ⟺ 𝜙
Idempotent Laws (𝑝 ∨ 𝑝) ⟺ 𝑝 (𝑝 ∧ 𝑝) ⟺ 𝑝
Inverse Laws [𝑝 ∨ (~𝑝)] ⟺ 𝜏 [𝑝 ∧ (~𝑝)] ⟺ 𝜙
Double Negation ~(~𝑝) ⟺ 𝑝
Associative Laws 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ⟺ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∨ 𝑟 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ⟺ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑟
Commutative Laws 𝑝∨𝑞 ⟺𝑞∨𝑝 𝑝∧𝑞 ⟺𝑞∧𝑝
Distributive Laws 𝑝 ∨ (𝑞 ∧ 𝑟) ⟺ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) 𝑝 ∧ (𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ⟺ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑟)
De Morgan’s Laws ~(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ⟺ (~𝑝) ∧ (~𝑞) ~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⟺ (~𝑝) ∨ (~𝑞)
Absorption Laws 𝑝 ∨ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ⇔ 𝑝 𝑝 ∧ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ⇔ 𝑝

Examples

1) Show that ~(𝑝 → 𝑞) ⇔ [𝑝 ∧ (~𝑞)].

PROPOSITION REASON
~(𝑝 → 𝑞)
𝑝 ∧ (~𝑞)

2) Prove that (~𝑝 → ~𝑞) ⇔ (𝑞 → 𝑝).

PROPOSITION REASON
~𝑝 → ~𝑞

𝑞→𝑝

3) Show that (𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) ∨ 𝑞 ⇔ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞.

PROPOSITION REASON
(𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) ∨ 𝑞

𝑝∨𝑞

VI. Arguments and Fallacies

 Argument – a compound proposition of the form: (𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝2 ∧ 𝑝𝑛 ) → 𝑞.


 Valid Argument – satisfies the validity condition; that is, the conclusion q is true whenever the
premises p1, p2, ..., pn are all true. In other words, for a valid argument, the conditional: (𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝2 ∧
… ∧ 𝑝𝑛 ) → 𝑞 is a tautology.
 Fallacy – an argument (𝑝1 ∧ 𝑝2 ∧ … ∧ 𝑝𝑛 ) → 𝑞 that is not valid.
 Fallacy of the Inverse – a formal fallacy of inferring the inverse from its original
statement. It is committed by reasoning in the form: “If p, then q. Therefore, if not p, then
not q.”
 Example: If JM is currently enrolled at Mapua University, then he is a student.
JM is not currently enrolled at Mapua University; therefore, he is not a student.
 Fallacy of the Converse – a logical fallacy of inferring the converse from the original
statement. It is committed by reasoning in the form: [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑞] → 𝑝.
 Example: If JM is currently enrolled at Mapua University, then he is a student.
JM is a student; therefore, he is currently enrolled at Mapua University.
Rules of Inference

PROPOSITIONAL FORM STANDARD FORM


𝑝∧𝑞
Rule of Simplification (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → 𝑝
∴𝑝
𝑝
Rule of Addition 𝑝 → (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)
∴𝑝∨𝑞
𝑝
Rule of Conjunction (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) → (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) 𝑞
∴𝑝∧𝑞
𝑝→𝑞
Modus Ponens [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑝] → 𝑞 𝑝
∴𝑞
𝑝→𝑞
Modus Tollens [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (~𝑞)] → ~𝑝 ~𝑞
∴ ~𝑝
𝑝→𝑞
Law of Syllogism [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] → (𝑝 → 𝑟) 𝑞→𝑟
∴𝑝→𝑟
𝑝∨𝑞
Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ (~𝑝)] → 𝑞 ~𝑝
∴𝑞
~𝑝 → 𝜙
Rule of Contradiction [(~𝑝 → 𝜙)] → 𝑝
∴𝑝
𝑝→𝑟
[(𝑝 → 𝑟) ∧ (𝑞 → 𝑟)] 𝑞→𝑟
Rule of Proof by Cases
→ [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → 𝑟]
∴ (𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) → 𝑟

Table of Fallacies

PROPOSITIONAL FORM STANDARD FORM


𝑝→𝑞
Fallacy of the Converse [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑞] → 𝑝 𝑞
∴𝑝
𝑝→𝑞
Fallacy of the Inverse [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ ~𝑝] → ~𝑞 ~𝑝
∴ ~𝑞
𝑝∨𝑞
Affirming the Disjunct [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞) ∧ 𝑝] → ~𝑞 𝑝
∴ ~𝑞
𝑝→𝑞
Fallacy of the Consequent (𝑝 → 𝑞) → (𝑞 → 𝑝)
∴𝑞→𝑝
~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞)
Denying a Conjunct [~(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∧ ~𝑝] → 𝑞 ~𝑝
∴𝑞
𝑝→𝑞
Improper Transposition (𝑝 → 𝑞) → (~𝑝 → ~𝑞)
∴ ~𝑝 → ~𝑞
Examples

1) Prove that the argument [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑝] → 𝑞 is valid.


p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

2) Consider the arguments A and A’ given below:


A A’
If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up. My If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up. I woke
alarm sounded. Therefore, I woke up. up. Therefore, my alarm sounded.

3) Determine which rule is the basis of each argument below:


a) Jules and Mei like MATH01. Therefore, Jules likes MATH01.
b) Madeleine is an actress. Therefore, either Madeleine or Miko is an actress.
c) If Emil buys a box of donuts for his classmates, then they will be happpy. If his
classmates will be happy, they will be motivated to study harder in MATH01. Therefore, if
Emil buys a box of donuts for his classmates, then they will be motivated to study harder
in MATH01.
4) Prove that the argument [(𝑝 → 𝑞) ∧ 𝑞] → 𝑝 is a fallacy.
p q
T T
T F
F T
F F

5) Determine whether each of the following is a valid argument or a fallacy:


a) Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina. Alvin sang with Nina. Therefore, Alvin did not
dance with Nina.
b) Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina. Alvin did not dance with Nina. Therefore, Alvin
sang with Nina.
c) It is not true that Alvin sings and dances with Nina. Alvin did not sing with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin danced with Nina.
6) The space shuttle landed in Florida (f) or it landed in California (c). If the space shuttle landed in
California, then the alternate landing schedule was used (a). But the alternate landing schedule
was not used. Therefore, the space shuttle landed in Florida.
7) If February has 29 days (d), then it is a leap year (l). If it is a leap year, then there will be a
presidential election (e). But there is no presidential election. Therefore, February does not have
29 days.
8) Prove the validity of the argument:

𝑝 → (𝑟 ∧ 𝑠)
~𝑟
∴ ~𝑝

PROPOSITION REASON
~𝑟

~𝑝

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