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Emission mechanism:-
Mathematical description
Stopping potential
Three-step model:-
History:-
19th century
Photomultipliers
Image sensors
Photoelectron spectroscopy
Spacecraft
Burglar alarm:-
Design
Photo-electric beams
Introduction:-
In the photoelectric effect, electrons are emitted from matter (metals and non-
metallic solids, liquids or gases) as a consequence of their absorption of energy
from electromagnetic radiation of very short wavelength and high frequency,
such as ultraviolet radiation. Electrons emitted in this manner may be referred to
as photoelectrons. First observed by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, the phenomenon is
also known as the Hertz effect, although the latter term has fallen out of
general use. Hertz observed and then showed that electrodes illuminated with
ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily.
The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies from a
few electronvolts to over 1 MeV in high atomic number elements. Study of the
photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature
of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–
particle duality.[1] Other phenomena where light affects the movement of
electric charges include the photoconductive effect (also known
as photoconductivity or photo resistivity), the photovoltaic effect, and
the photoelectrochemical effect. It also led to Max Planck's discovery of
quantized energy and the Planck Relation (E = hv), which links a photon's
frequency with its energy. The factor h is known as the Planck constant.
Emission mechanism:-
Mathematical description
The maximum kinetic energy of an ejected electron is given by
where is the Planck constant and is the frequency of the incident photon. The
term = is the work function (sometimes denoted , or ], which gives the
minimum energy required to remove a delocalised electron from the surface of
the metal. The work function satisfies
where is the threshold frequency for the metal. The maximum kinetic
energy of an ejected electron is then
The relation between current and applied voltage illustrates the nature of the
photoelectric effect. For discussion, a light source illuminates a plate P, and
another plate electrode Q collects any emitted electrons. We vary the potential
between P and Q and measure the current flowing in the external circuit between
the two plates.
If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the
photoelectric current increases gradually with an increase in positive potential on
collector electrode until all the photoelectrons emitted are collected. The
photoelectric current attains a saturation value and does not increase further
for any increase in the positive potential. The saturation current depends on the
intensity of illumination, but not its wavelength.
If we apply a negative potential to plate Q with respect to plate P and gradually
increase it, the photoelectric current decreases until it is zero, at a certain
negative potential on plate Q. The minimum negative potential given to plate Q at
which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential or cut
off potential.[13]
i. For the given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity.
ii. For a given frequency of the incident radiation, the stopping potential Vo is
related to the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron that is just stopped
from reaching plate Q. If is the mass and is the maximum velocity of
photoelectron emitted, then
If qe is the charge on the electron and is the stopping potential, then the work
done by the retarding potential in stopping the electron , which gives
The above relation shows that the maximum velocity of the emitted
photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the incident light. Hence,
The stopping voltage varies linearly with frequency of light, but depends on the
type of material. For any particular material, there is a threshold frequency that
must be exceeded, independent of light intensity, to observe any electron
emission.
Three-step model:-
History:-
19th century
Video camera tubes in the early days of television used the photoelectric effect,
for example, Philo Farnsworth's "Image dissector" used a screen charged by the
photoelectric effect to transform an optical image into a scanned electronic
signal.
Gold-leaf electroscope
Photoelectron spectroscopy
Since the energy of the photoelectrons emitted is exactly the energy of the
incident photon minus the material's work function or binding energy, the work
function of a sample can be determined by bombarding it with
a monochromatic X-ray source or UV source, and measuring the kinetic energy
distribution of the electrons emitted.
Photoelectron spectroscopy is done in a high-vacuum environment, since the
electrons would be scattered by gas molecules if they were present. The light
source can be a laser, a discharge tube, or a synchrotron radiation source.
The concentric hemispherical analyser (CHA) is a typical electron energy
analyzer, and uses an electric field to change the directions of incident electrons,
depending on their kinetic energies. For every element and core (atomic orbital)
there will be a different binding energy. The many electrons created from each
of these combinations will show up as spikes in the analyzer output, and these can
be used to determine the elemental composition of the sample.
Spacecraft
The photoelectric effect will cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to develop a
positive charge. This can be a major problem, as other parts of the spacecraft in
shadow develop a negative charge from nearby plasma, and the imbalance can
discharge through delicate electrical components. The static charge created by
the photoelectric effect is self-limiting, though, because a more highly charged
object gives up its electrons less easily.
Moon dust
Light from the sun hitting lunar dust causes it to become charged through the
photoelectric effect. The charged dust then repels itself and lifts off the
surface of the Moon byelectrostatic levitation. This manifests itself almost like
an "atmosphere of dust", visible as a thin haze and blurring of distant features,
and visible as a dim glow after the sun has set. This was first photographed by
the Surveyor program probes in the 1960s. It is thought that the smallest
particles are repelled up to kilometers high, and that the particles move in
"fountains" as they charge and discharge.
Night vision devices
Here Z is atomic number and n is a number which varies between 4 and 5. (At
lower photon energies a characteristic structure with edges appears, K edge, L
edges, M edges, etc.) The obvious interpretation follows that the photoelectric
effect rapidly decreases in significance, in the gamma ray region of the
spectrum, with increasing photon energy, and that photoelectric effect increases
steeply with atomic number. The corollary is that high-Z materials make good
gamma-ray shields, which is the principal reason that lead (Z = 82) is a preferred
and ubiquitous gamma radiation shield.
Burglar alarm:-
A home alarm system control panel, made by Honeywell
A burglar alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion – unauthorized entry –
into a building or area. They are also called security alarms, security
systems, alarm systems, intrusion detection systems, perimeter detection
systems, and similar terms.
Burglar alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and military
properties for protection against burglary (theft) or property damage, as well as
personal protection against intruders. Car alarms likewise protect vehicles and
their contents. Prisons also use security systems for control of inmates.
Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection; combination
systems provide both fire and intrusion protection. Intrusion alarm systems may
also be combined with closed-circuit television surveillance systems to
automatically record the activities of intruders, and may interface to access
control systems for electrically locked doors. Systems range from small, self-
contained noisemakers, to complicated, multi-area systems with computer
monitoring and control.
Design
The most basic alarm consists of one or more sensors to detect intruders, and an
alerting device to indicate the intrusion. However, a typical premises security
alarm employs the following components:
Premises control unit (PCU), or panel: The "brain" of the system, it reads sensor
inputs, tracks arm/disarm status, and signals intrusions. In modern systems, this
is typically one or more computer circuit boards inside a metal enclosure, along
with a power supply.
Sensors: Devices which detect intrusions. Sensors may placed at the perimeter
of the protected area, within it, or both. Sensors can detect intruders by a
variety of methods, such as monitoring doors and windows for opening, or by
monitoring unoccupied interiors for motions, sound, vibration, or other
disturbances.
Alerting devices: These indicate an alarm condition. Most commonly, these
are bells, sirens, and/or flashing lights. Alerting devices serve the dual purposes
of warning occupants of intrusion, and potentially scaring off burglars.
Keypads: Small devices, typically wall-mounted, which function as the human-
machine interface to the system. In addition to buttons, keypads typically
feature indicator lights, a small mulch-character display, or both.
Interconnections between components. This may consist of direct wiring to the
control unit, or wireless links with local power supplies.
Security devices: Devices to detect thieves such as spotlights, cameras & lasers.
In addition to the system itself, security alarms are often coupled with a
monitoring service. In the event of an alarm, the premises control unit contacts a
central monitoring station. Operators at the station see the signal and take
appropriate action, such as contacting property owners, notifying police, or
dispatching private security forces. Such signals may be transmitted via
dedicated alarm circuits, telephone lines, or Internet.
Photo-electric beams
The two most commonly recognized smoke detection technologies are ionization
smoke detection and photoelectric smoke detection.
Ionization smoke detection is generally more responsive to flaming fires.
How they work: Ionization-type smoke alarms have a small amount of radioactive
material between two electrically charged plates, which ionizes the air and causes
current to flow between the plates. When smoke enters the chamber, it disrupts
the flow of ions, thus reducing the flow of current and activating the alarm.