Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila

College of Medicine
Department of Biochemistry and Nutrition
Intramuros, Manila, Philippines

Assignment
The Cell

Jenishia Maria A. Romano

2019-70087
Section C

Learning Objectives:

This paper aims to:

- Differentiate eukaryotic from prokaryotic cells;

- Identify the two major parts of the eukaryotic cells;
- Define the following: (a) Protoplasm, (b) Cytoplasm, (c) Organelles;
- Describe the components of the protoplasm; and
- Briefly discuss the important functions of the cytoplasm and the different organelles.

The Cell

The cell is the fundamental unit of all living organisms -- from the simplest microscopic bacteria
to the largest and most complex animal. It provides structure for the body's tissues and organs,
produces energy through the ingestion of essential nutrients, performs specialized functions,
and contains the hereditary code that permits cells themselves to reproduce.

Eukaryotes Versus Prokaryotes

All living organisms are subdivided into two cell types: prokaryote and eukaryote.

Eukaryote (Greek eu, “true,” and karyon, “nucleus”) refers to an organism whose cells consist of
a cytoplasm containing membrane-bound recognizable structures with varying functions and a
well-defined nucleus bounded by a nuclear membrane. Plants, fungi and animals -- both
unicellular and multicellular -- belong to this class.

On the other hand, Prokaryote (Greek pro, “before”), which refers to bacteria and archaea, lack
the nucleus and other membranous structures.

Despite the differences, both cell types share four common components: (1) a plasma
membrane, an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its external environment; (2)
cytoplasm, the jelly-like region in which other cellular components are found; 3) the DNA, the
cell’s genetic material; and (4) ribosomes that synthesizes proteins.

Major Parts of the Cell

The cell is composed of two major parts: (1) the nucleus and (2) cytoplasm.

1. Nucleus

Known as the control center of the cell, it

contains large quantities of DNA that
determine the characteristic of the cells
proteins which control cytoplasmic and
nuclear activities. The nucleus is bounded
in a nuclear membrane, also called as
nuclear envelope, which is penetrated by
several thousand nuclear pores that allow
certain molecules to pass through.

2. Cytoplasm and Its Organelles

Aside from the nucleus, the other major

part of the cell is the cytoplasm. It consists
of the cytosol, the jelly-like fluid portion;
dissolved particles such as proteins,
electrolytes, and glucose; and essentially

Image 1. The cell and the internal structures of the cytoplasm and nucleus
important organelles such as the
endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi
apparatus, mitochondria, lysosomes, and peroxisomes. Organelles are specialized structures
in the cell that performs specific functions. They are metabolically active which may be
membranous (i.e., mitochondria) or nonmembranous protein complexes (i.e., ribosomes
and proteasomes).

A. Endoplasmic Reticulum

This organelle helps in processing molecules

produced by the cell and transports them to their
respective destinations inside or outside the cell.
The total surface area of the endoplasmic
reticulum varies in some cells--like those in the
liver--which can be as much as 30 to 40 times
larger than the cell membrane area.The relatively
huge surface area and the several enzyme
system attached to its membranes provide

Image 2. The granular and agranular endoplasmic reticulums

machinery to perform metabolic functions of the cell.

Furthermore, large numbers of small granular particles, namely ribosomes, are

attached to the outer surface of many parts of the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes,
composed of a mixture of RNA and proteins, function by synthesizing new protein
molecules in the cell. In areas where ribosomes are present, the reticulum is identified
as Rough or Granular Endoplasmic Reticulum. Otherwise, it is called Smooth or
Agranular Endoplasmic Reticulum which functions for the synthesis of lipid
substances and for other processes of the cells promoted by intrareticular enzymes.

B. Golgi Apparatus

It functions closely with the endoplasmic

reticulum and its membranes are similar
to those of the agranular type. It is
usually composed of four or more
stacked layers of thin, flat, enclosed
vesicles lying near one side of the
nucleus and is more prominent in
secretory cells. Small “transport vesicles”
continually break off from the
endoplasmic reticulum and eventually
fuse with the Golgi apparatus.
Substances entrapped in these vesicles
and transported from the endoplasmic
reticulum to the Golgi apparatus are then
processed to form lysosomes, secretory
Image 3. The Golgi Apparatus
vesicles, and other cytoplasmic
components.

C. Lysosomes

As mentioned earlier, lysosomes are formed by breaking off from the Golgi apparatus
and consequently disperse throughout the cytoplasm. They provide an intracellular
digestive system that allows the cell to digest damaged cellular structures, food particles
ingested by the cell, and unwanted matter such as bacteria. Its surrounding lipid bilayer
membrane is filled with protein aggregates of around 40 different hydrolase enzymes.
Hydrolytic enzymes, which are highly concentrated in lysosomes, are capable of splitting
an organic compound into two or more parts by combining hydrogen from a water
molecule with one part of the compound and combining the hydroxyl portion of the water
molecule with the other part of the compound.

D. Peroxisomes

Though peroxisomes and lysosomes are physically similar, they have two significant
differences. First, peroxisomes are formed by self-replication rather than from the Golgi
apparatus. Second, they contain oxidases rather than hydrolases. Several of the
oxidases are capable of combining oxygen with hydrogen ions derived from different
intracellular chemicals to form hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is a highly
oxidizing substance and is used in association with catalase, another oxidase enzyme
present in large quantities in peroxisomes, to oxidize many substances that might
otherwise be poisonous to the cell. In addition, catabolizing long chain fatty acids is
another major function of peroxisomes .

E. Secretory Vesicles

Like lysosomes, almost all secretory substances are formed by the endoplasmic
reticulum–Golgi apparatus system. They are then released from the Golgi apparatus into
the cytoplasm in the form of storage vesicles called secretory vesicles or secretory
granules.

F. Mitochondria

It is popularly known as the

“powerhouses” of the cell. Without the
mitochondria, all cellular functions would
cease due to the cells inability to extract
adequate energy from the nutrients. They
exist in all areas of each cell’s cytoplasm,
but the total number per cell varies based
on the amount of energy required by that
particular cell. Thus, mitochondria are
more concentrated on cell portions that
are mainly responsible for energy Image 4. The mitochondria and its internal features

metabolism.

In addition, they are self-replicative, which means that one mitochondrion can reproduce
another mitochondrion whenever the cell needs increased amounts of ATP. This
indicates that the mitochondria contain its own DNA like those found in the nucleus of
the cell. Likewise, its DNA controls the replication of the mitochondrion to adequately
supply the additional energy required especially in areas with high energy demands.

The mitochondria have many infoldings of the inner membrane that form bilayer shelves
or tubules called cristae onto which oxidative enzymes are attached. The cristae provide
a large surface area for chemical reactions to occur.

In addition, the inner cavity of the mitochondrion is filled with a matrix that contains large
quantities of dissolved enzymes that are necessary for extracting energy from nutrients.
These enzymes function with the oxidative enzymes on the cristae to cause oxidation of
the nutrients, thereby simultaneously producing carbon dioxide and water and releasing
energy.This energy is thereby used to synthesize a “high-energy” substance called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) which is consequently transported out of the
 mitochondrion and diffuses throughout the cell to release its own energy wherever it is
needed for performing cellular functions.

G. Cell Cytoskeleton—Filament and Tubular Structures

The cell cytoskeleton is a network of fibrillar proteins organized into filaments or tubules.
These originate as precursor protein molecules synthesized by ribosomes in the
cytoplasm. The precursor molecules then polymerize to form filaments such as actin
filaments that provide an elastic support for the cell membrane. In addition, A special
type of stiff filament, composed of polymerized tubulin molecules, is used in all cells to
construct strong tubular structures -- the microtubules. They primarily act as a
cytoskeleton providing rigid physical structures for certain parts or organelles of cells
(e.g., cilia, nerve axons, the mitotic spindles undergoing mitosis, and a tangled mass of
thin filamentous tubules that hold the parts of the cytoplasm and nucleoplasm together in
their respective compartments). The cytoskeleton of the cell does not only determine cell
shape, but also participates in cell division, allows cells to move, and directs the
movement of organelles within the cells.

Protoplasm

Protoplasm is the collective make-up of the cell and is composed mainly of five basic
substances: water, electrolytes, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.

1. Water

This is the principal fluid medium present in most cells except for fat cells. Many cellular
chemicals are dissolved in the water or are suspended solid particulates. Chemical
reactions take place among the dissolved chemicals or at the surfaces of the suspended
particles or membranes.

2. Ions

Important ions in the cell include potassium, magnesium, phosphate, sulfate,

bicarbonate, and smaller quantities of sodium, chloride, and calcium. The ions provide
inorganic chemicals for cellular reactions and play important roles on some cellular
control mechanisms.

3. Proteins

Proteins are the second most abundant substances in most cells which normally
constitute 10 to 20 percent of the cell mass. These proteins can be divided into two
types: structural proteins and functional proteins. Structural proteins are present in the
cell mainly in the form of long filaments. One prominent use of structural proteins is to
form microtubules that provide the cytoskeletons of some cellular organelles.
 In contrast, functional proteins are usually composed of combinations of a few molecules
in tubular-globular form. These proteins are mainly the enzymes of the cell and are often
mobile in the cell fluid. The enzymes come into direct contact with other substances in
the cell fluid and catalyze specific intracellular chemical reactions.

4. Lipids

Lipids are soluble in fat solvents. Important lipids include phospholipids and cholesterol,
which constitute only about 2 percent of the total cell mass. The insolubility of
phospholipids and cholesterol in water is significant as they are used to form the cell
membrane and intracellular membrane barriers that separate the different cell
compartments.

5. Carbohydrates

Though they perfom little structural function in the cell except as parts of glycoprotein
molecules, carbohydrates play a major role in cell's nutrition. Most human cells do not
maintain large stores of carbohydrates -- only small amounts in a form of glycogen that
can be depolymerized and used instantly to supply the required energy by the cell. In
addition, glucose--another form of carbohydrate--is always present in the surrounding
extracellular fluid so that it is readily available to aid in performing cellular functions.

References

Hall, J. E. & Guyton, A. C. (2016). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (13th ed.).
The United States of America, Elsevier.

Mescher, A.L. (2018). Junqueira’s basic histology text and atlas (15th ed.). Bloomington, IN:
McGraw Hill.

Nelson, D. L. & Cox, M. M. (2012). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (6th ed.). Macmillan
Learning.