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Psychology: A paradigm Shift

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 Psychology: A paradigm Shift
Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology A Review Article Copyright 2007 by the Indian Association of
2007, Vol. No. 34 No. 1, P- P Clinical Psychologists (ISSN 0303-2582)

Psychology: A paradigm Shift

Dharitri Ramaprasad
ABSTRACT
AsanyfieldofknowledgethefieldofPsychologyhasgrown,modifiedandincludedmanynewconceptsintoitsrealmleadingto
manynewbranchesofPsychology. Thispaperisanattemptattracingitsjourneytounderstandhumannature. Anattempt
hasalsobeenmadetofindparallelsintherelativelynewconceptsandapproaches,ratherrenewalofinterestintheexperiential
aspects of human existence of western Psychology and the ancient but still accepted and practiced Indian approaches. It’s
therapeuticpotentialsandit’simplicationfortherapist’spersonalgrowthhavebeendiscussed.

Key Words: Transpersonal Psychology, Positive Psychology, Transcendence, Veda, Yoga

INTRODUCTION ‘egolessness’ into common parlance in addition to

Psychology, the scientific study of behavior and
mind, has had a number of paradigm shifts at
different points of time in its history. Influenced by
various schools of thought, psychology as a discipline
branched out and separated from Philosophy. In
the bargain there was a shift in its focus from the
inner world of experience to the outer world of
experience and from the healthy states to
pathological states of human beings. In an attempt
to make the field ‘scientific’ and its subject matter
‘observable’, ‘measurable’ and ‘quantifiable’ human
existence has been robbed of its very subtle and
sensitive aspect, namely the ‘humaneness’.
Benning, T.B. (2005) referring to eastern philosophy
writes “Although a steady stream of such interest
has been generated in ‘the west’ since 1950s, up until
recently only rather peripheral disciplines (such as
transpersonal psychology) have demonstrated a
serious receptivity to eastern philosophy’s therapeutic
insights. Recently, however, there seems to have
occurred a distinct climate change reflected in an
increasing output of scholarly publications dedicated
to plotting the points of convergence between
mainstream western psychotherapy/psychiatry and
eastern philosophy. This seems to parallel the entry
of concepts such as ‘yoga’, ‘mindfulness’ and
their entry into the therapeutic lexicon”.
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
Abraham Maslow, considered to be the father of
the Third Force in Psychology (the first being
Psychoanalysis and its variants and the second being
Behaviorism) held that neither of the two
approaches, namely Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism,
gave humans enough credit for reaching toward
higher goals. As Maslow believed, only recently has
Psychology paid attention to people’s higher nature.
He termed this as the ‘unnoticed revolution’ and
found evidence for its existence in various scientific
disciplines as well as in Philosophy (1970). He found
that humans have a higher nature than what has been
thought or assumed.
Maslow proposed that the ultimate goal of human
life is ‘self-actualization’, which refers to “the desire
to become more and more what one idiosyncratically
is, to become everything that one is capable of
becoming”. This refers to the intrinsic growth of
what is already there in the human beings (Maslow,
1970). Maslow (1971) reiterated that Psychology as
a humanistic science should deal with the questions
of value, individuality, consciousness, purpose, ethics,
and the ‘higher reaches of human nature’. Another

Associate Professor, (Clinical Psychologist) R F P G College for Psychosocial Rehabilitation,

‘CHETANA’, 40 – 1/4 , 6th Cross, Vajpeyam Gardens, Asoknagar, Banashankari I Stage, Bangalore – 560 050.

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 Dharitri Ramaprasad
of his contribution has been the emphasis on studying
healthy people rather than sick ones. He also made
striking assumptions about human nature. Most
importantly he emphasized that ‘people have an
inborn nature that is essentially good or at least
neutral. It is not inherently evil’. This view was
drastically different from the then prevailing view that
emerged from the disease model.
Abraham Maslow is also credited with founding the
Fourth Force Psychology, namely, ‘Transpersonal
psychology’. The third force was considered to be a
preparation for a still ‘higher’ fourth psychology. He
was deeply influenced by the reports of ‘Peak’
experiences among actualizers. Other contributors
to this force have been Karen Horney (1942), who
introduced the concept of ‘Real Self’, Victor Frankl
(1963), whose work on search for meaning was based
on the notion of self-transcendence, and Carl Rogers
(1961) notion of ‘transcendent spiritual powers’ as a
characteristic of a fully functioning person. The
foundation for a humanistic approach to
understanding human nature was already laid by Jung
when he considered the ‘Self’ as an archetype. For
Jung (1961) the Self is the life’s goal that people
constantly strive for but rarely reach. He considered
‘Self knowledge’ to be of great importance in human
life. By ‘self knowledge’ he meant the utmost possible
knowledge of one’s own wholeness. Adler’s concept
of a ‘Creative Self’ has contributed to this in
fashioning the humanistic psychology. Adler (1935)
considered the ‘Creative Self’ to be subjective,
dynamic, unified, personal, and uniquely stylized. It
gives meaning to life and creates the goal as well as
the means to the goal. These conceptualizations of
‘Self’ gave humans a sense of worth and dignity.
“Transpersonal psychology” is a branch of
psychology that is concerned with the study of those
states and processes in which people experience a
deeper or wider sense of who they are, or a sense of
greater connectedness with others, nature, or the
“spiritual” dimension. The term “transpersonal”
means ‘beyond the personal’. It is a field of
Psychology, which integrates psychological concepts,
theories, and methods with the subject matter and
practices of the spiritual disciplines. One basic tenet
of transpersonal psychology is that there is in each
individual a deeper or true self that is experienced in
transcendent state of consciousness, distinct from the
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1-f.pmd 2 6/8/2007, 12:12 PM
personality and the personal ego. This self is seen as
the source of inner strength, health, wisdom and
harmony. Transpersonal Psychology deals with
concepts like Peak experiences, Transcendence,
Optimal mental health, Spiritual growth and
experiences, Developmental spectrum and
Meditation. According to Maslow (1968), ‘the Peak
experience is only good and desirable, and is never
experienced as evil or undesirable’ and ‘Peak-
experience is felt as a self-validating, self-justifying
moment which carries its own intrinsic value with it.
That is to say it is an end in itself, what we may call
an end-experience rather than a means-experience.’
‘Self-Transcendence’, the central concept of
transpersonal psychology, refers to a sense of identity
which is deeper and unique and which goes beyond
the self. This adds a spiritual dimension to human
nature. For Maslow (1971) ‘transcendence refers to
the very highest and most inclusive or holistic levels
of human consciousness, behaving and relating, as
ends rather than as means, to oneself, to significant
others, to human beings in general, to other species,
to nature, and to the cosmos.’
Very close to Humanastic Psychology, is another
emerging field of ‘Positive Psychology’. Seligman
and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) are in the forefront of
this new field. They have been emphasizing the need
to identify strength and wellness while not getting
overly involved with the pathological and negative.
According to them “the field of Positive Psychology
at the subjective level is about positive subjective
experience: well being and satisfaction (past), and flow,
joy, the sensual pleasures, and happiness (present),
and constructive cognitions about the future –
optimism, hope and faith. At the individual level it is
about individual traits – the capacity for love and
vocation, courage, interpersonal skills, aesthetic
sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality,
future mindedness, high talent, and wisdom. At the
group level it is about the civic virtues and the
institutions that move individuals toward better
citizenship: responsibility, nurturance, altruism,
civility, moderation, tolerance, and work ethic.” The
approach emphasizes that mental health professionals
should be able to support and promote healthy
emotions, moods, thoughts, and behaviors as
contrasted to merely trying to remove symptoms.
Positive Psychology has been given a central place
 Psychology: A paradigm Shift
for it’s therapeutic value. According to this the goal
of the therapist is to replace the client’s distress with
a creative enthusiasm for living and experience a
positive sense of well-being. Various techniques for
developing self- awareness, body awareness, and
mindfulness are prescribed, to facilitate the growth
of positive emotions and positive state of being.
Positive Psychology makes use of concepts like Core
of Being, Life Force Energy, Awareness, Mindfulness,
Positive Emotions, etc. The recent theory developed
by Frederickson (2001), emphasizes the role of
positive emotions in modifying the cognitive
processes. This “broaden-and-build” theory of
positive psychology recognizes the role of positive
emotions in facilitating information processing,
creativity, and increasing the efficiency in managing
the challenges of life.
In addition to these new areas there have been other
conceptual thoughts that psychologists have adopted
to fill in the gap in understanding human life and it’s
goals. Concepts like Emotional Quotient (Salovey
and Mayer, 1990; Goleman, 1995), Spiritual Quotient
(Zohar and Marshall, 2000) are widely used.
Emotional Intelligence involves abilities like self-
awareness, managing emotions, empathy, dealing with
relationships, motivating oneself intrinsically, accurate
and appropriate expression of emotions etc.
THE SHIFT
It is interesting to note that Psychology as a discipline
branched out and separated from Philosophy and
shifted it’s focus from the inner world of experience
to the outer world of experience. The shift was also
in the techniques accepted i.e. from experiential
reporting to quantifying of behavior. Now it has been
acknowledged that the higher aspects of human
existence cannot be ignored. Personal experiences
are important to have a complete insight into human
existence. These personal experiences cannot be
measured and quantified. As has been rightly
indicated by Rybak, C.J. (2004) “In the past with its
gaze so fixed on pathology, the psychological fields
have largely overlooked the positive healing resources
that have developed within the deep spirituality of
the wisdom traditions. Consequently, meaningful
needs and access to the healing that comes with
addressing those needs have been disregarded in the
psychological treatment settings.”
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THE INDIAN VIEW
Indian thought about human life has evolved from a
health model as against the disease model of the
western thought. Human life is seen as basically good
and capable of higher reaches. There is emphasis on
self-growth and hence on the preventive aspects
rather than on the curative aspects of the mind and
it’s disturbances. What today the western psychology
is looking for has been documented and expounded
in various ancient Indian scriptures and are based on
the personal experiences of great sages and seers.
In the Vedic scriptures and the Vedantic teachings
one would come across a very dynamic, positive view
of life. Life is seen as a flow of experiences. It is
defined as anubhava dhara. This literally means stream
of experiences. Experiences are of three types
physical, emotional, and intellectual. Man is in
constant pursuit of happiness though Happiness is
his true nature. Highest or Ultimate freedom and
happiness is attained through knowledge of the real
self. Human beings look for this happiness in sensual
pleasures, emotional joys, and rational delights not
realizing that they are short lived and not fulfilling.
Hence, the quest for happiness is never ending.
Ultimate happiness lies in understanding the inner,
real Self within. The nature of this Self is infinite
bliss. Instead of exploring the real source of
happiness within oneself, men seek happiness in the
outside world. This search is never ending and leads
to unhappiness, distress, dejection, frustration and
discontentment. According to them human
development culminates in finding one’s identity with
the conscious principle – the Spiritual Core of one’s
personality, that is the true nature. Not only the goal
of human existence clearly stated, the pathways to
this goal have also been clearly laid down. One may
tread any of the prescribed paths to self-realization
or self-knowledge but Self-effort is of paramount
importance. Pathways to spiritual attainment are fully
expounded in Bhagvadgita. These are path of action
(Karma Marga or Yoga), path of Devotion (Bhakti Marga
or Yoga), path of Knowledge and self-enquiry (Jnana
Marga or Yoga) are clearly explained. Whatever the
school of thought or philosophy, knowledge of Self
or Self-realization is seen as the ultimate goal of life
and that is the state of ultimate happiness. The
pathways can vary and individuals can choose the one
 Dharitri Ramaprasad
that suits their nature or temperament most. On
each of these path Meditation and a meditative
attitude/outlook (Raja Yoga) is the prescribed
technique (Transpersonal Psychology) and all of
them lead to ‘Self-Knowledge’. Self-enquiry and
experiential reporting are the only tools on these
paths. Spiritual discipline and experience of
transcendental states, which lead to realization of
the Self or the ‘Atman’ is central to this approach.
The human nature is towards, as per Indian
Philosophy, self realization and spiritual pursuit
aimed at the highest and everlasting happiness or
union with the Universal Self. This has implication
for human beings in maintaining a feeling of purpose
in life and aim at higher goals in life without feeling
void and despair (Rangaswami, K. 1992). However
there are certain prerequisites for this. Developing
emotional control (regulation and not suppression),
overcoming unintelligent manifestation of emotions
and cultivating positive emotions (Positive
Psychology and EQ) that are not centered on self,
are the basic requirements in addition to involving
in self-less positive actions and thoughts
(Parthasarthy, 2001). Purity of heart and mind is
seen as essential to attain this. Taittiriya Upanishad,
for example, prescribes injunctions concerning the
ways of attaining this state (Swami Prabhavananda).
As mentioned earlier Indian thought has evolved
from the wellness paradigm of being and not the
illness paradigm. The focus has been on the
strengths of life. Detailed descriptions are available
about human emotional life. Emotions are seen as
detrimental if they are confined to and concentrated
on oneself. They are beneficial and positive if they
are directed universally. Love, Kindness,
Compassion, and Charity have a central place.
Emotions are seen as rooted in desires. Having
desires is not condemned but falling prey to the
uncontrollable desiring, yearning, and craving is seen
as detrimental. Such craving leads to negative
emotions. In all the scriptures stress is on enhancing
positive emotions and regulating (not suppressing)
negative emotions. Mental balance, poise and
calmness are the prerequisite for healthy thinking
and living. Techniques of self-control/discipline,
emotional regulation, self-effort, detachment, and
renunciation have been prescribed to achieve this
balance and poise. The idea of control means
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directing the thoughts and energies of the self
toward a higher goal. Direction rather than
repression is the method advocated for the control
of the mind. In essence the Indian thought proposes
a value based living, which can facilitate the
realization of the ‘Self’ and the ultimate goal of
‘Happiness’. Bhagavada Gita, for example, contains
the detailed description about a healthy and positive
way of living (Swami Chinmayananda, 1987, 1991;
Divatia, 1991). Emotions have been given their due
place but it is specified that they have to be expressed
appropriately and human beings need to be aware
that they do not become victims to their emotions
but are masters of their emotions. In this sense
cultivating equanimity is prescribed (Sankara’s
Vivekachudamani).
Concept of the inner ‘Self’ and the technique of
Meditation as proposed by transpersonal
psychologists and ‘Positive Emotions’ and ‘Personal
Values’ (traits), ‘Promotion of healthy state of being’
and the techniques of awareness, mindfulness as
prescribed by positive psychologists, have always
been at the core of Indian thought and Philosophy.
Though discarded by the ‘Scientific Psychology’ it
has withstood the test of time. The western
psychology has come a full circle in accepting these
concepts into the realm of psychology without which
understanding of human nature would be
incomplete and the healing profession would do little
justice to it’s objectives. The paradigm shift from
illness or disease model to wellness or health model,
from an experimental model to experiential model
is a welcome shift.
THE POTENTIALS
This shift has a therapeutic relevance and potential
for therapist/counsellor growth and development.
The Indian philosophy and tradition such as Yoga,
Advaita Vedanta, and other scriptures have practical
implications and provide a know how of what is
called ‘Science of the Self’ (atmavidya,
adhyatmavidya). These are “comparable to
psychotherapy to the extent that they involve
methods for application of psychological knowledge
for changing the human condition from less desirable
to a more desirable state” (Paranjpe, A.C., 1998).
Paranjpe (1998) rightly points out “— in the Western
cultural milieu, practical application of knowledge
 Psychology: A paradigm Shift
is rarely advocated in a personal way as it has been
in Yoga, Advaita Vedanta, and other such systems
of Indian tradition”.
Two Indian traditional models of personal growth
are of great significance, first one being Patanjali’s
Yogasutras and the other deriving from ancient
Indian literature and philosophy (Dharitri, R. &
Rybak, C. J. 2005). Both these models have a strong
spiritual component keeping in line with the Indian
culture and thought. Yoga is a technique of self-
understanding, i.e. a ‘Technology of Self’ and
prescribes various techniques for taking charge of
one’s own body and mind. The techniques of both
yoga and Vedanta are aimed at freeing oneself from
the suffering that is self-created. Utilizing cognitive
methods to bring about desirable change in one-self
is clearly documented in the Vedantic literature.
Cognitive methods like studying, reflection,
contemplation, dialogue, meditation etc. are
prescribed to know the Self. These techniques aim
at preventing existential sufferings and promoting
spiritual growth and achieving a blissful state
(Rangaswami, K. 1996). The unique feature of such
guidance provided by the Indian sages, seers and
Gurus is that it was based on own experiences and
hence implied that they were themselves were on
the path of spiritual growth and self-realization or
had achieved the state of self-realization. This has
important implication to the process of
psychotherapy and the well being of the therapist.
Understanding and knowing the self and the inner
space is central for therapist’s growth and
development. Dr. Kam-shing Yip writes “the
utilization and widening of the inner space increases
one’s tolerance, endurance, and absorption of
frustration and problems in life” (Yip, K.S., 2004).
This would help therapists tap their therapeutic
potentials. This can effectively facilitate client’s
recovery and growth. The therapeutic process itself
provides opportunities for learning and personal
growth for the therapist. However, the therapist’s
understanding of the self is a prerequisite for the
growth process to take place. Techniques of self-
awareness and change facilitate the understanding
of the self and in turn personal growth of the
therapist. Indian teaching and tradition with it’s
emphasis on spiritual dimension of health and
mental health has a lot to contribute in this realm
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1-f.pmd 5 6/8/2007, 12:12 PM
(Dharitri, R., 2003). This also prompts and helps
therapists to address not only the undesirable state
of the client but also to the positive growth potential
of the client. Some studies have reported the impact
of meditation on psychotherapists. Lesh (1970)
found that meditation helps therapist’s level of
accurate empathy while increasing the therapist’s
awareness of his/her own inner experience in the
context of providing psychotherapy.
CONCLUSION
The journey has been long. It is not surprising that
the West is looking towards the East to complete
the journey towards understanding human life and
the life goals goal. This convergence, synchro-
nization and integration of the western view of
human nature and the Indian thought on human life
would take the field a long way towards its goal. This
has important implication for Psychotherapeutic
endeavors, both for the client or the help seeker and
the therapist.
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