INTRODUCTION TO CYTOLOGY

Cytology – Suffix word “logy or ology” means study of.

Prefix word “cyto” means cell. It is derived from the Greek word “kytos”
means hollow vessel or container.

-Study of Cell

- It talks about how cell:

o Work- does their individual roles.

o Grow- by multiplying
o What they are made of- 2/3 of cell is water the rest, mixture of
molecule mainly proteins (cells workers), lipids ( it make up the outer
layer of cells), and carbohydrates (essential for cells to recognize each
other and keeping the different parts of the body working).

Matthias Jakob Schleiden

-A German Botanist, stated that all plants are composed of cells (1838).

Theodor Schwann

-A German Zoologist

-He is the founder of cell theory. He also discovered the first enzyme of animal tissue
known as “Pepsin”.

-He concluded that all animals are composed of cells.

 Schleiden and Schwann came out with the idea that all living things are composed of
cells (Cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms) and published their
detections of cell theory and its components in 1847 entitled as “Microscopical
Researches about Similarities of Structure and Growth of Animals and Plant Cells”.

Rudolf Virchow

-A German Biologist

-He theorized that all living cells come from pre-existing living cells. His conclusion
arose from observing dividing cells during his work.

-These observations became the two major components of the cell theory. The cell
theory states that:
 o All living things are composed of one or more cells and cell products
o All living cells come from other cells by the process of cell division
o Cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms.

METHODS OF STUDYING CELL

Robert Hooke

- The Man Who Discovered Cells Robert Hooke (July 18, 1635–March 3, 1703) was a
17th-century "natural philosopher"—an early scientist—noted for a variety of observations of the
natural world. But perhaps his most notable discovery came in 1665 when he looked at a sliver
of cork through a microscope lens and discovered cells. In 1665, Hooke used his primitive
compound microscope to examine the structure in a slice of cork. He was able to see the
honeycomb structure of cell walls from the plant matter, which was the only remaining tissue
since the cells were dead. He coined the word "cell" to describe the tiny compartments he saw.

- Cell - from the Latin word cella, meaning “small room”.

o Micrographia

The nine months of experiments and observations of cells are recorded in his 1665 book
"Micrographia: or some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies made by Magnifying
Glasses with Observations and Inquiries Thereupon," the first book describing observations
made through a microscope.

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

- Dutch microscopist who was the first to observe bacteria and protozoa. He discovered
"protozoa" - the single-celled organisms and he called them "animalcules". The first person to
describe and draw red blood cells after studying them under a microscope in 1695.

- Animalcules - a microscopic animal.

 Light Microscope - An instrument that magnifies an object using a beam visible light
passed and bent through a lens system to visualize a specimen microscope an instrument
that magnifies an object.
o Micrographs - Most images of cells are taken with a microscope.
  Bright-field Microscope - The name "brightfield" is derived from the fact that the
specimen is dark and contrasted by the surrounding bright viewing field.

 Fluorescence Microscope - It uses a much higher intensity light source which excites a
fluorescent species in a sample of interest.

 Electron microscope - Allows us to see at these small scales. Electron microscopes work
by using an electron beam instead of visible light and an electron detector instead of our
eyes. An electron beam allows us to see at very small scales because electrons can also
behave as light.

PLANTS VS ANIMAL CELLS

Plant Cells

- Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the Kingdom Plantae. They are
eukaryotic, so they contain membrane-bound organelles

o Kingdom Plantae - Taxonomic kingdom comprising all living or

extinct plants.

-Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. They include
familiar organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green
algae.

 Vacuoles - The storage bubble in a cell

-membrane-bound sacs within the cytoplasm of a cell

-vacuoles tend to be very large and are extremely important in providing

structural support, as well as serving functions such as storage, waste disposal, protection, and
growth.

 Cell Wall
-A structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside the cell
membrane.

-The cell wall is the protective, semi-permeable outer layer of a plant cell. A
major function of the cell wall is to give the cell strength and structure, and to filter molecules
that pass in and out of the cell.
  Cytoplasm

-Helps to fill out the cell and keeps organelles in their place.
-The jelly-like fluid that fills a cell is called cytoplasm. It is made up of mostly
water and salt. Cytoplasm is present within the cell membrane of all cell types and
contains all organelles and cell parts.

-Most of the important activities of the cell occur in the cytoplasm. Cytoplasm
contains molecules such as enzymes which are responsible for breaking down waste and also aid
in metabolic activity.

 Plastids

-Large membrane bound organelle

-Plastids are found mostly plants and algae. They are necessary for essential life
processes, like photosynthesis and food storage.

Kinds of Plastids

1. Chromoplasts -The chloroplasts actually convert over to chromoplasts. There are carotenoid
pigments here that allow for the different colors you see in fruits and the fall leaves. One of the
main reasons for these structures and the colors is to attract pollinators.

o Chloroplasts Green
-Plants are green because their cells contain chloroplasts which have the pigment
chlorophyll which absorbs deep-blue and red light, so that the rest of the sunlight
spectrum is being reflected, causing the plant to look green.
o Carotenoids Yellow or Orange
-Carotenoids are plant pigments responsible for bright red, yellow and orange
hues in many fruits and vegetables. These pigments play an important role in plant health.
People who eat foods containing carotenoids get protective health benefits as well.
o Rhodoplasts Red
-a plastid found in red algae, containing red pigment as well as chlorophyll

2. Leucoplasts -a colorless organelle found in plant cells, used for the storage of starch or oil.

 Plasma Membrane/Cell Membrane

-Protect the cell from its surrounding
-The thin membrane that forms the outer surface of the protoplasm of a cell and
 regulates the passage of materials in and out of the cell. It is made up of proteins and
lipids and often contains molecular receptors.

 Nucleus
-The Control Center
-The thin membrane that forms the outer surface of the protoplasm of a cell and
regulates the passage of materials in and out of the cell. It is made up of proteins and
lipids and often contains molecular receptors.

 Rough EndoplasmicReticulum
-Responsible for the assembly of many proteins
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Its main
function is to produce proteins. It is made up of cisternae, tubules and vesicles. The
cisternae are made up of flattened membrane disks, which are involved in the
modification of proteins. They are held together by the cytoskeleton.

 Nuclear Membrane – also known as the “nuclear envelope”. It is the membrane that
encloses the nucleus. This bilayer membrane is made of lipids, and encases the genetic
material in eukaryotic cell. It is made up of a double lipid bilayer. There are two parts to
this layer:
o The Inner Membrane
o The Outer Membrane

There are small holes in the nuclear membrane called “Nuclear Pores”, and these
pores allows content to move in and out of nucleus.

 Golgi Apparatus- it is a structure of membrane- bound sacs. It acts to process and

packaged the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.
It has been likened to the cell’s post office. A major function is the modifying, sorting
and packaging of proteins for secretion. It is also involve to transport lipids around the
cell, and the creation of lysosomes.

 Mitochondria- It is known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act
like a digestive system which takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy
rich molecules for the cell. Mitochondria are the working organelles that keep the cell full
of energy.

 Peroxisomes- It absorbs nutrients that the cell has acquired. There are very well known
for digesting fatty acids. They also play a part in the way organisms digest alcohol
 (ethynol) because they do that job, you would expect liver cells to have more
peroxisomes than most other cells in a human body. They also play a role in cholesterol
synthesis and the digestion of amino acids.

 Ribosomes- they are called as “Protein Factories” because the proteins are
manufactured in the ribosomes. The proteins are made up of amino acids (smaller units).
These are also organelles composed of ribosomal proteins (ribo proteins) and ribonucleic
acid (ribonucleo proteins). The word ribosome is made from taking ‘ribo’ from
ribonucleic acid and adding it to ‘soma’, the latin word for body. Ribosomes are bound
by a membrane but they are not membranous.

Animal Cells

 Golgi Apparatus- it is a structure of membrane- bound sacs. It acts to process and

packaged the macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.
It has been likened to the cell’s post office. A major function is the modifying, sorting
and packaging of proteins for secretion. It is also involve to transport lipids around the
cell, and the creation of lysosomes.

 Centrioles - There are two functions of centrioles:

 The first one is to help with the division of cells in animal cells.
 The second function of centrioles is celiogenesis.
o Celiogenesis – the formation of cilia and flagella on
the surface of cells. Cilia and flagella help the cell
move.

 Cytoplasm - It is the jelly-like fluid that fills a cell is called cytoplasm. It is made up of
mostly water and salt. Cytoplasm is present within the cell membrane of a cell types and
contains all organelles and cell parts. It also helps to fill out the cell and keep the
organelles in their place. Without the cytoplasm, the cell would be deflated and materials
would not be able to pass easily from one organelle to another.

 Vacuole - These are closed sacs, made of membranes with inorganic or organic
molecules inside, such as enzymes. They have no set shape or size, and the cell can
change them as it wants.

 Nucleus – It is the center of the cell. The nucleus has two major functions. It stores the
cell’s hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cells activities.
 Nucleolus – It is located in the center of the nucleus. The main components of the
nucleolus are RNA, DNA and proteins. The nucleolus has one main function. That main
function is the production of subunits which then together form ribosomes.

 Cell Membrane – It can also be referred to as the semi-permeable membrane. The

membrane can serve two primary functions. It forms an outer boundary of the cell and
therefore holding the cell together, and it allows certain substances to pass through it
while prohibiting others from doing so.

 Endoplasmic Reticulum – Is a network of tubes, sacs, and membranes that all function
together to transport materials from one part of the cell to the other. There are two types
of endoplasmic reticulum: smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic
reticulum.

-Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum – Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is not coated

with ribosomes which makes it looks smooth. It has different functions depending
on the type of cell.

-Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – Rough endoplasmic reticulum does have

ribosomes which makes it look rough. It is responsible for protein synthesis.

 Mitochondria – Often referred to as the ‘powerhouse’ of the cell’. Mitochondria is

responsible for the cellular respiration. It is made up of double layered membrane, an
inner and outer membrane. Both are responsible for the breakdown of sugar molecules in
order to release ATP.

 Ribosomes – These are tiny structures that are made up of RNA and protein enzymes.
Ribosomes are mainly responsible for protein synthesis within the cell. Furthermore,
ribosomes are responsible for assembling amino acids to form specific proteins that are
essential for carrying out the cell’s activities.

 Centrosome – These are organelles which serve as the main microtubule organizing
centers for animal cells. Microtubules have roles in cell movement, cell division, and
transporting materials within cells.

 Lysosomes – They act as a disposal system for our cells. Lysosomes break down left
over cellular wastes, actually digesting the unwanted materials from throughout the
cytoplasm and from outside of the cell, and destroying obsolete components inside the
 cell. They are also in charge of maintaining health and fighting diseases in their host
organisms.

 Peroxisomes – They are membrane-bound packets of oxidative enzymes. Peroxisomes

protect the cell from its own production of toxic hydrogen peroxide. As an example,
white blood cells produce hydrogen peroxide to kill bacteria. The oxidative enzymes in
peroxisomes break down the hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

PROKARYOTIC VS. EUKARYOTIC CELL

PROKARYOTIC CELL

-A prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus,

mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle. The word prokaryote comes from the
Greek (pro) "before" and (karyon) "nut or kernel" (cell nucleus).

 Nucleus

Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack organelles or other internal

membrane-bound structures. Therefore, they do not have a nucleus.

 Number of Chromosome

A prokaryote is usually made up of “one” chromosome: Plasmid (naturally exist in

bacterial cells).

 Cell Type

Prokaryotes have no nucleus.

 True Membrane bound Nucleus

Prokaryotic cells do not contain a membrane-bound organelle.

Example:

Bacteria
- Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).
 Archaea
- It has a distinct molecular characteristics separating them from
bacteria.

 Genetic Recombination
Occurs in several ways. DNA can be transferred from one prokaryote to another
through conjugation.

 Lysosomes and Peroxisomes

Prokaryotes have no lysosomes and peroxisomes

 Microtubules
Prokaryotes don’t have microtubule; prokaryotes have microtubule but rare

 Endoplasmic Reticulum
PC (Prokaryotic Cell) lack of endoplasmic reticulum

 Mitochondria
PC does not contain mitochondria

 Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton may be absent or may be possess by a prokaryotic cell.

 DNA Wrapping on Proteins

Prokaryotes compress their DNA into smaller spaces is through supercoiling.
Ex: Imagine twisting a rubber band so that it forms tiny coils. Now twist it even further,
so that the original coils fold over one another and form a condensed ball. When this type
of twisting happens to a bacterial genome, it is known as supercoiling.

 Ribosomes
Ribosomes are special because they are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
While a structure such as a nucleus is only found in eukaryotes, every cell needs
ribosomes to manufacture proteins. Since there are no membrane-bound organelles in
prokaryotes, the ribosomes float free in the cytosol. The ribosomes in prokaryotic cell is
way smaller than the ribosomes in eukaryotic cell.

 Vesicles
Prokaryotes contains vesicle.
  Golgi Apparatus
Prokaryotic cells also lack a golgi apparatus.

 Chloroplasts
Chloroplast is found only in eukaryotic plant cells. In prokaryotes, there is no
membrane bound organelle found, like chloroplast and etc.

 Flagella
Flagella are primarily used for cell movement and are found in prokaryotes as
well as some eukaryotes. The prokaryotic flagellum spins, creating forward movement by
a corkscrew shaped filament. A prokaryote can have one or several flagella, localized to
one pole or spread out around the cell; they are submicroscopic in size and composed of
only 1(one) fiber.

 Permeability of Nuclear Membrane

This is completely not present in prokaryotic cell.

 Plasma Membrane with Steroid

A prokaryotic cell usually does not contain a plasma membrane with steroid
because prokaryotes doesn’t have membrane.

 Cell Wall
Many kinds of prokaryotes and eukaryotes contain a structure outside the cell
membrane called the cell wall. With only a few exceptions, all prokaryotes have thick,
rigid cell walls that give them their shape.

 Vacuoles
A vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in all plant and fungal
cells, animal and bacterial cells. So basically, prokaryotic contains vacuole.

 Cell Size
0.1–5.0 µm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than
eukaryotic cells

EUKARYOTIC CELL

– comes from the Greek words “ eu” meaning "well" or "true" and “karyon” meaning
"nut" or "kernel".
 - are organisms whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, unlike prokaryotes
which have no membrane-bound organelles
- also contain other membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi
apparatus, and in addition, some cells of plants and algae contain chloroplasts.
- may also be multicellular
- animals and plants are the most familiar eukaryotes.

Cell Features

- Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells and have a “true” nucleus, membrane-
bound organelles, and rod-shaped chromosomes.

- The nucleus houses the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes.

- Mitochondria are responsible for ATP production; the endoplasmic reticulum modifies
proteins and synthesizes lipids; and the golgi apparatus is where the sorting of lipids and
proteins takes place.

- Peroxisomes carry out oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids
and detoxify poisons; vesicles and vacuoles function in storage and transport

- Animal cells have a centrosome and lysosomes while plant cells do not.

- Plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and other specialized
plastids, whereas animal cells do not.

Reproduction

Eukaryotes can reproduce both asexually through mitosis and sexually through meiosis and
gamete fusion.

- In mitosis, one cell divides to produce two genetically identical cells.

- In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four
haploid daughter cells. These act as sex cells (gametes). Each gamete has just one set of
chromosomes, each a unique mix of the corresponding pair of parental chromosomes
resulting from genetic recombination during meiosis.
 QUESTIONS:

1. What is the first enzyme discovered by Theodor Schwann in the animal tissue?

2. The word cyto derived from what Greek word?

3. It is the study of cell.

4. Rudolf Virchow is a German Biologist, what did she theorized about cell?

5. What kind of cell does Matthias Jakob Schleiden contribute in the cell theory?

6. Robert Hooke discovered what?

7. How many months of experiments and observations of cells are recorded in Robert Hooke’s
book of Micrographia?

8. It is a type of microscope that uses a much higher intensity light source which excites a
fluorescent species in a sample of interest.

9. It is a single-celled organism and called as animalcules.

10. What does the Latin word Cella mean?

11. It is the protective, semi-permeable outer layer of a plant cell.

12. A kind of plastid that is colorless organelle found in plant cells, used for the storage of starch
or oil.

13. Leucoplasts is used for storing what?

14. It is known as the powerhouse of a cell.
15. These are the basic unit of life in organisms of the Kingdom Plantae.
16. It is the membrane that encloses the nucleus.
17. They are called as Protein Factories.
18. The one who helps with the division of cells in animal cells.
19. It is the center of the cell.
20. It is located in the center of the nucleus.
21. They act as a disposal system for our cells.
22. It is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any other
membrane-bound organelle.
23. What does the Greek word Karyon means?
24. Under Prokaryotic Cell, What does the Greek word Pro mean?
25. Under Eukaryotic Cell, What does the Greek word Eu mean?
26. Does Prokaryotic cell contains Mitochondria? (True or False)
27. Does Prokaryotic cell does not contain Mitochondria? (True or False)
28. Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells. (True or False)
29. Animals and Plants are the most familiar type of what cell? (Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic)
30. What is the main title of Group One’s report?