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version of Eq. (7.53). Because the current has the same waveform for all firing
angles with inductive and motor loads (Fig. 7.7) the distortion factor I1/I has the
constant value 3/, or 0.955. But the displacement factor cos 1 is equal to the
cosine of the delayed firing angle cos ␣, as developed in Sec. 7.2.2. This results
in progressive reduction of the displacement factor (and hence power factor) as
firing angle ␣ increases.
The power factor of a three-phase, phase-controlled rectifier is reproduced
here from Eq. (7.53).
3
Power factor = cos α (8.1)
π
Power factor improvement is a major item of industrial practice to reduce electric-
ity supply costs. From Eq. (8.1) it is seen that this can be approached in terms
of distortion factor improvement, which involves changing the supply current
waveform or in terms of reducing the input current displacement angle 1 (i.e.,
firing angle ␣).
Power supply utilities are operated on the basic feature that the voltages
and currents generated and transmitted are sinusoidal. Any departure from the
ideal sinusoidal waveforms causes deterioration of the supply system perfor-
mance, mostly in the form of increased losses. In addition, the operation of loads
that draw nonsinusoidal currents cause consequent nonsinusoidal voltage drops
across the series impedances of transformers and transmission lines. The result
is that the system voltages at the point of load coupling may become distorted.
This affects not only the customer with the distorting load, such as a three-phase
rectifier, but all other customers connected to the transmission system at that
point.
Because the connection of distorting loads is now so widespread, the United
States and the European Union both have guidelines governing the maximum
amount of distortion that is acceptable. These guidelines detail the levels of rms
harmonic phase currents, of all harmonic numbers up to n ⳱ 19, that are accept-
able at the various voltage levels of the system. In the United Kingdom for
example, at the standard three-phase distribution level of 415 V, the maximum
permitted harmonic phase current levels are 56 A at n ⳱ 5 and 40 A at n ⳱ 7,
for each consumer.
Items 1, 2, 3 and above are mentioned only briefly here since they are covered
in detail in other books (see for example, References 1, 2, 3, 6, 17, 19, 23).
not practicable in engineering terms and would be very expensive if a wide range
of operation was desired (i.e., if a wide range of load voltage variation is needed)
It is common with rectifiers of large rating to use a range of supply-side,
shunt-connected filters, each tuned to a particular harmonic frequency. The opera-
tion of the rectifier itself is unchanged but the filters act to prevent rectifier
generated harmonic currents from circulating in the power supply. The result is
that the rectifier plus filters, seen from the supply system, operates at increased
power factor and reduced electricity tariffs.
4V δ 1 3δ 1 5δ
υ(ωt ) = sin 2 sin ωt − 3 sin 2 sin 3ωt + 5 sin 2 sin 5ωt … (8.2)
π
Pulse width ␦ has a maximum value of radians at which the fundamental term
in Eq. (8.2) is a maximum. An individual harmonic of order n may be eliminated
by making ␦ ⳱ 2/n, but this is likely also to reduce the value of the fundamental
component. The rms value of the single-pulse waveform of Fig. 8.5a is found to
be
FIG. 5 Pulse voltages waveforms: (a) single-pulse modulation (N ⳱ 1), (b) two-pulse
modulation, (N ⳱ 2), and (c) three-pulse modulation (N ⳱ 3).
δ
Vrms = V (8.3)
π
The nth-order harmonic in Eq. (8.2) is seen to have a peak value
4V nδ
Vn = sin (8.4)
nπ 2
A Fourier analysis of Fig. 8.5(a) shows that an ⳱ 0, which makes the phase
displacement angle zero. This confirms the visual impression that since the pulses
are symmetrical within their half waves, then there is no phase displacement of
the voltage harmonics.
The distortion factor of the single-pulse waveform is
V1 / 2 2 2 δ
Distortion factor = = sin
Vrms πδ 2 (8.5)
which has a maximum value of 0.9 when ␦ ⳱ . This is consistent with the data
of Table 10.2.
4V nδ δ δ δ
cn = sin sin n α1 + + sin n α 2 + + sin n α3 +
nπ 2 2 2 2 (8.7)
The greater is the number of pulses N, the higher will be the value of cn for a
fixed value of ␦. Certain harmonic orders can be suppressed or totally eliminated
by the appropriate choice of N, ␣, and ␦.
In the pulse trains of Fig. 8.5 the duty cycle is N␦/, which represents the
ratio of conduction time to total period time and is also the mean height of the
pulse train
conduction time Nδ
Duty cycle = =
total period time π (8.8)
With a high duty cycle a high value of fundamental component is realizable (Fig.
8.6a). As the duty cycle reduces with the same number of pulses N, caused by
reduction of the pulse width ␦, the fundamental component is also progressively
reduced (Fig. 8.6b).
The rms values of the pulse waveforms of Fig. 8.6 are given by
Nδ
Vrms = V (8.9)
π
When N ⳱ 1, Eq. (8.9) reduces to Eq. (8.3).
FIG. 6 Effect of duty cycle on the fundamental component amplitude: (a) high duty
cycle and (b) low duty cycle.
V
Modulation ratio = M =
Vc (8.10)
The pulse height V of the resulting modulated signal vo (t) (Fig. 8.7) can be
adjusted in the range 0 V Vc, and the pulse width varied in the range 0
␦ . The width of the equal pulses is related to the signal voltages by a relation
FIG. 7 Multiple-pulse voltage waveforms: (a) carrier signal and modulating signal and
(b) output (modulated) signal.
δ V π
= (1 − )
N Vc N (8.11)
or
δ V
= 1− = 1− M
π Vc (8.12)
Ratio ␦/ in Eq. (8.11) is seen to represent the duty cycle per number of pulses.
The rms value of the multipulse waveform given by Eq. (8.9) can be com-
bined with Eq. (8.12) to give
Vrms Nδ V
= = N (1 − ) = N (1 − M )
V π Vc (8.13)
fc ω
N= = c = integer
2 f 2ω (8.14)
A further basic property of modulated waveforms is the ratio between the carrier
frequency and the modulating frequency, known as the frequency ratio p.
fc
Frequency ratio = =p
f (8.15)
FIG. 8 Comparison of pulse patterns: (a) uniformly notched pulse train and (b) PWM
wave.
the modulation index M and the peak value of the fundamental output (i.e.,
modulated) component.
There are several other different pulse-width modulation techniques used
in power electronics applications in electrical engineering. For example, a method
widely used in the variable-frequency inverter control of ac motors is described
extensively in Chapter 11.
FIG. 9 Principle of sinusoidal modulation: (a) M ⳱ V/Vc ⳱ 1.0 and (b) M ⳱ V/Vc ⳱
0.5.
The switching angles in Fig. 8.10 can be calculated in order that the PWM
waveform possesses a fundamental component of a desired magnitude while,
simultaneously, optimizing a certain performance criterion. For example, the cri-
terion might be to eliminate certain selected harmonics, such as the fifth and/or
the seventh, from the waveform. Alternatively, the criterion might be to minimize
the total harmonic content and thereby maximize the distortion factor.
FIG. 10 PWM voltage waveform with eight arbitrary switchings per half cycle.
From the Fourier equations of the Appendix it can be inferred, for the
quarter-cycle range, that coefficient ␣n ⳱ 0 and that bn is given by
4 π/2
bn = sin ∫ v (ωt )sin nωt dωt (8.16)
π 0
For the example in Fig. 8.10 containing two notches (four switchings) per quarter
cycle, the waveform is defined by
α1 , α3 , π / 2 α2 , α4
v (ωt ) = Vdc − Vdc
0, α 2 , α 4 α1, α3 (8.17)
4Vdc m
1 + 2∑ ( −1)
i
Vn = cos nαi
nπ i =1 (8.19)
where m is the number of switchings per quarter cycle. The solution of Eq. (8.19)
requires m independent, simultaneous equations; the particular case of Fig. 8.10
and Eq. (8.18), for example, has m ⳱ 4. This means that with two notches per
4 Vdc
b5 = (1 − 2 cos 5α1 + 2 cos 5α 2 − 2 cos 5α3 + 2 cos 5α4 ) = 0 (8.20)
5 π
4Vdc
b7 = (1 − 2 cos 7α1 + 2 cos 7α 2 − 2 cos 7α 3 + 2 cos 7α 4 ) = 0 (8.21)
7π
4Vdc
b11 = (1 − 2 cos 11α1 + 2 cos 11α 2 − 2 cos 11α 3 + 2 cos 11α 4 ) = 0 (8.22)
11π
4Vdc
b13 = (1 − 2 cos 13α1 + 2 cos 13α 2 − 2 cos 13α 3 + 2 cos 13α 4 ) = 0 (8.23)
13π
Solution of the four simultaneous equations [Eqs. (8.20)–(8.23)] gives the results
␣1 ⳱ 10.55, ␣2 ⳱ 16.09, ␣3 ⳱ 30.91, and ␣4 ⳱ 32.87. Increase of the
number of notches per quarter cycle increases the number of harmonics that
may be suppressed, but has the concurrent effects of reducing the fundamental
component and increasing the switching losses.
In general, the set of simultaneous, nonlinear equations describing particular
performance criteria need to be solved or optimized using numerical methods.
Precomputed values of switching angle may be stored in a ROM-based lookup
table from which they are accessed by a microprocessor in order to generate the
necessary switching pulses. It would not be possible to solve numerically the set
of equations in real time, as would be needed in a motor control application. The
larger the number of notchings per quarter cycle, the more refined becomes the
waveform. This may entail solving a large set of nonlinear equations for which
a solution is not always practicable. Furthermore, these equations need to be
solved repetitively, once for each desired level of output.
erative action when there is an appropriate dc source and also participate in the
rectifier action.
Power enters the bridge from the three-phase sinusoidal supply. Reference
modulating sine waves (Fig. 8.12) map the supply voltages and intersect a double-
sided triangular carrier wave. Natural sampling PWM is used to produce phase
voltages (relative to a hypothetical mid-load point) VA, VB, and VC at the bridge
entry terminals. It can be seen in Fig. 8.12 that the fundamental harmonic compo-
nents of the phase voltages will be in phase with the waveforms themselves.
The profile of the dc output voltage follows the form of the six-pulse wave-
forms of Fig. 6.2c and Fig. 7.3c. With notched or PWM operation, however, the
profile will be built up using the middle 60 sections of the line-to-line voltages
represented by (say) waveform VAB of Fig. 8.12. Note that the d.c. output voltage
level is controlled by adjustment of the modulation ratio M. The ripple frequency
on the dc voltage is determined by the frequency ratio p. Since the modulating
voltages are of supply frequency the ripple frequency is, in effect, determined
by the selected carrier frequency. Capacitor C in Fig. 8.11 acts to filter the ripple
component of voltage leaving a very smooth output voltage.
It is possible to devise switch firing strategies to reduce or eliminate particu-
lar harmonics. Because the voltage waveforms have sinusoidal profiles, rather
than the fixed levels of Figs. 8.7–8.10, however, the harmonic elimination method
described in Sec. 8.4.3 does not apply.
Because the supply voltages at points a, b, and c in Fig. 8.11 are sinusoidal
but the bridge terminal voltages VAVB, and VC are either evenly notched or pulse-
width modulated, the difference voltages lie across the line reactors La, Lb, Lc.
The action is very similar, in principle, to a line-commutated rectifier–inverter,
as described in Chapter 9.
If high-frequency harmonics are disregarded the bridge operation, for the
fundamental frequency component, may be approximated by the equivalent cir-
cuit of Fig. 8.13a. With a high value of frequency ratio, (say) p ⳱ 27, the input
current waveforms are close to being sinusoidal. At some values of the dc output
voltage and switching conditions these currents will be in time phase with the
fundamental components of the PWM phase voltages, to result in unity displace-
ment factor (not unity power factor). The fundamental frequency components
can be represented by a phasor diagram (Fig. 8.13b). Some types of device known
as boost rectifiers have a dc output voltage greater than the line-to-line voltages
at the entry terminals. If VA ⬎ Va, the resulting input current Ia leads its phase
voltage in time phase (Fig. 8.13c).
FIG. 13 Operation of a PWM rectifier: (a) equivalent circuit for fundamental compo-
nents, (b) phase diagram for unity displacement factor (buck operation), and (c) leading
displacement factor (boost operation).
2V
= [cos α1 − cos(α1 + δ) + cos α2 − cos(α2 + δ)]
π
4V δ δ δ
= sin sin α1 + + sin α 2 +
π 2 2 2
This equation is seen to be valid for the fundamental frequency n ⳱ 1, when N
⳱ 2, from Eq. (8.6). If the condition is one of symmetry with ␣1 ⳱ ␦ ⳱ /5
⳱ 36, then ␣2 ⳱ 3␦ ⳱ 108 and
4V δ 3δ 7δ
b1 = sin sin + sin
π 2 2 2
=
4V
π
(
sin 18 o sin 54 o + sin 126 o )
4V
= × 0.31 × (0.809 + 0.809)
π
4V 2V
b1 = × 0.05 = = 0.637 V (peak value )
π π
In comparison, for a single-pulse waveform of the same area, Eq. (8.4) gives
4V
V1 = sin 36 o
π
The use of two pulses per half cycle, with the same total area therefore results
in reduction of the fundamental component, even though the rms value is un-
changed. The distortion factor in therefore also reduced proportionately.
Example 8.2 A double-pulse, single-sided notched voltage waveform has
the pattern of Fig. 8.5b. What restriction would require to be imposed on the
design parameters ␣1, ␣2, and ␦ so that the third harmonic component was com-
pletely suppressed?
The Fourier coefficient bn for the waveform of Fig. 8.5b was shown in the
previous example to be
4V nδ δ δ
bn = sin sin n α1 + + sin n α 2 +
nπ 2 2 2
4V nδ α + α2 δ α − α1
bn = sin 2 sin n 1 + cos n 2
nπ 2 2 2 2
To make bn ⳱ 0 for the case n ⳱ 3
4V 3δ α + α2 δ 3
b3 = sin 2 sin 3 1 + cos ( α 2 − α1 ) = 0
3π 2 2 2 2
Three options arise:
1. sin(3␦/2) ⳱ 0.
2. sin 3 (␣1 Ⳮ ␣2)/2 Ⳮ ␦/2) ⳱ 0.
3. cos(3/2)(␣1 ⳮ ␣3) ⳱ 0.
This leads to the following restrictions:
1. ␦ ⳱ 0, (2/3), (4/3), etc.
2. 3 [(␣1 Ⳮ ␣2)/2 Ⳮ ␦/2] ⳱ 0, , 2, …, or ␣1 Ⳮ ␣2 ⳱ ⳮ␦, 2/3 ⳮ␦,
…,
3. (3/2) (␣1 ⳮ ␣2) ⳱ /2, 3/2, 5/2, …, or ␣1 ⳮ ␣2 ⳱ /3, , 5/3,
….
Condition 1 is not admissible. From 2 and 3 it is seen that, for example,
4. ␣1 Ⳮ ␣2 ⳱ ⳮ␦.
5. ␣1 ⳮ ␣2 ⳱ /3.
Combining 4 and 5 gives
π δ
α1 = −
6 2
π δ
α2 = − −
6 2
Other combinations are possible showing that there is no unique solution. For
example, if
2π
α1 + α 2 = −δ
3
α1 − α 2 = π
then
5π δ π δ
α1 = − α2 = − −
6 2 6 2
PROBLEMS
8.1 Show that the rms value of the single-pulse waveform of Fig. 8.5a is given
by Eq. (8.3).
8.2 Calculate the values of the fundamental components of the pulse wave-
forms of Fig. 8.5a and b if ␦ ⳱ 108
8.3 The voltage waveform in Fig. 8.14 contains three single-sided pulses in
each half cycle, spaced symmetrically with respect to /2. Obtain an
expression for the amplitude of the nth harmonic if ␣1 ⳱ /6 and ␣2 ⳱
/3, and compare this with the corresponding expression for a single-pulse
waveform of the same area. What are the respective fundamental values?
8.4 For the waveform of Fig. 8.14, calculate the values of ␣1 and ␣2 that will
permit the 3rd and 5th harmonic components to be eliminated.
8.5 For the voltage waveform of Fig. 8.10 show that the Fourier coefficent
bn, in terms of the switching angles ␣1 and ␣2, is given by
4V
bn = (1 − cos nα1 + cos nα 2 )
nπ
8.6 Define relationships for the switching angles that need to be satisfied if
the 3rd and 5th harmonic components are to be eliminated from the wave-
form of Fig. 8.15. Calculate appropriate values of ␣1 and ␣2.
8.7 A single-sided triangular carrier wave of peak height Vc contains six pulses
per half cycle and is modulated by a sine wave vm (t) ⳱ Vm sin t
synchronized to the origin of a triangular pulse. Sketch waveforms of the
resultant modulated wave if (a) Vm ⳱ 0.5Vc, (b) Vm ⳱ Vc and (c) Vm ⳱
1.5 Vc. Which of these waveforms appears to contain the greatest funda-
mental (i.e, modulating frequency) value?
8.8 For the waveforms described in Problem 8.7 estimate, graphically, the
values of t at which intersections occur between vc (ct) and vm (t)
when Vm ⳱ Vc. Use these to calculate values of the harmonics of the
modulated wave up to n ⳱ 21 and thereby calculate the rms value.
FIG. 15 PWM voltage waveform with two arbitrary switchings per quarter cycle.