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Summary

Aircraft Structure

1. Forces pf airplane

Thrust is the forward force produced by the powerplant/


propeller. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a rule,
it is said to act parallel to the longitudinal axis. This is not
always the case as explained later.

Drag is a rearward, retarding force and is caused by disruption


of airflow by the wing, fuselage, and other protruding objects.
Drag opposes thrust and acts rearward parallel to the relative 4. Stall strips
wind.
Stall strips create a more controlled stall across the wing, as
Weight is the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the well as increased wing buffeting before a full stall occurs.
fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight pulls the aircraft
downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift and 5. Limitations
acts vertically downward through the aircraft’s center of - Airspeed Arcs
gravity (CG).
Red line (never exceed) 160 kts
Lift opposes the downward force of weight, is produced by the
Yellow arc (caution range-smooth air) 126-160kts
dynamic effect of the air acting on the wing and acts
perpendicular to the flight path through the wing’s center of Green Arc (normal operating range) 50-126 kts
lift (CL).
White Arc (flap down) 44-103 kts
2. Axes of aircraft
- Engine

Number: 1

Name: Lycoming

Horsepower: 160

RPM: 2700

Oil temp max: 245°F – min 75°F

Oil press: min 25psi- max 100psi

Fuel press: min .5 psi-max 8psi

Fuel: 100 (green) 100LL (blue)

- Propeller

Number: 1

Name: Sensenich
3. CG Performance
Diameter: 72-74

- Weight

Max ramp weight: normal 2332, utility 2027 lbs

Max take off weight: normal 2325, utility 2020 lbs

Max landing weight: normal 2325, utility 2020 lbs

Max baggage weight: normal 50, utility 0 lbs


- Gravity - Winds limitations

Normal XW: 8kts

2325: forward 87.0, aft 93.0 HW 15kts

1950: forward 83.0, aft 93.0 TW: 5kts

Utility Principle of flight

2020: forward 83.8, aft 93.0 1. Atmospheric pressure

1950: forward 83.0, aft 93.0 The pressure exerted by the earth's atmosphere at any given
point, being the product of the mass of the atmospheric
- Flight load factors
column of the unit area above the given point and of the
Positive: normal 3.8G, utility 4.4G gravitational acceleration at the given point.

Negative: NO APPROVED As air becomes less dense, it reduces: • Power, because the
engine takes in less air • Thrust, because the propeller is less
- Fuel limitations efficient in thin air • Lift, because the thin air exerts less force
on the airfoils.
Total capacity: 50 US GAL
2. Density Altitude
Unusable: 2 GAL
Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard
Usable: 48 Gal
temperature. As the density of the air increases (lower density
- Speeds altitude), aircraft performance increases. Conversely, as air
density decreases (higher density altitude), aircraft
Va: maneuvering speed 80ks, max controllable speed performance decreases. A decrease in air density means a
Vso: stall speed with flaps 50kts high-density altitude; an increase in air density means a lower
density altitude.
Vs1: stall speed 44kts
3. Pressure Altitude
Vx: best angle of climb speed greatest gain of altitude in
horizontal distance 63kts Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum plane
(SDP). The aircraft altimeter is essentially a sensitive
Vy: best rate of climb speed greatest gain of altitude in the barometer calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard
shortest time 79kts atmosphere. If the altimeter is set for 29.92 "Hg SDP, the
altitude indicated is the pressure altitude—the altitude in the
Vglide: Best glide speed 73 kts, is at the point where the
standard atmosphere corresponding to the sensed pressure.
lift/drag ratio is at its highest and the amount of power needed
to maintain level flight the lowest. 4. Temp to Density
Vno: maximum structural cruising speed smooth air only 126 Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its
kts density. Conversely, decreasing the temperature increases the
density. Thus, the density of air varies inversely with
Vne: never exceed speed 160 kts
temperature. This statement is true only at a constant
Vfe: flaps extended speed 103-100 kts pressure.

- Tire Pressure 5. Humidity to Density

Nose gear: 30psi As the water content of the air increases, the air becomes less
dense, increasing density altitude and decreasing
Main gear: 24psi performance.
- Battery DC 6. Relative humidity.
12 Volts-35amps The ratio of the existing amount of water vapor in the air at a
- Alternator AC to DC given temperature to the maximum amount that could exist at
that temperature; usually expressed in percent.
14volts- 60amps
7. Pressure to Density airfoil efficiency. Aircraft with higher L/D ratios are more
efficient than those with lower L/D ratios.
In fact, density is directly proportional to pressure. If the
pressure is doubled, the density is doubled, and if the pressure 6. L/D Max
is lowered, so is the density. This statement is true only at a
Minimum Drag Speed, also known as L/D Max or L/DMAX. The
constant temperature.
point on the total drag curve where the lift-to-drag ratio is the
8. Bernoulli Principle greatest. At this speed, total drag is minimized.

Bernoulli’s Principle states that as the velocity of a moving fluid 7. Formation of Vortex
(liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the fluid
The action of the airfoil that gives an aircraft lift also causes
decreases. This principle explains what happens to air passing
induced drag. When an airfoil is flown at a positive AOA, a
over the curved top of the airplane wing.
pressure differential exists between the upper and lower
Aerodynamic of Flight surfaces of the airfoil. The pressure above the wing is less than
atmospheric pressure and the pressure below the wing is
1. AOA
equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure. Since air always
The AOA is defined as the acute angle between the chord line moves from high pressure toward low pressure, and the path
of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind. of least resistance is toward the airfoil’s tips, there is a
spanwise movement of air from the bottom of the airfoil
2. Relative wind outward from the fuselage around the tips. This flow of air
results in “spillage” over the tips, thereby setting up a
Direction of the airflow produced by an object moving through
whirlpool of air called a vortex.
the air. The relative wind for an airplane in flight flows in a
direction parallel with and opposite to the direction of flight; 8. Vortex Avoidance
therefore, the actual flight path of the airplane determines the
direction of the relative wind. Landing behind a larger aircraft on the same runway— stay at
or above the larger aircraft’s approach flight path and land
3. Parasite Drag beyond its touchdown point. • Landing behind a larger
aircraft on a parallel runway closer than 2,500 feet—consider
Parasite drag is comprised of all the forces that work to slow
the possibility of drift and stay at or above the larger aircraft’s
an aircraft’s movement.
final approach flight path and note its touchdown point. •
- Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated Landing behind a larger aircraft on crossing runway— cross
by the aircraft due to its shape and airflow around it. above the larger aircraft’s flight path. • Landing behind a
Examples include the engine cowlings, antennas, and departing aircraft on the same runway—land prior to the
the aerodynamic shape of other components. departing aircraft’s rotating point. • Landing behind a
- Interference drag comes from the intersection of larger aircraft on a crossing runway—note the aircraft’s
airstreams that creates eddy currents, turbulence, or rotation point and, if that point is past the intersection,
restricts smooth airflow. For example, the continue and land prior to the intersection. If the larger aircraft
intersection of the wing and the fuselage at the wing rotates prior to the intersection, avoid flight below its flight
root has significant interference drag. path. Abandon the approach unless a landing is ensured well
- Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due before reaching the intersection. • Departing behind a large
to the contact of moving air with the surface of an aircraft—rotate prior to the large aircraft’s rotation point and
aircraft. Every surface, no matter how apparently climb above its climb path until turning clear of the wake. •
smooth, has a rough, ragged surface when viewed For intersection takeoffs on the same runway— be alert to
under a microscope. adjacent larger aircraft operations, particularly upwind of the
runway of intended use. If an intersection takeoff clearance is
4. Induced Drag received, avoid headings that cross below the larger aircraft’s
path. • If departing or landing after a large aircraft executing
Induced drag is inherent whenever an airfoil is producing lift a low approach, missed approach, or touch-and-go landing
and, in fact, this type of drag is inseparable from the (since vortices settle and move laterally near the ground, the
production of lift. Consequently, it is always present if lift is vortex hazard may exist along the runway and in the flight
produced. path, particularly in a quartering tailwind), it is prudent to wait
5. Lift/Drag Ratio at least 2 minutes prior to a takeoff or landing. • En
route, it is advisable to avoid a path below and behind a large
The lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) is the amount of lift generated by a aircraft, and if a large aircraft is observed above on the same
wing or airfoil compared to its drag. A ratio of L/D indicates
track, change the aircraft position laterally and preferably 15. Left Turn tendency
upwind.
Torque: As applied to the aircraft, this means that as the
9. Ground speed is the horizontal speed of an aircraft internal engine parts and propeller are revolving in one
relative to the ground. direction, an equal force is trying to rotate the aircraft in the
opposite direction.
10. Datum Plane
Gyroscopic: Precession is the resultant action, or deflection, of
Datum (Reference Datum). An imaginary vertical plane or line a spinning rotor when a deflecting force is applied to its rim.
from which all measurements of arm are taken. The datum is As the tail comes up, a force is applied to the top of the
78.4 inches ahead of the wing leading edge at the intersection propeller. And since the propeller is spinning clockwise, that
of the straight and tapered section. force is felt 90 degrees to the right. That forward-moving force,
on the right side of the propeller, creates a yawing motion to
11. Arm
the left.
The horizontal distance from the reference datum to the
P-Factor, which is also called "asymmetric propeller loading",
center of gravity (CG) of an item.
happens when the downward moving propeller blade takes a
12. Moment bigger "bite" of air than the upward moving blade.

The product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm. Spiraling slipstream: It happens when your prop is moving fast,
Moments are expressed in pound-inches (lb-in). Total moment and your plane is moving slow. And there's no better example
is the weight of the airplane multiplied by the distance of this than takeoff. During takeoff, air accelerated behind the
between the datum and the CG. prop (known as the slipstream) follows a corkscrew pattern. As
it wraps itself around the fuselage of your plane, it hits the left
13. Stabilities side of your aircraft's tail, creating a yawing motion, and
- Static stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft to making the aircraft yaw left.
return to its original position when it's disturbed.
16. Rigidity in space: the gyro tends to resist forces
Positive Static Stability: An aircraft that has positive static applied to it, it is stable on the axis it spins.
stability tends to return to its original attitude when it's
disturbed. 17. Adverse Yaw
Neutral static stability: An aircraft that has neutral static Adverse yaw is the natural and undesirable tendency for an
stability tends to stay in its new attitude when it's aircraft to yaw in the opposite direction of a roll. When you roll
disturbed. your airplane to the right, your right aileron goes up, and your
left aileron goes down. The aileron in the upward position (the
Negative static stability: Finally, an aircraft that has
right aileron in this example) creates less lift and less drag than
negative static stability tends to continue moving away
the aileron that is lowered. The aileron angled downward (the
from its original attitude when it's disturbed.
left aileron in this example) produces more drag and more lift,
- Dynamic stability is how an airplane responds over initially yawing the airplane in the opposite direction of your
time to a disturbance. roll.

Positive Dynamic Stability: Aircraft with positive dynamic 18. Load factor
stability have oscillations that dampen out over time and
Any force applied to an aircraft to deflect its flight from a
return to its original position.
straight line produces a stress on its structure.
Neutral dynamic stability: Aircraft with neutral dynamic
Systems
stability have oscillations that never dampen out.
1. Reciprocating Engine
Negative dynamic stability: Aircraft with negative dynamic
stability have oscillations that get worse over time.

14. Stall

A rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow


from the wing’s surface, brought on by exceeding the critical
angle of attack. A stall can occur at any pitch attitude or
airspeed.
pressure area is created that forces the fuel to flow through a
main fuel jet located at the throat. The fuel then flows into the
airstream where it is mixed with the flowing air. The fuel-air
mixture is then drawn through the intake manifold and into
the combustion chambers where it is ignited. The float-type
carburetor acquires its name from a float that rests on fuel
within the float chamber. A needle attached to the float opens
and closes an opening at the bottom of the carburetor bowl.
This meter the amount of fuel entering into the carburetor,
depending upon the position of the float, which is controlled
by the level of fuel in the float chamber. When the level of the
fuel forces the float to rise, the needle valve closes the fuel
Pistons are connected to a crankshaft and when the pistons opening and shuts off the fuel flow to the carburetor. The
move in and out that causes the crankshaft to rotate, the needle valve opens again when the engine requires additional
propeller is connected to the crankshaft, so as the crankshaft fuel. The flow of the fuel-air mixture to the combustion
rotate the propeller does too. chambers is regulated by the throttle valve, which is controlled
- The intake stroke begins as the piston starts its by the throttle in the flight deck.
downward travel. When this happens, the intake - Malfunction
valve opens and the fuel-air mixture is drawn into the
cylinder. The float-type carburetor has several distinct disadvantages.
- The compression stroke begins when the intake valve First, they do not function well during abrupt maneuvers.
closes, and the piston starts moving back to the top Secondly, the discharge of fuel at low pressure leads to
of the cylinder. This phase of the cycle is used to incomplete vaporization and difficulty in discharging fuel into
obtain a much greater power output from the fuel-air some types of supercharged systems. The chief disadvantage
mixture once it is ignited. of the float-type carburetor, however, is its icing tendency.
- The power stroke begins when the fuel-air mixture is Since the float-type carburetor must discharge fuel at a point
ignited. This causes a tremendous pressure increase of low pressure, the discharge nozzle must be located at the
in the cylinder and forces the piston downward away venturi throat, and the throttle valve must be on the engine
from the cylinder head, creating the power that turns side of the discharge nozzle. This means that the drop-in
the crankshaft. temperature due to fuel vaporization takes place within the
- The exhaust stroke is used to purge the cylinder of venturi. As a result, ice readily forms in the venturi and on the
burned gases. It begins when the exhaust valve throttle valve.
opens, and the piston starts to move toward the
- Throttle controls the amount of fuel and air that goes
cylinder head once again.
into the cylinders.
- Mixture controls how much fuel mix with air, control
2. Carburetor System
ratio between this two.
- For every fuel molecule there are 15 air molecules.

3. Ignition System

The float-type carburetor system, the outside air first flows


through an air filter, usually located at an air intake in the front
part of the engine cowling. This filtered air flows into the
carburetor and through a venturi, a narrow throat in the
carburetor. When the air flows through the venturi, a low-
A magneto uses a permanent magnet to generate an electrical
current completely independent of the aircraft’s electrical
system. The magneto generates sufficiently high voltage to
jump a spark across the spark plug gap in each cylinder. The
system begins to fire when the starter is engaged, and the
crankshaft begins to turn. It continues to operate whenever
the crankshaft is rotating.

Most standard certificated aircraft incorporate a dual ignition


system with two individual magnetos, separate sets of wires,
and spark plugs to increase reliability of the ignition system.
Each magneto operates independently to fire one of the two
spark plugs in each cylinder. The firing of two spark plugs The engine oil system performs several important functions: •
improves combustion of the fuel-air mixture and results in a Lubrication of the engine’s moving parts • Cooling of the
engine by reducing friction • Removing heat from the cylinders
slightly higher power output. If one of the magnetos fails, the • Providing a seal between the cylinder walls and pistons •
other is unaffected. The engine continues to operate normally, Carrying away contaminants.
although a slight decrease in engine power can be expected.
The same is true if one of the two spark plugs in a cylinder fails. In a wet-sump system, the oil is located in a sump that is an
integral part of the engine. In a dry-sump system, the oil is
The operation of the magneto is controlled in the flight deck contained in a separate tank and circulated through the engine
by the ignition switch. The switch has five positions: 1. OFF 2. by pumps.
R (right) 3. L (left) 4. BOTH 5. START
The main component of a wet-sump system is the oil pump,
With RIGHT or LEFT selected, only the associated magneto is which draws oil from the sump and routes it to the engine.
activated. The system operates on both magnetos when BOTH After the oil passes through the engine, it returns to the sump.
is selected. In some engines, additional lubrication is supplied by the
rotating crankshaft, which splashes oil onto portions of the
- Malfunction
engine.
A malfunctioning ignition system can be identified during the
An oil pump also supplies oil pressure in a dry-sump system,
pre-takeoff check by observing the decrease in rpm that occurs
but the source of the oil is located external to the engine in a
when the ignition switch is first moved from BOTH to RIGHT
separate oil tank. After oil is routed through the engine, it is
and then from BOTH to LEFT. A small decrease in engine rpm
pumped from the various locations in the engine back to the
is normal during this check.
oil tank by scavenge pumps. Dry-sump systems allow for a
Detonation: uncontrol explosive ignition of the fuel mixture greater volume of oil to be supplied to the engine, which
inside of the cylinder high temp and pressure. makes them more suitable for very large reciprocating
engines.
Reason: using lower grade of fuel, high power settings with
mixture too lean 5. Fuel System

Recovery: reduce power, increase the mixture.

Pre- Ignition: When the fuel air mixture is ignited prior to his
normal time.

Reason: carbon deposit that is hot enough to ignite the fuel air
mixture.

4. Oil system

Type of oil: shell ash dispersion.


Aircraft with fuel-pump systems have two fuel pumps. The electrical equipment should be turned off to conserve battery
main pump system is engine driven with an electrically driven power.
auxiliary pump provided for use in engine starting and in the
A bus bar is used as a terminal in the aircraft electrical system
event the engine pump fails. The auxiliary pump, also known
to connect the main electrical system to the equipment using
as a boost pump, provides added reliability to the fuel system.
electricity as a source of power.
The electrically driven auxiliary pump is controlled by a switch
in the flight deck. Circuit breakers are used in the electrical system to protect the
circuits and equipment from electrical overload. Spare fuses of
Both gravity-feed and fuel-pump systems may incorporate a
the proper amperage limit should be carried in the aircraft to
fuel primer into the system. The fuel primer is used to draw
replace defective or blown fuses. Circuit breakers have the
fuel from the tanks to vaporize fuel directly into the cylinders
same function as a fuse but can be manually reset, rather than
prior to starting the engine.
replaced, if an overload condition occurs in the electrical
After leaving the fuel tank and before it enters the carburetor, system.
the fuel passes through a strainer that removes any moisture
An ammeter is used to monitor the performance of the aircraft
and other sediments in the system. Since these contaminants
electrical system. The ammeter shows if the alternator/
are heavier than aviation fuel, they settle in a sump at the
generator is producing an adequate supply of electrical power.
bottom of the strainer assembly.
It also indicates whether or not the battery is receiving an
6. Electrical System electrical charge.

A voltage regulator controls the rate of charge to the battery


by stabilizing the generator or alternator electrical output. The
generator/alternator voltage output should be higher than the
battery voltage. For example, a 12-volt battery would be fed
by a generator/alternator system of approximately 14 volts.
The difference in voltage keeps the battery charged.

Potential problems

Battery failure

Alternator failure

Bus failure

Circuit breaker opens

Electrical system fire

If the system fails (non-fire)

Try to reset the alternator

Reset circuit breaker (generally only once)

Load shed non-essential equipment


Most aircraft are equipped with either a 14- or a 28-volt direct
If electrical fire – follow POH
current (DC) electrical system. A basic aircraft electrical system
consists of the following components: • Alternator/generator Be prepared for loss of electrically powered radios and
• Battery • Master/battery switch • Alternator/generator equipment
switch • Bus bar, fuses, and circuit breakers • Voltage regulator
• Ammeter/loadmeter • Associated electrical wiring. Land, as necessary following a system failure, as battery power
can be short lived
Alternators produce sufficient current to operate the entire
electrical system, even at slower engine speeds, by producing 7. Hydraulic System
alternating current (AC), which is converted to DC.

With the alternator half of the switch in the OFF position, the
entire electrical load is placed on the battery. All nonessential
indicators where it causes the gyros to spin. A relief valve
prevents the vacuum pressure, or suction, from exceeding
prescribed limits. After that, the air is expelled overboard or
used in other systems, such as for inflating pneumatic deicing
boots.

It is important to monitor vacuum pressure during flight,


because the attitude and heading indicators may not provide
reliable information when suction pressure is low. The
vacuum, or suction, gauge is generally marked to indicate the
normal range. Some aircraft are equipped with a warning light
that illuminates when the vacuum pressure drops below the
acceptable level.
There are multiple applications for hydraulic use in aircraft,
depending on the complexity of the aircraft. For example, a When the vacuum pressure drops below the normal operating
hydraulic system is often used on small airplanes to operate range, the gyroscopic instruments may become unstable and
wheel brakes, retractable landing gear, and some constant inaccurate. Cross-checking the instruments routinely is a good
speed propellers. habit to develop.

A basic hydraulic system consists of a reservoir, pump (either - Attitude indicator


hand, electric, or engine-driven), a filter to keep the fluid clean,
Depicts the orientation of the aircraft relative to Earth's
a selector valve to control the direction of flow, a relief valve
horizon
to relieve excess pressure, and an actuator.
Gives immediate and direct indication of pitch and bank
The hydraulic fluid is pumped through the system to an
actuator or servo. A servo is a cylinder with a piston inside that A primary instrument for IFR flight
turns fluid power into work and creates the power needed to
move an aircraft system or flight control. Servos can be either Generally vacuum powered, but can be electrically powered
single-acting or double-acting, based on the needs of the Functions using the principal of rigidity in space with a
system. This means that the fluid can be applied to one horizontal gyro - Aircraft rotates around the AI
or both sides of the servo, depending on the servo type. A Wings represent a pitch change of approximately 2°
single-acting servo provides power in one direction. The
selector valve allows the fluid direction to be controlled. This Set wings to proper position on the ground with knob on the
is necessary for operations such as the extension and bottom of the instrument
retraction of landing gear during which the fluid must work in
Attitude indicator errors:
two different directions. The relief valve provides an outlet for
the system in the event of excessive fluid pressure in the Can tumble if 100-110° of bank or 60-70° of pitch is exceeded
system.
Accelerations may cause a slight pitch up indication
8. Vacuum System
Deceleration may cause a slight pitch down indication

Erection can take as long as 5 minutes, but normally occurs


within 2 to 3 minutes

Small bank angle and pitch error possible after a 180° turn

May inaccurately display aircraft’s attitude, especially in skids


and steep banked turns due to venting of gyro vacuum air

Can fail if vacuum or electrical power lost, as applicable

These inherent errors are small and correct themselves within


a minute or so after returning to straight-and-level flight
air is drawn into the vacuum system by the engine-driven
vacuum pump. It first goes through a filter, which prevents - HIS
foreign matter from entering the vacuum or pressure system.
Gyro stabilized heading indicator
The air then moves through the attitude and heading
Indirect bank indicator (turns as heading changes) Approximate angle of bank for standard rate turn = (TAS/10) +
5
Generally vacuum powered, but can be electrically powered
Turn Coordinator errors
Functions using the gyroscopic principal of rigidity in space
If the vacuum or electrical supply fails the instrument will show
Senses rotation about vertical axis
no turn
DG is the primary means of establishing your heading in most
Usually has a warning flag
cases due to magnetic compass errors
Low voltage or suction may cause the turn coordinator to show
As a result of Earth’s rotation, and because of small errors
a shallower turn than actual
caused by friction and imperfect balancing of the gyro, the
DG/HSI will drift or precess over time, and must be periodically If gyro rotor speed is too high it will result in an excessive rate
reset from the compass 3° / 15 minutes is acceptable of turn indication
precession
9. Pitot Static system
Compare the heading indicated on the DG/HSI with the
compass in straight and level unaccelerated flight at least
every 15 minutes and reset the DG/HSI, as necessary, to match
the magnetic compass

Errors

May tumble if limits are exceeded

Limits are approximately 55° of pitch and 55° of bank

Precession

During steep turns, pitching and rolling of the aircraft the


changing relationship between the two gimbals in the
instrument can result in an indication error or drift
The pitot-static system works by measuring and comparing
Erection can take as long as 5 minutes, but normally occurs static pressures and in the case of the airspeed indicator, both
within 2 to 3 minutes static and dynamic pressure.

Can fail if vacuum or electrical power lost, as applicable Airspeed: The airspeed indicator is a sealed case with an
aneroid diaphragm inside of it. The case surrounding the
- Turn coordinator diaphragm is made up of static pressure, and the diaphragm is
Shows rate of turn and rate of roll into the turn supplied with both static and dynamic pressure to it. When
airspeed increases, the dynamic pressure inside of the
The rotor of the gyro in a turn coordinator is canted upwards diaphragm increases as well, causing the diaphragm to expand.
30° Through mechanical linkage and gears, the airspeed is
depicted by a needle pointer on the face of the instrument.
Thus, it responds not only to movement about the vertical axis,
but also to roll movements about the longitudinal axis Altimeter: The altimeter acts as a barometer and is also
supplied with static pressure from the static ports. Inside the
Turn coordinator thus provides an indication of roll at the
sealed instrument case is a stack of sealed aneroid
earliest possible time
diaphragms, also known as wafers. These wafers are sealed
The airplane’s wings provide the indication of wings level flight with an internal pressure calibrated to 29.92" Hg, or standard
and the rate at which the aircraft is turning – mark is standard atmospheric pressure. They expand and contract as the
rate turn pressure rises and falls in the surrounding instrument case. A
Kollsman window inside of the cockpit allows the pilot to
2 minutes normally; can be 4 minutes in fast aircraft calibrate the instrument to the local altimeter setting to
Provides no pitch information account for non-standard atmospheric pressure.

Provides no bank information – only rate of turn VSI: The vertical speed indicator has a thin sealed diaphragm
connected to the static port. The surrounding instrument case
is also sealed and supplied static air pressure with a metered
leak at the back of the case. This metered leak measures Also on the rear of the unit are
pressure changes more gradually, which means that if the
An access cover for removing and replacing the built-in backup
airplane continues to climb, the pressure will never quite catch
battery.
up to each other, allowing for rate information to be measured
on the instrument face. Once the aircraft levels off, the • Pneumatic connections to the aircraft’s pitot and
pressures from both the metered leak and the static pressure static systems.
from inside the diaphragm equalize, and the VSI dial returns to
zero to show level flight. • 44-pin D-sub connector for electrical connections to
the EFD1000.

• A cooling fan, to cool the electronics and LCD


backlights.

• The PFD mounts to the front surface of most


instrument panels.

2. Configuration Module (CM)

The Configuration Module contains an EEPROM device that


retains system

configuration and calibration data and provides two primary


functions:

An alternate static pressure source control valve is installed Retains aircraft-specific configuration information, calibration
below left inside of the instrument panel. When the valve is set data, and user
in the alternate position, the altimeter, vsi, asi will be using • settings, allowing the PFD to be swapped for service
cabin air for static pressure. The storm window and cabin vents purposes without re-
must be closed, and the cabin heater and defroster must be on
during alternate static source operation. The altimeter error is entering or re-calibrating the installation.
less than 50 feet unless otherwise placarded.
Contains a license key that configures the PFD software
Aspen Components features.

1. Display Unit • The CM is typically attached to the wire bundle


coming out of the D-sub connector on
The EFD1000 system unit is a digital system that consists of a
high resolution 6” diagonal the system unit.

color LCD display, user controls, photocell, and Micro SD data 3. Remote Sensor Module (RSM)
card slot. The three-inch
The Remote Sensor Module (RSM) is an integral part of the
diameter, four-inch deep can on the back of the display EFD1000 system, and works
contains a non-removable
together with the display unit sensors as part of the AHRS and
electronics module which includes: ADC. The RSM looks and

A Sensor Board with solid-state Attitude and Heading mounts like a GPS antenna, and is mounted on the exterior of
Reference System the fuselage, typically aft

• (AHRS) and digital Air Data Computer (ADC). of the cabin.

A Main Application Processor (MAP) board with Central The RSM contains the following sub-systems:
Processing Unit (CPU),
3D magnetic flux (heading) sensors.
• graphics processor and system memory.
• Orientation accelerometers.
An Input-Output Processor (IOP) board for integrating
• Outside Air Temperature (OAT) sensor.
communications with
• Emergency backup GPS engine and antenna.
• other aircraft systems.
• The RSM communicates with the EFD1000 system The magnets in a compass align with any magnetic field. Some
unit via a digital cable connection. causes for magnetic fields in aircraft include flowing electrical
current, magnetized parts, and conflict with the Earth’s
4. Analog Converter Unit (ACU)
magnetic field. These aircraft magnetic fields create a compass
The Analog Converter Unit (ACU), included with most Pro PFD error called deviation.
systems, enables the
Documents and Acronyms
all-digital EFD1000 system to interface to analog avionics when
1. IMSAFE
required. The ACU
Illness
converts multiple analog interfaces to the digital ARINC 429
buses supported by the Medication

PFD. Control parameters, such as desired heading, are also Stress


sent from the PFD to the
Alcohol
ACU for conversion to analog format for autopilot support. The
Fatigue
ACU is required when
Eat
any of the following capabilities are required in a Pro PFD
installation: 2. AVIATE
Interface to supported autopilots. Annual inspection 12 months
• Interface to conventional VHF navigation radios. VOR 30 day
• Interface to legacy (non-ARINC 429) GPS navigators. 100 hour inspection 50 hour ALAS
• Interface to supported radar altimeter decision Altimeter, attitude 24 months
height annunciations.
Transponder 24 months
• If ARINC 429-based digital radios, such as the Garmin
400/500-series GPS/nav/comm ELT 12 month

radios, are installed in the aircraft, and no other aircraft Battery useful life
interfaces are desired, the ACU is not required.
3. ARROWI
Compass Errors
Airworthiness certificate
1. Dip Errors
Registration certificate
The Earth's magnetic field runs parallel to its surface only at
Radio License
the Magnetic Equator, which is the point halfway between the
Magnetic North and South Poles. As you move away from the Operating handbook
Magnetic Equator towards the magnetic poles, the angle
created by the vertical pull of the Earth's magnetic field in Weight and balance
relation to the Earth’s surface increases gradually. This angle is Insurance
known as the dip angle. The dip angle increases in a downward
direction as you move towards the Magnetic North Pole and 4. ATOMATO FLAMES Day
increases in an upward direction as you move towards the
Anti-collision lights
Magnetic South Pole.
Tachometer
2. Variation
Oil pressure gauge
In aerial navigation, the difference between true and magnetic
directions is called variation. This same angular difference in Manifold pressure gauge
surveying and land navigation is called declination.
Altimeter
3. Deviation
Temp gauge
Oil temp gauge 2. True Airspeed (TAS)

Floating gear True airspeed is the speed of your aircraft relative to the air it's
flying through. As you climb, true airspeed is higher than your
Fuel gauge
indicated airspeed. Pressure decreases with higher altitudes,
Airspeed indicator so for any given true airspeed, as you climb, fewer and fewer
air molecules will enter the pitot tube. Because of that,
Magnetic Direction indicated airspeed will be less than true airspeed. In fact, for
every thousand feet above sea level, true airspeed is about 2%
ELT
higher than indicated airspeed. So at 10,000 feet, true airspeed
Safety Belts is roughly 20% faster than what you read off your airspeed
indicator.
5. FLAPS night
3. Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)
Fuses
Calibrated airspeed is indicated airspeed corrected for
Landing lights instrument and positional errors. At certain airspeeds and with
Anti-collision lights certain flap settings, the installation and instrument errors
may total several knots. This error is generally greatest at low
Position Lights airspeeds, with nose high pitch attitudes.
Source of electricity When flying at sea level under International Standard
Atmosphere (ISA) conditions (15 degrees Celsius, 29.92 inches
6. Student Limitations
of mercury, 0% humidity), calibrated airspeed is the same as
A student pilot may not: true airspeed. If there is no wind it is also the same as ground
speed.
Carrying passenger
Weather
Carrying passenger property for compensation or hire
1. Composition of the Atmosphere
In furtherance of a business
In any given volume of air, nitrogen accounts for 78 percent of
On an international flight the gases that comprise the atmosphere, while oxygen makes
With flight or surface visibility less than 3nm during AM, or up 21 percent. Argon, carbon dioxide, and traces of other
5nm in PM gases make up the remaining one percent.

When the flight cannot be made with visual references to the 2. Layers of atmosphere base on temp
surface Troposphere-Tropopause-Stratosphere-Stratopause-
Pilot logbook by an authorized inst. Mesoosphere-Mesopause-Thermosphere.

7. Documents 3. Coriolis force

Student pilot certificate The force created by the rotation of the Earth is known as the
Coriolis force. The Coriolis force deflects air to the right in the
Government issued photo ID Northern Hemisphere, causing it to follow a curved path
instead of a straight line. The amount of deflection differs
Current solo endorsements
depending on the latitude. It is greatest at the poles and
First class medical diminishes to zero at the equator.

Airspeeds 4. Wind Patterns

1. Indicated Airspeed (IAS) In the Northern Hemisphere, the flow of air from areas of high
to low pressure is deflected to the right and produces a
This one's pretty simple. It's read right off your airspeed clockwise circulation around an area of high pressure. This is
indicator and is usually what you'll reference in the cockpit for known as anticyclonic circulation. The opposite is true of low-
speed changes. The speed limits of the sky, like not exceeding pressure areas; the air flows toward a low and is deflected to
250 knots below 10,000 feet MSL, are all written as indicated create a counterclockwise or cyclonic circulation.
airspeed values.
5. Land and Sea Breeze
During the day, land heats faster than water, so the air over the dissipation of radiation fog. If radiation fog is less
the land becomes warmer and less dense. It rises and is than 20 feet thick, it is known as ground fog.
replaced by cooler, denser air flowing in from over the water. - Advection Fog: When a layer of warm, moist air
This causes an onshore wind called a sea breeze. Conversely, moves over a cold surface, advection fog is likely to
at night land cools faster than water, as does the occur. Winds of up to 15 knots
corresponding air. In this case, the warmer air over the water - Figure 12-21. Radiation fog.
rises and is replaced by the cooler, denser air from the land, - allow the fog to form and intensify; above a speed of
creating an offshore wind called a land breeze. 15 knots, the fog usually lifts and forms low stratus
clouds. Advection fog is common in coastal areas
6. Low-Level Wind Shear
where sea breezes can blow the air over cooler
Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or landmasses.
direction over a very small area. Wind shear can subject an - Upslope fog occurs when moist, stable air is forced up
aircraft to violent updrafts and downdrafts, as well as abrupt sloping land features like a mountain range. This type
changes to the horizontal movement of the aircraft. While of fog also requires wind for formation and continued
wind shear can occur at any altitude, low-level wind shear is existence. Upslope and advection fog, unlike
especially hazardous due to the proximity of an aircraft to the radiation fog, may not burn off with the morning sun
ground. Low-level wind shear is commonly associated with but instead can persist for days. They can also extend
passing frontal systems, thunderstorms, temperature to greater heights than radiation fog.
inversions, and strong upper level winds (greater than 25 - Steam fog, or sea smoke, forms when cold, dry air
knots). moves over warm water. As the water evaporates, it
rises and resembles smoke. This type of fog is
7. Inversion common over bodies of water during the coldest
times of the year. Low-level turbulence and icing are
As air rises and expands in the atmosphere, the temperature
commonly associated with steam fog.
decreases. There is an atmospheric anomaly that can occur;
- Ice fog occurs in cold weather when the temperature
however, that changes this typical pattern of atmospheric
is much below freezing and water vapor forms
behavior. When the temperature of the air rises with altitude,
directly into ice crystals. Conditions favorable for its
a temperature inversion exists. Inversion layers are commonly
formation are the same as for radiation fog except for
shallow layers of smooth, stable air close to the ground. The
cold temperature, usually –25 °F or colder. It occurs
temperature of the air increases with altitude to a certain
mostly in the arctic regions but is not unknown in
point, which is the top of the inversion. The air at the top of
middle latitudes during the cold season.
the layer acts as a lid, keeping weather and pollutants trapped
below. If the relative humidity of the air is high, it can
10. Clouds
contribute to the formation of clouds, fog, haze, or smoke
- Low clouds are those that form near the Earth’s
resulting in diminished visibility in the inversion layer.
surface and extend up to about 6,500 feet AGL. They
8. Dew point are made primarily of water droplets but can include
supercooled water droplets that induce hazardous
The dew point, given in degrees, is the temperature at which aircraft icing. Typical low clouds are stratus,
the air can hold no more moisture. stratocumulus, and nimbostratus. Fog is also
9. Fog classified as a type of low cloud formation. Clouds in
this family create low ceilings, hamper visibility, and
Fog is a cloud that is on the surface. It typically occurs when can change rapidly. Because of this, they influence
the temperature of air near the ground is cooled to the air’s flight planning and can make visual flight rules (VFR)
dew point. At this point, water vapor in the air condenses and flight impossible.
becomes visible in the form of fog. - Middle clouds form around 6,500 feet AGL and
extend up to 20,000 feet AGL. They are composed of
- Radiation Fog: On clear nights, with relatively little to
water, ice crystals, and supercooled water droplets.
no wind present, radiation fog may develop. Usually,
Typical middle-level clouds include altostratus and
it forms in low-lying areas like mountain valleys. This
altocumulus. These types of clouds may be
type of fog occurs when the ground cools rapidly due
encountered on cross-country flights at higher
to terrestrial radiation, and the surrounding air
altitudes. Altostratus clouds can produce turbulence
temperature reaches its dew point. As the sun rises
and may contain moderate icing. Altocumulus clouds,
and the temperature increases, radiation fog lifts and
which usually form when altostratus clouds are
eventually burns off. Any increase in wind also speeds
breaking apart, also may contain light turbulence and Such a front is formed when a cold air mass replaces a warm
icing. air mass by advancing into it or that the warm air mass retreats
- High clouds form above 20,000 feet AGL and usually and cold air mass advances (cold air mass is the clear winner).
form only in stable air. They are made up of ice
In such a situation, the transition zone between the two is a
crystals and pose no real threat of turbulence or
cold front.
aircraft icing. Typical high level clouds are cirrus,
cirrostratus, and cirrocumulus. Cold front moves up to twice as quickly as warm fronts.

11. Ceiling Frontolysis begin when the warm air mass is completely
uplifted by the cold air mass.
For aviation purposes, a ceiling is the lowest layer of clouds
reported as being broken or overcast, or the vertical visibility The weather along such a front depends on a narrow band of
into an obscuration like fog or haze cloudiness and precipitation.

12. Visibility Severe storms can occur. During the summer months
thunderstorms are common in warm sector.
Visibility refers to the greatest horizontal distance at which
prominent objects can be viewed with the naked eye. In some regions like USA tornadoes occur in warm sector.

13. Precipitation Produce sharper changes in weather. Temperatures can drop


more than 15 degrees within the first hour.
Precipitation refers to any type of water particles that form in
the atmosphere and fall to the ground. The approach of a cold front is marked by increased wind
activity in warm sector and the appearance of cirrus clouds,
14. Air Masses followed by lower, denser altocumulous and
Air masses are classified according to the regions where they At actual front, dark nimbus and cumulonimbus clouds cause
originate. They are large bodies of air that take on the heavy showers. A cold front passes off rapidly, but the weather
characteristics of the surrounding area or source region. along it is violent.
The boundary layer between two types of air masses is known - Warm Front
as a front.
10 to 25 miles per hour (mph
- Stationary Front
It is a sloping frontal surface along which active movement of
When the surface position of a front does not change (when warm air over cold air takes place (warm air mass is too weak
two air masses are unable to push against each other; a draw), to beat the cold air mass).
a stationary front is formed.
Frontolysis (front dissipation) begin when the warm air mass
The wind motion on both sides of the front is parallel to the makes way for cold air mass on the ground, i.e. when the warm
front. air mass completely sits over the cold air mass.
Warm or cold front stops moving, so the name stationary As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and causes
front. precipitation but, unlike a cold front, the temperature and
wind direction changes are gradual.
Once this boundary resumes its forward motion, becomes a
warm front or cold front. Such fronts cause moderate to gentle precipitation over a large
area, over several hours.
Cumulonimbus clouds are formed. Overrunning of warm air
along such a front causes frontal precipitation. The passage of warm front is marked by rise in temperature,
pressure and change in weather.
Cyclones migrating along a stationary front can dump heavy
amounts of precipitation, resulting in significant flooding along With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is—-cirrus, stratus
the front. and nimbus. [No cumulonimbus clouds as the gradient is
gentle]
- Cold Front
Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo
25 to 30 mph
around sun and moon.

- Occluded Front
Occlusion: Meteorology a process by which the cold front of a This cloud has become a cumulonimbus cloud because it has
rotating low-pressure system catches up the warm front, so an updraft, a downdraft, and rain. Thunder and lightning start
that the warm air between them is forced upwards. to occur, as well as heavy rain. The cumulonimbus is now a
thunderstorm cell.
Such a front is formed when a cold air mass overtakes a warm
air mass and goes underneath it. - Dissipating Stage

Frontolysis begin when warm sector diminishes and the cold After about 30 minutes, the thunderstorm begins to dissipate.
air mass completely undertakes the warm sector on ground. This occurs when the downdrafts in the cloud begins to
dominate over the updraft. Since warm moist air can no longer
Thus, a long and backward swinging occluded front is formed
rise, cloud droplets can no longer form. The storm dies out
which could be a warm front type or cold front type occlusion.
with light rain as the cloud disappears from bottom to top.
Weather along an occluded front is complex—a mixture of cold
- Squall Line
front type and warm front type weather. Such fronts are
common in west Europe. A squall line is a narrow band of active thunderstorms. Often
it develops on or ahead of a cold front in moist, unstable air,
The formation Mid-latitude cyclones [temperate cyclones or
but it may develop in unstable air far removed from any front.
extra-tropical cyclones] involve the formation of occluded
front. - Tornadoes

A combination of clouds formed at cold front and warm front. The most violent thunderstorms draw air into their cloud bases
with great vigor. If the incoming air has any initial rotating
Warm front clouds and cold front clouds are on opposite side
motion, it often forms an extremely concentrated vortex from
of the occlusion.
the surface well into the cloud.
15. Wind Shifts
Aviation Weather Services
Wind around a high-pressure system rotates clockwise, while
1. Surface Aviation Weather Observations
low-pressure winds rotate counter-clockwise. When two high
pressure systems are adjacent, the winds are almost in direct Surface aviation weather observations (METARs) are a
opposition to each other at the point of contact. compilation of elements of the current weather at individual
ground stations across the United States. The network is made
16. Thunderstorm
up of government and privately contracted facilities that
Ingredients: Water vapor, unstable lapse rate, upward lifting provide continuous up-to-date weather information.
Automated weather sources, such as the Automated Weather
AAC 5miles away Observing Systems (AWOS), Automated Surface Observing
Systems (ASOS), as well as other automated facilities, also play
Recommended: 20 miles, can encounter hail and turbulence.
a major role in the gathering of surface observations.
- Cumulus Stage
2. Flight Service Station (FSS)
The sun heats the Earth's surface during the day. The heat on
The FSS also provides inflight weather briefing services and
the surface and warms the air around it. Since warm air is
weather advisories to flights within the FSS area of
lighter than cool air, it starts to rise (known as an updraft). If
responsibility.
the air is moist, then the warm air condenses into a cumulus
cloud. The cloud will continue to grow as long as warm air 3. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS)
below it continues to rise.
Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS),
- Mature Stage available in the 48 conterminous states, is an automated
continuous broadcast of hazardous weather information over
When the cumulus cloud becomes very large, the water in it
selected VOR navigational aids (NAVAIDs). The broadcasts
becomes large and heavy. Raindrops start to fall through the
include advisories such as AIRMETS, SIGMETS, convective
cloud when the rising air can no longer hold them up.
SIGMETS, and urgent PIREPs.
Meanwhile, cool dry air starts to enter the cloud. Because cool
air is heavier than warm air, it starts to descend in the cloud 4. Briefings:
(known as a downdraft). The downdraft pulls the heavy water - Standard Briefing A standard briefing provides the
downward, making rain. most complete information and a more complete
weather picture. This type of briefing should be
obtained prior to the departure of any flight and mountain obscuration; Tango is used to denote
should be used during flight planning. turbulence, strong surface winds, and low-level wind
- Abbreviated Briefing An abbreviated briefing is a shear; and Zulu is used to denote icing and freezing
shortened version of the standard briefing. It should levels.
be requested when a departure has been delayed or - SIGMET SIGMETs (WSs) are inflight advisories
when weather information is needed to update the concerning non-convective weather that is
previous briefing. potentially hazardous to all aircraft. They report
- Outlook Briefing An outlook briefing should be weather forecasts that include severe icing not
requested when a planned departure is 6 hours or associated with thunderstorms, severe or extreme
more away. It provides initial forecast information turbulence or clear air turbulence (CAT) not
that is limited in scope due to the time frame of the associated with thunderstorms, dust storms or
planned flight. This type of briefing is a good source sandstorms that lower surface or inflight visibilities to
of flight planning information that can influence below three miles, and volcanic ash. SIGMETs are
decisions regarding route of flight, altitude, and unscheduled forecasts that are valid for 4 hours
ultimately the go/no-go decision. unless the SIGMET relates to a hurricane, in which
case it is valid for 6 hours.
5. Aviation Weather Reports A non-convective SIGMET to be issued are severe or
- Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR) A METAR greater turbulence over a 3,000-square-mile (7,800
is an observation of current surface weather reported km2) area, severe or greater icing over a 3,000-
in a standard international format. square-mile (7,800 km2) area or IMC over a 3,000-
- Pilot Weather Reports (PIREPs) PIREPs provide square-mile (7,800 km2) area due to dust, sand, or
valuable information regarding the conditions as they volcanic ash.
actually exist in the air, which cannot be gathered A Convective SIGMET is issued for convection over the
from any other source. Pilots can confirm the height Continental U.S. Convective SIGMETs are issued for
of bases and tops of clouds, locations of wind shear an area of embedded thunderstorms, a line of
and turbulence, and the location of inflight icing. thunderstorms, thunderstorms greater than or equal
to VIP level 4 affecting 40% or more of an area at least
6. Aviation Forecasts 3000 square miles, and severe surface weather
- Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAF) is a report including surface winds greater than or equal to 50
established for the five statute mile radius around an knots, hail at the surface greater than or equal to 3/4
airport. TAF reports are usually given for larger inches in diameter, and tornadoes. Severe
airports. Each TAF is valid for a 24 or 30-hour time thunderstorms are characterized by tornado(s), hail
period and is updated four times a day at 0000Z, 3/4 inches or greater, or wind gusts 50 knots or
0600Z, 1200Z, and 1800Z. greater.A Convective SIGMET is valid for 2 hours and
they are issued hourly at Hour+55.
7. Inflight Weather Advisories
- AIRMET AIRMETs (WAs) are examples of inflight 8. Weather Charts
weather advisories that are issued every 6 hours with - Surface Analysis Chart The surface analysis chart
intermediate updates issued as needed for a depicts an analysis of the current surface weather.
particular area forecast region. The information This chart is transmitted every 3 hours and covers the
contained in an AIRMET is of operational interest to contiguous 48 states and adjacent areas. A surface
all aircraft, but the weather section concerns analysis chart shows the areas of high and low
phenomena considered potentially hazardous to light pressure, fronts, temperatures, dew points, wind
aircraft and aircraft with limited operational directions and speeds, local weather, and visual
capabilities. obstructions.
An AIRMET includes forecast of moderate icing, - Weather Depiction Chart A weather depiction chart
moderate turbulence, sustained surface winds of 30 details surface conditions as derived from METAR and
knots or greater, widespread areas of ceilings less other surface observations. The weather depiction
than 1,000 feet and/or visibilities less than three chart is prepared and transmitted by computer every
miles, and extensive mountain obscurement. 3 hours beginning at 0100Z time and is valid data for
Each AIRMET bulletin has a fixed alphanumeric the forecast period. It is designed to be used for flight
designator, numbered sequentially for easy planning.
identification, beginning with the first issuance of the - Significant Weather Prognostic Charts Significant
day. Sierra is the AIRMET code used to denote IFR and weather prognostic charts are available for lowlevel
significant weather from the surface to FL 240 (24,000 become inoperative. If a receiver becomes inoperative and a
feet), also referred to as the 400 mb level and high- pilot needs to land at a towered airport, it is advisable to
level significant weather from FL 250 to FL 630 remain outside or above Class D airspace until the direction
(25,000 to 63,000 feet). The primary concern of this and flow of traffic is determined. A pilot should then advise the
discussion is the low-level significant weather tower of the aircraft type, position, altitude, and intention to
prognostic chart. land. The pilot should continue, enter the pattern, report a
position as appropriate, and watch for light signals from the
9. NOTAM tower. Light signal colors and their meanings are contained in.

Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) Time-critical aeronautical If the transmitter becomes inoperative, a pilot should follow
information, which is of a temporary nature or not sufficiently the previously stated procedures and also monitor the
known in advance to permit publication, on aeronautical appropriate ATC frequency. During daylight hours, ATC
charts or in other operational publications receives immediate transmissions may be acknowledged by rocking the wings and
dissemination by the NOTAM system. The NOTAM information at night by blinking the landing light.
could affect your decision to make the flight. It includes such
When both receiver and transmitter are inoperative, the pilot
information as taxiway and runway closures, construction,
should remain outside of Class D airspace until the flow of
communications, changes in status of navigational aids, and
traffic has been determined and then enter the pattern and
other information essential to planned en route, terminal, or
watch for light signals.
landing operations. Exercise good judgment and common
sense by carefully regarding the information readily available
in NOTAMs.

Types of NOTAM:

NOTAM(D)

FDC NOTAM (flight data center)

SAA NOTAM (special activity airports)


Airspace
Pointer NOTAM (point to another NOTAM)
1. USA
(U) NOTAM (has not been verified by a management
personnel)

(O) NOTAM (are info that doesn’t fit NOTAM criteria but are
important for pilots)

Military NOTAM

10. Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)

The Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a


recording of the local weather conditions and other pertinent
non-control information broadcast on a local frequency in a
looped format. It is normally updated once per hour but is
updated more often when changing local conditions warrant.

Airport Beacon

1. Flashing white and green for civilian land airports •


Flashing white and yellow for a water airport •
Flashing white, yellow, and green for a heliport •
Two quick white flashes alternating with a green flash
identifying a military airport

2. Lost Communication Procedures

It is possible that a pilot might experience a malfunction of the


radio. This might cause the transmitter, receiver, or both to
3. Scan the area around the airplane for prominent landmarks
to determine the airplane’s

location.

4. Circle, so as not to aggravate the situation or wander into


restricted or controlled airspace.

5. Crosscheck using the airplane’s navigational instruments;


plot an azimuth from either two VOR

or NDB facilities, to determine approximate location.

a. VOR: Center the CDI with a “From” indication.

b. NDB: Determine the magnetic bearing “From” the station.

c. GPS: If installed, may also be used to determine the position


2. Panama and location of the
Class A: above 19,500 ft. airplane or the nearest airport.
Class C: 700-14,500 MPMG, MPPA, MPTO 6. Communicate if still unable to determine location, and
request assistance from ATC.
Class D: 700-14500 Taboga, MPEJ, MPSM, MPCM
7. Comply with ATC instructions.
Class F: MSL-700 NO CONTROLADO

Class E: 2500-19500 8. Conserve fuel by reducing power to 55% and lean the
mixture for best economy.
3. TFR: A Temporary Flight Restriction (TFR) is a type of
9. If position is determined, reestablish cruise power and
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM). A TFR defines an area
continue to the destination or alternate
restricted to air travel due to a hazardous condition,
a special event, or a general warning for the entire airport.
FAA airspace. The text of the actual TFR contains the
fine points of the restriction. 10. If the situation becomes an emergency, squawk “7700” on
the transponder and seek
4. TRSA: terminal radar service area (TRSA) is a
assistance on nearest ATC frequency
delimited airspace in which radar and air traffic
control services are made available to pilots flying Lost Communications PRM
under instrument flight rules or (optionally) visual
flight rules for the purposes of maintaining aircraft COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE
separation. ANNEX 10 VOL II CHAPTER 5

5. NSA: The NSA is responsible for global monitoring, 5.2.2.7 .Try to establish contact in another frequency
collection, and processing of information and data for appropriate to the route.
foreign and domestic intelligence and
.If not possible, attempt to establish communication with
counterintelligence purposes, specializing in a
other aircraft or other aeronautical
discipline known as signals intelligence.
station on other frequencies
6. SG/C: two way communication, GPS, transponder
mode C .Transmit “TRANSMITING BLIND” twice, followed by your
message.
Lost Procedure
. Select Transponder Code 7600.
Procedure:
ANNEX 2 CHAPTER 3
1. Remain Calm at all times.
3.6.5.2.1 IN VMC
2. Climb, being mindful of traffic and weather conditions, to
identify prominent landmarks. . Continue to fly VMC
. Land at the nearest suitable aerodrome, and
2. Hyperventilation
. Report arrival by the most expeditious means to the ATC
Hyperventilation is the excessive rate and depth of respiration
SQUAWK Codes
leading to abnormal loss of carbon dioxide from the blood. This
7600 Lost Comunications condition occurs more often among pilots than is generally
recognized. Visual impairment • Unconsciousness •
7500 Hijacking Lightheaded or dizzy sensation • Tingling sensations • Hot and
cold sensations • Muscle spasms
7700 Emergency
3. Middle Ear and Sinus Problems
1200 VFR flight
During climbs and descents, the free gas formerly present in
Navigation:
various body cavities expands due to a difference between the
1. Latitude pressure of the air outside the body and that of the air inside
the body. If the escape of the expanded gas is impeded,
latitude is a geographic coordinate that specifies the north– pressure builds up within the cavity and pain is experienced.
south position of a point on the Earth's surface. Latitude is an Trapped gas expansion accounts for ear pain and sinus pain, as
angle which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90° at the poles. well as a temporary reduction in the ability to hear.
2. Longitude: 4. Spatial Disorientation and Illusions
is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west Spatial disorientation specifically refers to the lack of
position of a point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a orientation with regard to the position, attitude, or movement
celestial body. Greenwich meridian. of the airplane in space. The body uses three integrated
Aeromedical Factors systems that work together to ascertain orientation and
movement in space. • Vestibular system—organs found
in the inner ear that sense position by the way we are balanced
• Somatosensory system—nerves in the skin, muscles,
1. Hypoxia
and joints that, along with hearing, sense position based on
Hypoxia means “reduced oxygen” or “not enough oxygen.” gravity, feeling, and sound • Visual system—eyes,
Although any tissue will die if deprived of oxygen long enough, which sense position based on what is seen
the greatest concern regarding hypoxia during flight is lack of
5. Motion Sickness Motion sickness, or airsickness, is
oxygen to the brain, since it is particularly vulnerable to oxygen
caused by the brain receiving conflicting messages
deprivation.
about the state of the body. A pilot may experience
- Hypoxic hypoxia is a result of insufficient oxygen motion sickness during initial flights, but it generally
available to the body as a whole. Ascends during goes away within the first few lessons.
flight.
- Hypemic hypoxia occurs when the blood is not able to 6. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning CO is a colorless and
take up and transport a enough oxygen to the cells in odorless gas produced by all internal combustion
the body. Hypemic means “not enough blood.” CO engines. Aircraft heater vents and defrost vents may
poisoning provide CO a passageway into the cabin, particularly
- Stagnant means “not flowing,” and stagnant hypoxia if the engine exhaust system has a leak or is damaged.
or ischemia results when the oxygen-rich blood in the If a strong odor of exhaust gases is detected, assume
lungs is not moving, for one reason or another, to the that CO is present.
tissues that need it. An arm or leg “going to sleep”
because the blood flow has accidentally been shut off 7. Stress Stress is the body’s response to physical and
is one form of stagnant hypoxia. Gs psychological demands placed upon it. The body’s
- Histotoxic Hypoxia The inability of the cells to reaction to stress includes releasing chemical
effectively use oxygen is defined as histotoxic hormones (such as adrenaline) into the blood and
hypoxia. “Histo” refers to tissues or cells, and “toxic” increasing metabolism to provide more energy to the
means poisonous. Alcohol and drugs. muscles.
- Cyanosis (blue fingernails and lips) •Headache •
Decreased response to stimuli and increased reaction 8. Fatigue
time • Impaired judgment • Euphoria •
Visual impairment • Drowsiness
Fatigue is frequently associated with pilot error. Some of the location, and control of civil aircraft is performed in
effects of fatigue include degradation of attention and the interest of national security.
concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability to
communicate. These factors seriously influence the ability to
PLUS
make effective decisions. Physical fatigue results from sleep
loss, exercise, or physical work. Factors such as stress and - As one moves across the surface of the globe, lines of
prolonged performance of cognitive work result in mental constant magnetic declination are called isogonic
fatigue. lines.
- An isobar is a line on a map that shows a
Aeronautical-Decision Making
meteorologist what the pressure is at the surface of
ADM is a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress the earth.
management. To understand ADM is to also understand how - Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) as equipment
personal attitudes can influence decision-making and how which broadcasts distinctive signals on designated
those attitudes can be modified to enhance safety in the flight frequencies and, depending on application, may be
deck. automatically activated by impact or be manually
activated.
1. The PAVE Checklist Another way to mitigate risk is to
- Maximum elevation figure or MEF is a type of VFR
perceive hazards. By incorporating the PAVE checklist
altitude which indicates the height of the highest
into preflight planning, the pilot divides the risks of
feature within a quadrangle area.
flight into four categories: Pilot in-command (PIC),
- A minimum equipment list (MEL) is a list which
Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures (PAVE)
provides for the operation of aircraft, subject to
which form part of a pilot’s decision-making process.
specified conditions, with particular equipment
inoperative (which is) prepared by an operator in
2. The DECIDE Model Using the acronym “DECIDE,” the
conformity with, or more restrictive than, the MEL
six-step process DECIDE Model is another continuous
established for the aircraft type.
loop process that provides the pilot with a logical way
- A microburst is an intense small-scale downdraft
of making decisions. DECIDE means to Detect,
produced by a thunderstorm or rain shower.
Estimate, Choose a course of action, Identify
- Normal Category is limited to airplanes that have a
solutions, Do the necessary actions, and Evaluate the
seating configuration, excluding pilot seats, of nine or
effects of the actions.
less, a maximum certificated takeoff weight of 12,500
pounds or less, and intended for nonacrobatic
3. Situational awareness is the accurate perception and
operation.
understanding of all the factors and conditions within
They go on to specify that nonacrobatic operation
the five fundamental risk elements (flight, pilot,
includes:
aircraft, environment, and type of operation that
Any maneuver incident to normal flying
comprise any given aviation situation) that affect
(for very vanilla definitions of "normal" - they expect
safety before, during, and after the flight.
you to use some common sense here!)
Stalls (except "whip stalls")
4. A controlled flight into terrain (CFIT, usually
What most pilots recognize as the "commercial flight
pronounced cee-fit) is an accident in which an
test maneuvers": Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep
airworthy aircraft, under pilot control, is
turns, but with an angle of bank not greater than 60
unintentionally flown into the ground, a mountain, a
degrees in any of these maneuvers.
body of water or an obstacle. In a typical CFIT
- Utility Category is the same type and size of airplane,
scenario, the crew is unaware of the impending
but approved for "limited acrobatic operations" - this
disaster until it is too late.
may include intentional spins, as well as the
"commercial maneuvers" with higher bank angles
5. Read-back is defined as a procedure whereby the
(greater than 60 degrees, up to 90 degrees).
receiving station repeats a received message or an
- The Lapse Rate is the rate at which temperature
appropriate part thereof back to the transmitting
changes with height in the Atmosphere. Lapse rate
station so as to obtain confirmation of correct
nomenclature is inversely related to the change itself:
reception.
ff the lapse rate is positive, the temperature
decreases with height; conversely if negative, the
6. An air defense identification zone (ADIZ) is airspace
temperature increases with height.
over land or water in which the identification,
- A direct drive engine arragement is one where the GPS system uses triangulation to determine an
crankshaft, to which the pistons of the engine are aircraft's exact location, as well as speed, track,
connected, is directly connected to the propeller. distance to or from checkpoints, and time.
Non-direct drive engines use a gearbox, usually a - VOR/DME is a radio beacon that combines a VHF
reduction gearbox, to make the propeller spin at a omnidirectional range (VOR) with a distance
RPM lower than the engine's. measuring equipment (DME). The VOR allows the
receiver to measure its bearing to or from the beacon,
while the DME provides the slant distance between
the receiver and the station. Together, the two
measurements allow the receiver to compute a
position fix.
- True altitude is the height of the airplane above Mean
Sea Level (MSL), a value that represents the average
sea level (because actual sea level is variable).
- Indicated altitude is what is indicated on the altimeter
- in your airplane. It is an approximation of true altitude
as measured by the altimeter.
- Absolute altitude (AGL) is the exact height above
ground level, or the actual height above the earth's
surface.
- Clear ice: forms when large drops hit the aircraft and
freeze slowly. It looks just like it sounds: clear.
- Rime ice: forms when small drops hit the aircraft and
freeze rapidly. It usually looks like super thick frost.
Milky white.
- Mixed ice: a mixture of clear and rime ice.
- Frost: ice crystal deposits formed by sublimation
when the departure and dew point are below
freezing.
- - Structural icing refers to the accumulation of ice on
- A trough is an elongated (extended) region of the exterior of the aircraft.
relatively low atmospheric pressure, often associated - Induction Icing: Ice in the induction system can
with fronts.------ Naranja reduce the amount of air available for combustion.
- A ridge is an elongated region of high pressure. The most common example of reciprocating engine
Amarillo induction icing is carburetor ice.

You're a private pilot taking your friends up for a flight.


You're unpacking your flight bag into the cockpit and
realize you forgot your logbook at home. You do have
your pilot certificate and medical. Can you fly? R/ yes

VFR cruising altitudes are based on: R/ magnetic course

What are position lights?

- GPS data allows pilots to obtain precise three-


dimensional or four-dimensional location data. The
These universally defined colours and locations of the which prohibits flying an aircraft with a blood alcohol
lights on an aircraft help pilots to determine if other concentration (BAC) of 0.04% or higher.
aircraft are approaching or flying away, and their
direction of flight. What is Special VFR. R/ clearance that permits
operations below VFR weather minimums.
In panama, above what altitude you need to provide
Do you need a clearance to enter Delta Airspace R. NO
oxygen for the passengers.
If flying in an unpressurised aeroplane then above 10,000 Describe traffic pattern operations at non towered
ft the pilot(s) need oxygen. Above 12,000 ft the airports
passengers also need oxygen.
Pilots inbound for landing are expected to observe other
Draw leading edge, trailing edge, camber, AOA, Chord traffic in pattern and to conform to the traffic pattern in
line. use.

If you see an aircraft flying directly towards you, which


way do you turn. R/ right

Camber: is defined as the convexity of the curve of an


aerofoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge.

angle of incidence.: is the angle formed by the wing


chord line and the aircraft longitudinal axis. The wing
chord line extends from the leading edge of the wing to
On a turn, what are the 2 components of lift. the trailing edge of the wing. The longitudinal axis is an
imaginary line that extends from the nose of the aircraft
to the tail.

Explain aspect ratio: f an aerofoil is the ratio between the


length and the average width of the surface. For a wing,
the aspect ratio is the ratio of wing length to average
chord. Similarly, for a propeller, the aspect ratio is the
ratio of blade length to average chord.

What is crítical angle of attack: The angle of attack at


which a wing stalls regardless of airspeed, flight attitude,
What is the slipstream effect
or weight.
Slipstream” usually refers to the alteration in the airflow
What is rate of turn. How do you increase or decrease
behind the propeller, which would be characterized by a
the radius of a turn: a rate one or standard rate turn is
change in direction, increase in velocity, and induced
accomplished at 3°/second resulting in a course reversal
rotation. The most pronounced “slipstream effect”
in one minute or a 360° turn in two minutes. A rate one
would be the rotation, which causes the airplane to yaw
half turn is flown at 1.5°/second and a rate two turn at
left in most single engine propeller airplanes.
6°/second. Radius of turn is dependent on both airspeed
Can we fly through restricted airspace? R/ Yes with and bank angle. The radius of turn at any given bank
specific clearance. angle is directly proportional to the square of the
airspeed. Doubling the airspeed results in a radius of turn
What are the regulations regarding alcohol? that is four times greater while tripling the airspeed
There are two FAR’s that are important to know when it would result in a radius that is nine times greater.
comes to drinking and flying. Most pilots are aware of the Conversely, if the aircraft speed remains constant,
“8 hour” rule, that is, 8 hours from bottle to throttle, increasing the bank angle will decrease the turn radius.
although many airlines have a more stringent 12 hour These relationships are the opposite of those found in
time limit. Most pilots do not know of the 0.04% FAR, Rate of Turn where increasing the speed decreases the
rate of turn and increasing bank angle also increases the tetraethyl lead than a second grade of identical lean and
rate of turn. rich mixture ratings. Avgas 100LL is a blue liquid with a
specific gravity of 0.68-0.74 @ 60ºF (15.6ºC).
What is the difference between a horizontal stabilizer
and a stabilator. What is a canard

Stabilators are designed to pivot about their is a fuselage mounted, horizontal surface that is located
aerodynamic center and, as a consequence, very little forward of the main wing to provide longitudinal stability
pilot effort is required to make a control input. This and control.
amount of effort does not vary with airspeed or angle of
What is a slat and how does it work
attack. The trimmable stabilizer's primary advantage is
that it provides tremendous trimming power over the full are extendable, high lift devices on the leading edge of
speed range of the airplane. The system also reduces the wings of some fixed wing aircraft. Their purpose is to
drag as the stabilizer surface and the elevator are in increase lift during low speed operations such as takeoff,
alignment whenever the aircraft is in trim. The stabilizer initial climb, approach and landing.
trim is normally adjusted to compensate for centre of
gravity position prior to takeoff to ensure optimum What is hydroplaning, how do you calculate the speed
elevator effectiveness. for hydroplaning

What is the difference between an antiservo tab and a Aquaplaning, also known as hydroplaning, is a condition
servo tab in which standing water, slush or snow, causes the
moving wheel of an aircraft to lose contact with the load
Servo tabs move in the opposite direction of the control bearing surface on which it is rolling with the result that
surface. The tab has a leverage advantage, being located braking action on the wheel is not effective in reducing
well aft of the surface hinge line, and thus can use the the ground speed of the aircraft.
relative airflow to deflect the control surface in the
opposite direction. An anti-servo tab, or anti-balance Define LAHSO
tab, works in the opposite way to a servo tab. It deploys LAHSO is an acronym for "Land and Hold Short
in the same direction as the control surface, making the Operations." Land and hold short operations are an air
movement of the control surface more difficult and traffic control procedure intended to increase airport
requires more force applied to the controls by the pilot. capacity without compromising safety. This means that,
What is an advantage of a V tail as pilot-in-command (or as an operator), several minutes
of valuable time can be saved during every LAHSO
V-tails are lighter and have less drag because there are 2 landing and taxi-in.
surfaces vs 3 (rudder + elevator on left side + elevator on
right side). V-tails are less efficient in terms of applying
pitch or yaw force (because the surface is angled, so the What are chevrons and what do they mean
force they exert isn't parallel to the direction you want).
Generally a longer fuselage is required because of yaw These markings are used to show pavement areas
instabilities. V-tails got a really bad name because of the aligned with the runway that are unusable for landing,
Beech V-Tails which had some horrible mid-air breakups, takeoff, and taxiing.
but there was an AD that fixed it and they're fine now. Defina PAPI, VASI
What does de AVAGAS 100LL mean? A precision approach path indicator (PAPI) is a visual aid
Avgas 100LL is one of four grades of avgas and is used that provides guidance information to help a pilot
primarily as fuel for piston-powered craft due to its low acquire and maintain the correct approach (in the
flashpoint. Avgas 100LL is a high-octane gasoline which vertical plane) to an airport or an aerodrome. It is
allows a powerful piston engine to burn its fuel generally located on the left-hand side of the runway
efficiently, a quality called "anti-knock" because the approximately 300 meters beyond the landing threshold
engine does not misfire, or "knock." The suffix LL (which of the runway.
stands for Low Lead) describes a grade containing lower
The visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is a system of In navigation, dead reckoning is the process of calculating
lights on the side of an airport runway threshold that one's current position by using a previously determined
provides visual descent guidance information during position, or fix, and advancing that position based upon known
approach. These lights may be visible from up to 8 or estimated speeds over elapsed time and course.
kilometres (5.0 mi) during the day and up to 32 Pilotage: is navigating, using fixed points of reference on the
kilometres (20 mi) or more at night. sea or on land, usually with reference to a nautical chart or
aeronautical chart to obtain a fix of the position of the vessel
What is a MOA or aircraft with respect to a desired course or location.
A military operations area (MOA) is "airspace established What is a speci metar
outside Class A airspace to separate or segregate certain
nonhazardous military activities from IFR Traffic and to SPECI is an aviation special weather report issued when there
is significant deterioration or improvement in airport weather
identify for VFR traffic where these activities are
conditions, such as significant changes of surface winds,
conducted."
visibility, cloud base height and occurrence of severe weather.
3p
What is the specific engine oil used by our aircraft
Perceive, Process, Perform (3P) Model The Perceive, Process,
What is the specific brake fluid used by our aircraft
Perform (3P) model for ADM offers a simple, practical, and
systematic approach that can be used during all phases of Can you as a PIC refill the oil of the engine
flight. To use it, the pilot will: • Perceive the given set of
Can you as a PIC change the spark plugs
circumstances for a flight • Process by evaluating their impact
on flight safety • Perform by implementing the best course of Can you as a PIC adjust the magnetos
action
Why do we perform a magneto ground test before shutting
What is adiabatic cooling down the aircraft? What is the magneto ground wire? Find
the ground wire on our aircraft.
Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure on an adiabatically
isolated system is decreased, allowing it to expand, thus The reason mag checks are done post flight or in flight would
causing it to do work on its surroundings. When the pressure be to verify both mags are still working correctly when warmed
applied on a parcel of air is reduced, the air in the parcel is up to operating temperature since magnetos can be
allowed to expand; as the volume increases, the temperature susceptible to performance degradation when they get hot
falls as its internal energy decreases. and are under more stress when cylinder pressures are higher
What is ASOS, AWOS and internal components are hot (higher power settings

What is Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS)? What are navigation lights, position lights, beacon lights,
landing lights. How many degrees of coverage for each light.
The ASOS systems are mostly operated and controlled by the
NWS, DOD and sometimes the FAA. They help the national In flight by mistake you turn of the magnetos, is the engine still
running?
weather system compile data on the entire United States, not
just for aviation purposes Turning the mag switch Off actually causes a short circuit
What is Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS)? (called grounding) in the magneto coil that prevents it from
working. The wire that does the grounding is called a P-lead.
Almost all AWOS stations are operated and controlled by the
FAA. Some local state agencies will take care of them, but the Although the mag switch in your plane only shows one, there
DOD and NWS have no role in their operation. are really three Off positions. "Off" means that both mags are
grounded and should not be able to power their ignition
systems. Remember, grounding only occurs if the P-lead is
connected properly. A broken P-lead could cause an engine
For how long is your medical certificate valid: 1 year
start if the prop is moved ever so slightly. The other two Off
If you need glasses to correct your vision, how many pairs of positions on the mag switch are those labeled "L" and "R".
glasses do you need and why: 2 just in case one fail. When you switch to the left mag (L) you are actually grounding
the right mag. If you think about it, the only way to test the left
What is dead reckogning and pilotage magneto is to switch off the right magneto.
In flight by mistake you cut off the mixture, is the engine still also called maximum taxi weight (MTW)
running? No
It is the maximum weight authorized for maneuvering (taxiing
What is manifold pressure? Do we have a manifold pressure or towing) an aircraft on the ground.
gauge in our aircraft? Yes or no and why
Aircraft gross weight
Manifold Absolute Pressure or MAP for short is the amount of
It is the total aircraft weight at any moment during the flight
charge pressure entering the engine cylinders. Manifold
or ground operation. This decreases during flight due to fuel
pressure is measured in between the throttle valve and the
and oil consumption.
intake manifold of the engine cylinders.
Manufacturer's empty weight (MEW)
Monocoque construction uses stressed skin to support almost
all loads much like an aluminum beverage can. Although very Also called Manufacturer's Weight Empty (MWE) or Licensed
strong, monocoque construction is not highly tolerant to Empty Weight
deformation of the surface.
It is the weight of the aircraft "as built" and includes the weight
Semimonocoque construction, partial or one-half, uses a of the structure, power plant, furnishings, installations,
substructure to which the airplane’s skin is attached. The systems and other equipment that are considered an integral
substructure, which consists of bulkheads and/or formers of part of an aircraft.
various sizes and stringers, reinforces the stressed skin by
taking some of the bending stress from the fuselage This excludes any baggage, passengers, or usable fuel

Zero-fuel weight (ZFW)

This is the total weight of the airplane and all its contents
(including unusable fuel), but excluding the total weight of the
usable fuel on board.

As a flight progresses and fuel is consumed, the total weight of


the airplane reduces, but the ZFW remains constant.

Maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW) is the maximum weight


allowed before usable fuel and other specified usable agents
(engine injection fluid, and other consumable propulsion
agents) are loaded.

Operating empty weight (OEW) (Roughly equivalent to basic


empty weight on light aircraft)

It is the basic weight of an aircraft including the crew, all fluids


necessary for operation such as engine oil, engine coolant,
water, unusable fuel and all operator items and equipment
required for flight but excluding usable fuel and the payload.
Plain flaps hinge to the back of the wing, and they pivot down
when you extend them. However, they're fairly limited in the ASPEN
amount of lift they can create. That's because as air moves
The EFD1000 PFD is a panel-mounted Electronic Flight
over the wing, it loses energy and starts to separate from the
Instrument System (EFIS) that presents the pilot with displays
wing. By extending flaps, the airflow separation is even more
of attitude, altitude, indicated airspeed, heading, rate of turn,
pronounced, creating a large wake behind the wing.
slip/skid, and navigation course deviation information. The
Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) system also displays supplemental flight data such as winds,
TAS, OAT, etc., moving maps, pilot-selectable indices (“bugs”),
This is the maximum weight at which the pilot of the aircraft is and various annunciations to increase situational awareness
allowed to attempt to take off and enhance flight safety. Moving map situational awareness
Maximum landing weight (MLW) information is displayed when the unit is connected to
compatible GPS equipment.
This maximum weight at which an aircraft is permitted to land
The EFD1000 PFD system components include the EFD1000
Maximum ramp weight (MRW) PFD display head, a Remote Sensor Module (RSM), a
Configuration Module (CM), and the optional Analog
Air Data and Attitude/Heading Reference System (ADAHRS)

The Aspen ADAHRS uses Microelectromechanical systems


(MEMS) technology to provide attitude reference. The
technology is different from legacy gyro systems and an
understanding of the capability and limitations can be helpful
to the operator.

Generally, MEMS attitude solutions use multiple inputs to


derive and validate the attitude solution. The Aspen System
uses more than a dozen inputs to determine and monitor the
aircraft attitude. In this way the system can validate the
derived attitude indication by cross-checking the various
inputs to the solution for consistency with one another.

The Aspen ADAHRS solution uses inputs from its internal three-
axis accelerometers, rate gyros and magnetometers,
supplemented by pitot and static pressure inputs from the
aircraft pitot-static system. Failures or incorrect input from any
one of these sensors, such as might occur if the pitot tube or
static system became blocked, will affect the attitude solution.
These conditions are sensed by the system and a “Cross Check
Attitude” annunciation is presented (Figure 4-5). It is possible
for the attitude performance to be affected before the “Cross
Check Attitude” annunciation, especially when there are
accelerations imposed, such as during steep turns or abrupt
pitch changes. An ADAHRS attitude discrepancy is generally
obvious to the pilot, either by an anomalous behavior cross-
checked against the standby attitude, or by annunciation.

Operationally, it is important to preflight the aircraft to assure


proper performance of the pitot and static systems, especially
when anticipating low IMC. If there are issues with airspeed or
altitude that are consistent with an obstructed pitot or static
line, the pilot should recognize that the attitude indication will
soon be compromised. If in IMC, immediately use the backup
indicator to fly the airplane. If at any time, there is even a
momentary “Cross Check Attitude” warning, use the backup
attitude indicator until the cause of the warning is corrected.

In summary, loss or degradation of the attitude solution is


unlikely. If the pitot or static system becomes blocked, an
ADAHRS internal sensor fails, or the “Cross Check Attitude”
indication is presented for even a moment, the attitude
indication on the PFD should be considered to be
compromised. In this circumstance the pilot must use the
backup attitude indicator for attitude reference until the cause
of the problem is resolved.

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