HET524 PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE

PREPARED BY: LEONG QING YI / MATRIC NUMBER: S-HM0045/17

A Critical Review of Barbara Verena Wucherer & Susanne Maria Reiterer (2018);
“Language is a girlie thing, isn’t it? A psycholinguistic exploration of the L2 gender gap”.

Wucherer, B.V. & Reiterer, S.M. (2016). Language is a girlie thing, isn't it? A psycholinguistic
exploration of the L2 gender gap. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 21:1, 118-134. DOI: 10.1080/13670050.2016.1142499

1. Introduction

In this section, I shall discuss in brief the background of the journal publication, the authors,

title, context of the article, as well as topic of the journal. Furthermore, an evaluation of the

text will be presented.

“Language is a girlie thing, isn’t it? A psycholinguistic exploration of the L2 gender gap”

is published in International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism under Taylor &

Francis. This journal publication received an impact factor of 1.373 based on the 2016

Thomson Reuters Journal Impact Factors. According to the Scimago Journal and Country Rank

index (n.d.), it has an H-index of 29. The editorial board is led by Professor Jean-Marc Dewaele

from University of London and consists of professionals from various well-known institutions

such as University of Reading, Macquarie University, Harvard University, Institute for

Language and Education Policy, and Centre for Applied Linguistics. Submitted research

articles undergo a strict peer review process which includes screening by the editor and

refereeing by at least two anonymous referees (Taylor & Francis, n.d.).

The researchers of this paper, namely Barbara Verena Wucherer & Susanne Maria Reiterer

focus on the research topic of differences in gender in second language learning. The

researchers have further replicated an adapted version of Reiterer et al.’s earlier research (2011),

whereby males were found to be more capable than females in speech imitation tasks. In

relation to that, the title of this article hints towards the debunking of the general view that

females are more proficient language learners than males, particularly in the acquisition of a

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second language (van der Slik, van Hout, & Schepens, 2015). This is done by correlating

several factors, namely the participants’ gender, language biography, personality and

achievement motivation.

In my opinion, this research paper has a clear structure which allows the reader to clearly

grasp the research objectives, theoretical framework, research methods, results and a discussion

section that closely ties in the quantitative data in reference to previous research on cognitive

psychology.

In the next section, we shall move on to the summary of the journal article.

2. Summary

In this section, I shall look into the key points of the research. In total there are eight main

sections to the paper, namely ‘Abstract’, ‘Introduction’, ‘Materials and Methods’, ‘Study

Design’, ‘Results and Discussion’, ‘Conclusions’, ‘Acknowledgements’ and ‘Reference’.

For the research design, this article utilised the comparative research approach and

employed quantitative methods in terms of data collection and analysis. A main characteristic

of the comparative analysis approach is its ability to help a researcher determine similarities or

variance (Mills, van de Bunt, & Bruijn, 2006). Therefore, comparative research design is

appropriately used here in order to determine the gender differences in two specific language

tasks, namely phonetic imitation ability and grammar learning.

The research objectives are clearly stated in the ‘Introduction’ section of the paper. The

research objectives are as follows:

 To give an insight into the impact of a person’s gender on their

performance in two areas of language, namely phonetic imitation
ability and grammar learning.
 To determine how a person’s personality and their (achievement)
motivation affected their linguistic performance in the two areas
aforementioned.

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 To investigate the possible impact of the following control variables:

verbal and non-verbal intelligence, linguistic background (prior
language trainings, and language biography / number of L2s
spoken).

(Wucherer & Reiterer, 2018, p. 120)

In order to recruit participants, the researchers placed advertisements at the University of

Vienna and social media platforms. After that, there is no explicit statement regarding the

sampling technique. However, it is assumed that purposive sampling was carried out in terms

of handpicking students who fit into the stringent research criteria in order to achieve a

comparable academic and socio-economic background. Among the criteria listed in order to

participate are: 1) they must possess relatively advanced English proficiency (between a range

of B2 to C2), 2) they are fluent in at least one foreign language, 3) their academic majors are

based on language studies. Data collection was carried out in three phases of behavioural

testing. Analysis of the quantitative data was carried out with SPSS Statistics 20.0, IBM

Corporation with a probability value of p < .05. Additionally, the researchers ran several tests

in order to conduct comparisons between the variables mentioned in the research objectives;

namely independent t-tests, Mann-Whitney-U tests, one-way ANOVAs, mixed design

ANOVAs and various spearman rank correlations. Subsequently, the audio recordings for the

pronunciation and phonetic imitation test were evaluated numerically by members of a gender-

balanced panel, after which Cronbach’s inter-rater reliability was conducted.

The findings of this paper are concurrent to earlier research done in the field. Firstly, it

confirms an earlier study by Reiterer et al. (2011) whereby males showed a significantly better

performance than females in the phonetic imitation task, and this is due to a difference in

activation in the premotor cortex and the phonological loop mechanism. The phonological loop

mechanism is a key feature of the working memory model proposed by Baddeley in 1986. In

other words, the mechanism functions as a ‘temporary storage system’ for speech-based and

possibly acoustic information. In turn, we draw from this storage system for our ‘phonological

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short-term memory’ (PTSM) to remember small details over a short period of time (Henry,

2012). Consequently, the results support the theory that males show more left lateralised,

interrelated performance; whereas females display an ability more common in low-ability

language users - they tend to rely on phonological loop mechanism for the imitation task.

Secondly, the researchers posit that females are better than their male counterparts in grammar

learning due to their advantage in utilising previously acquired knowledge (from mother tongue

and second languages) as well as both similarity- and rule- knowledge, while males rely on

their similarity-knowledge. In short, the researchers propose that males and females possess

strengths for language aptitude in different areas, therefore successful second language learning

depends on the focus of the language task. Thus, the common notion that females have a better

advantage in foreign language learning is not accepted in this research.

In the following section, we shall go into the critique of the research article.

3. Critique

In this section, I shall go into detail regarding the weaknesses and strengths of the journal

article according to the sub-headings in the text.

a. Weaknesses

i. Materials and Methods

Firstly, the sample population is homogenous whereby participants all originate

from Germany. In other words, this research lacks inclusion of participants from

other nationalities, racial and cultural backgrounds, which together with gender

contribute to an individual’s concept of self-identity. According to Norton and

Toohey (2011), research on second language acquisition needs to move beyond

binary terms (e.g. motivated / unmotivated; introverted / extroverted). In fact,

researchers should take into account the second language learners’ concept of

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identity which dictates their participation in social life, therefore affecting their

access (or limitation) towards language learning and acquisition opportunities.

Therefore, from a poststructuralist or sociolinguistic perspective, it can be argued

that males and females from different nationalities may display variance in terms of

language acquisition ability and investment (e.g. motivation) depending on their

rank in social identity. However, since the title of the research clearly states that

this paper focuses on a psycholinguistic and neuroscientific approach, the

homogeneous sample population is assumed to be able to generalise for differences

in language learning among both genders for individuals from other countries

outside of Germany.

Another weakness in the research design is a lack of explanation regarding the

sampling technique for participants. On page 120 of the article, it is stated that the

researchers “searched for late learning foreign language speakers” in order to

participate in the research. As mentioned earlier, it is assumed that purposive

sampling is used considering the strict requirements placed on participant selection.

This is done in order to screen out applicants who do not fit into the educational and

socio-economic background of the sample population. Although it allows for more

control in the part of the researcher, this type of sampling is also subject to the

researchers’ personal judgement regarding the participants’ reliability and

competency in providing relevant data for the research (Godambe, 1982; as cited in

Tongco, 2007).

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b. Strengths

i. Abstract

This section clearly defines the literature gap, disciplines from which this research

is based (linguistic and psychology) as well as the methods (sample population and

brief description of variables) and a summary of the findings with suggestion for

further research. At the same time, readers are able to immediately grasp keywords

related to the research, most prominently second / foreign language learning and

gender / sex differences, and brain structure / function. In other words, the abstract

allows the reader to quickly and efficiently understand the concept of the research.

ii. Introduction

The introduction in this research article presents an extensive literature review of

relevant research across several fields, namely linguistics (second or foreign

language learning), psychology (social context of language acquisition among male

and female infants), and neuroscience (brain structure and variance in function

among males and females). Considering that this article was submitted for

publication in 2015, the literature review covers a wide chronological range from

the year 1990 to more recent research in 2014. The literature review also points to

a dearth of research in gender differences which may affect successful second

language acquisition, particularly within an interdisciplinary context. Thus, the

research proposes its importance in uncovering how gender, motivation, personality,

linguistic background and verbal/non-verbal intelligence can contribute towards

second language acquisition.

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iii. Materials and Methods (Study Design)

The study’s most commendable feature is the rigorous behavioural testing from

which quantitative data regarding the variables mentioned earlier are obtained.

Although the length of time for each phase is not stated, all participants are required

to undergo three phases of data collection, with a total of twelve distinct

standardised aptitude tests/questionnaires which are adopted from previous research.

A complete list of the standardised tests and questionnaires used in this journal

article can be referred to in the Appendix, Table 1: List of Tests & Questionnaires

Used in the 3 Phases of Behavioural Testing. In phase one, participants were

required to provide an extensive language biography followed by four

tests/questionnaires which measured their intelligence (verbal and non-verbal

intelligence, abstract thinking), personality traits and achievement motivation. In

stage two, participants’ language skills, more specifically their phonetic ability was

tested through a series of auditory and recording tasks, as well as tests related to

vocabulary and nuance. Lastly, in phase three, participants were evaluated on their

grammatical sensitivity and inductive grammar learning by sitting for standardised

written tests.

Another strength worth mentioning is the subsequent analysis of this large amount

of data. The researchers have stated in detail the various tests that were run as well

as measures to ensure the reliability and consistency of the results, such as

Bonferroni correction which helps in comparisons of multiple calculations that are

carried out at the same time (Weisstein, n.d.). Apart from the statistical data

obtained, the paper also describes the process through which the raters panel for the

phonetic audio recordings was constructed, as well as how raters evaluated the

recordings using a numerical scale. At the same time, the researchers also checked

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for inter-rater reliability which ensured that the numerical ratings given were

reliable. For a detailed description of this process, please see page 122 of the

research. Consequently, it is of the opinion that all of the statistical data acquired

during data collection is reliable and consistent.

iv. Results and Discussion

Due to the sheer amount of quantitative data, the results for this paper were

summarised in order to highlight correlations that showed significant variance

among male and female participants’ performance. Additionally, participants were

categorised into ‘low ability male/female’, ‘(average) male/female’ and ‘high-

ability male/female’ depending on their performance for linguistic tests such as the

phonetic imitation test and MLAT IV. Correlations were presented clearly using

colourised bar charts, bell curve graphs and numerical tables together with brief

descriptions of the findings.

Based on the ‘Discussion’ section, this study has successfully replicated an earlier

research (Reiterer et al., 2011) on which it was based. Apart from that, the paper

goes on to relate the findings with theories from cognitive psychology; namely the

working memory model, Baron-Cohen’s empathising-systemising theory, and

Miller’s theory of language. In accordance to prior research, the research also

validates its findings by citing earlier articles in comparative gender studies

regarding personality and language aptitude that have similar results.

Lastly, the paper also includes an invaluable section regarding how the results of

this research can be applied in the everyday classroom environment. It is of the

opinion that this section is by far the most important part of the discussion as it

states clearly what educators can learn from the research. Taking into account that

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there are gender differences in language acquisition according to the language task

given, teachers have the onus to attend to learners’ individual needs, motivation and

learning environment so that both genders are well-accounted for in the language

classroom.

4. Conclusion

In conclusion, this research article has demonstrated its contribution in the field of gender

differences in second / foreign language acquisition by confirming that males perform

better than females in phonetic imitation tasks, whereas females perform better than males

in grammatical tasks. Therefore, the paper posits that language aptitude cannot be

considered a female-centric advantage as it has demonstrated that males are able to show

significantly better performance in certain language tasks. Although the research’s sample

population has not been extended to include more participants from other countries, the

instruments used for data collection are all standardised tests or questionnaires that have

been checked for high reliability and consistency. The findings and discussion are also

closely tied in with reference to relevant theories and previous research, with good

explanation on implications of gender studies and language learning in the classroom.