Navigation and Guidance: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Navigation and Guidance
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar
Assistant Professor
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Powai, Mumbai, 400076 India
Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar IITB-AE 410/641 Lecture 1 Navigation and Guidance 1 / 37
Overall Objective of the Course
Objective of Course
To familiarize the students with different types of navigation methods used
for aerospace applications
To provide exposure of various guidance strategies (classical as well as
modern) to guide the aerospace vehicle for a desired mission.
Description
Flight Planning: Determination of a nominal flight path and associated

control histories for a given flight vehicle to accomplish specified objectives
with specified constraints.
Navigation: Determination of a strategy for estimating the position of a
vehicle along the flight path, given outputs from specified sensors.
Guidance: Determination of a strategy for following the nominal path in the
presence of off-nominal conditions, wind disturbances, and navigational
uncertainties.
Control: Determination of a strategy for maintaining the angular orientation
of the vehicle during the flight, that is consistent with the guidance strategy
and the vehicle constraints.
Bryson, A. E., “New Concepts in Control Theory, 1959-1984”, Journal of

Guidance, Control and Dynamics, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1985, pp. 417-425.
Description
Navigation may have one of two meanings.

⇒ Accurate determination of the vehicle state (e.g., position, velocity, and
attitude);
⇒ Planning and execution of the maneuvers necessary to move between desired
locations.
Description
Whenever a purposeful change in location has to take place for an aircraft

the following questions must be asked and answered:
⇒ Where is the aircraft now?
⇒ More specifically, where is the aircraft now with respect to where it should
have been?
Reasons for sophisticated navigation systems

⇒ Time lags between measurement and decision needs to be reduced.
⇒ Number of aircraft in a given airspace has increased in the past few decades.
⇒ Safety requirements have become crucial.
Navigation
A classical approach to vehicle state estimation is to equip the vehicle with

inertial sensors capable of measuring vehicles’s acceleration and angular rate.
With proper calibration and initialization
⇒ Integration of the angular rates provides an estimate of the attitude
⇒ Integration of acceleration provides estimates of velocity and position
Any possible issue or benefit of integration?
Integration will perform smoothening of high-frequency errors (e.g., sensor
noise)
Integration of low frequency errors due to biases, scale factor error, or
misalignment will cause increasing error between the true and estimated
vehicle state.
Navigation
Consider a point moving in a plane.

Kinematic Model:
ṗ(t) = v(t)
v̇(t) = a(t)
where, p(t), v(t), a(t) denote position, velocity, and acceleration,

respectively.
Y Y Y
p(t); v(t); a(t) p(t); v(t); a(t)

p(t); v(t); a(t)
O O O
X X X
Definition
Navigation: Art of directing the movement of vehicle from one point on

Earth or space to another point.
Historically, types of navigation:
⇒ Celestial navigation: Present position is computed by measuring the elevation
angles or altitudes of stars and noting the time of observation.
⇒ Dead reckoning: Course and distance traveled from the point of departure are
maintained by plotting on a chart, or by continuous computation of
north-south and east-west components from the heading and the speed of the
vehicle.
⇒ Piloting: Landmarks or beacons and the visual pattern on the Earth’s surface
are used, as for taking a ship into port.
Navigation problem
⇒ Where am I?⇒ Position
⇒ How fast am I going?⇒ Velocity
⇒ In which direction we are moving?⇒ Direction
⇒ How far is it from my destination?⇒ Distance-to-go
INS
Modern aircraft are of high speed and flying at high altitude.

Radio and radar navigation are useful for providing position, direction, and
average velocity.
⇒ Susceptible to weather conditions and electromagnetic interference
Inertial navigation system (INS) overcomes this issue. How?
⇒ Do not require external device or signal
⇒ Provide position, ground speed, true heading, distance-to-go, and relative
bearing to destination in convenient coordinate system
Integration of INS with additional noninertial navigation equipments or
sensors
⇒ A precise reference on a continuous basis with external data being used to
periodically update the system.
Why is this integration required?
INS
INS outputs may not be exact due to many reasons.

⇒ Presence of inertial sensor (i.e., gyroscopes and accelerometers) inaccuracies
⇒ Error due to gravity modeling
These system error sources drive the system errors, causing unbounded
velocity, position, and attitude errors.
Within a short period of time, the navigation system errors become excessive
for the majority of missions.
Specifically, INS errors grow with time in the free inertial mode.
Auxiliary information from noninertial external sensors avoids error’s growth.
In general, the errors in the noninertial sensors do not increase with time.
System errors can be bounded and reduced by use of
⇒ High-quality inertial sensors
⇒ A good gravity model
⇒ Noninertial (i.e., redundant) sensors
Navigation
Navigation systems wherein low rate sensors are used to correct the state
estimate produced by integration of the outputs from high rate sensors are
referred to as aided or integrated navigation systems.
Aided navigation involves two categories of sensors.
Output signals from sensors in the first category are integrated using a
kinematic model of the system.
⇒ Result of this integration provides a reference trajectory.
⇒ Example: Kinematic input sensors include inertial measurement units, Doppler
radar or sonar, etc.
Elements of the second category of sensors are used to estimate the error
between this reference trajectory and trajectory of the vehicle.
Mixing of information from these sensors with INS information
⇒ Combination of short-term accuracy of inertial instruments and the long-term
accuracy of noninertial (NAVAID) sensors.
Navigation
Accuracy of any inertial navigation system

⇒ Initial condition
⇒ Alignment of sensors
⇒ Present position coordinates and headings
Gyroscope: Heart of INS
System performance depends on ability of gyroscope to provide a precision
inertial reference frame.
Accelerometer: To measure components of specific force in a reference
frame defined by gyroscopes.
INS have the ability to maintain a reference frame in which the combined
effects of inertial acceleration and gravity are resolved.
Key components of INS
⇒ Coordinate frames
⇒ Gyroscope
⇒ Accelerometer
Guidance
Guidance: Process for guiding the path of an object towards a given point,
which in general may be moving.
Guidance system: Brain of an aerospace vehicle
Generation of the guidance commands to achieve desired objectives of
aerospace vehicle.
It utilizes the vehicle’s current states and their deviations from desired values
to nullify the errors in controlled variables.
Guidance
Figure: Guidance loop
Figure: Body control loop within guidance loop
Guidance Phases for Missiles
(a) Surface-to-Air Missiles (b) Air-to-Air Missiles
Coordinate Systems and Their Transformations
Coordinate Transformation
Position of rigid body: position vector OR OE of origin

Orientation of rigid body: 3 × 3 rotation matrix
For simplification, we assume OE = OR
Coordinate Transformation
Rotation matrix approach utilizes 9 parameters, which obey the orthogonality

and unit length constraints, to describe the orientation of the rigid body.
A rigid body possesses 3 rotational DOF, 3 independent parameters are
sufficient to characterize completely and unambiguously its orientation.
Three-parameter representations are popular in engineering because they
minimize the dimensionality of the rigid-body control problem
Transformation of coordinate axes is an important necessity in resolving
angular positions and rates from one coordinate system to other.
Transformation matrix: Mapping of the components of a vector, resolved in
one frame, into the same resolved in the other frame.
⇒ Direction cosine matrix (DCM)
⇒ Euler Angles
⇒ Quaternions
⇒ Rotation vector
Direction Cosines of a Vector
The angle between two vectors r 1 and

r 2 is given by
" #
−1 r T2 r 1 Direction cosines: cos α, cos β, cos γ
θ = cos p p
r T1 r 1 r T2 r 2
Flight Mechanics/Dynamics
Direction Cosine Matrix
Direction cosine matrix transform a vector in R3 from one frame to other

frame.
DCM for transformation between frames a and b
 
C11 C12 C13
C ba =  C21 C22 C23  , |C ba | = 1
C31 C32 C33
Specifically, if (X, Y, Z) and (x, y, z) are the representations of a vector in

frames a and b, respectively, then
    
x C11 C12 C13 X
 y  =  C21 C22 C23   Y  ⇒ Rb = C ba Ra
z C31 C32 C33 Z
| {z } | {z }| {z }
Rb Rotation Matrix Ra
DCM projects the vector Ra into a reference frame b.

For orthogonal systems, (C ba )−1 = (C ba )T = C ab
Geometric Interpretation of Direction Cosine Matrix
Consider a vector R coordinatized in reference frame a and b as Ra and Rb ,

respectively.
Ra =(RT 1ax )1ax + (RT 1ay )1ay + (RT 1az )1az

Rb =(RT 1bx )1bx + (RT 1by )1by + (RT 1bz )1bz
where, RT 1ai ∀ i = x, y, z denotes scalar component of R projected along

the ith a-frame coordinate direction.
Unit vectors 1ai and 1bj are related, for i, j = x, y, z, as
T T T
1bi =(1bi 1ax )1ax + (1bi 1ay )1ay + (1bi 1az )1az
The ith component of Rb can be expressed as

T T T
RT 1bi =RT [(1bi 1ax )1ax + (1bi 1ay )1ay + (1bi 1az )1az ]
T T T
=(1bi 1ax )RT 1ax + (1bi 1ay )RT 1ay + (1bi 1az )RT 1az
Geometric Interpretation of Direction Cosine Matrix
The vector Rb can be expressed as

 T b   bT a T T

1x 1x 1bx 1ay 1bx 1az RT 1ax

R 1x
b T T T T T
R =  R 1by  =  1by 1ax 1by 1ay 1by 1az   R 1ay 
 
RT 1bz RT 1az
T T T
1bz 1ax 1bz 1ay 1bz 1az
 T T T

1bx 1ax 1bx 1ay 1bx 1az
 T T T
=  1by 1ax 1by 1ay 1by 1az  Ra

T T T
1bz 1ax 1bz 1ay 1bz 1az
= C ba Ra = [Cij ]Ra
[Cij ] represents the cosine of the angle between the unit vectors 1aj and 1bi .
Propagation of Direction Cosine Matrix
Consider the two frames be a and b frames, although the derivation that
follows is valid for arbitrary coordinate frames.
At time t, the a and b frames are related through DCM, C ab (t).
At time t + ∆t, frame b rotates to a new orientation such that the direction
cosine matrix is given by C ab (t + ∆t).
Rate of change of C ab (t) is given by
a ∆C ab C ab (t + ∆t) − C ab (t)
Ċ b (t) = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
From geometrical considerations,
C ab (t + ∆t) = C ab (t)(I + ∆θ b )
where, I + ∆θ b is the small angle direction cosine matrix relating b frame at

time t to the rotated b frame at time t + ∆t.
Direction Cosines
Propagation of Direction Cosine Matrix
∆θ b is given by
 
0 −∆θY ∆θP
∆θ b =  ∆θY 0 −∆θR  , ∆θk = sin ∆θk ∀ k = R, Y, P
−∆θP ∆θR 0
Note that because the rotation angles are small in the limit as ∆t → 0, small
angle approximations are valid and the order of rotation is immaterial.
Rate of change of C ib (t) is now written as
a ∆θ b
Ċ b (t) = C ib (t) lim
∆t→0 ∆t
In the limit ∆t → 0, ∆θ b /∆t is the skew symmetric form of angular velocity

of the frame b relative to a frame.
 
0 −ωY ωP
a
Ċ b (t) = C ab (t)Ωbab = C ib (t)  ωY 0 −ωR 
−ωP ωR 0
Vector Rotation in Frame of Reference
Y0 Y
0
R
RY0
RY R
RY R X0
θ δ
β RY 0 RX 0
θ
O RX0 RX RX
X X
Rotation of Frame of Reference
The position of a point R in XY coordinate frame is given by

RX R cos β
=
RY R sin β
Let us assume γ = θ + β.
Position of a point R0 in XY coordinate frame is given by
0
RX R cos γ R cos θ cos β − R sin θ sin β
= =
RY0 R sin γ R sin θ cos β + R cos θ sin β

cos θ − sin θ RX
=
sin θ cos θ RY
| {z }
Rotation matrix
Rotation of Frame of Reference
Let us assume α = θ + δ.
The position of a point R in XY frame is given by

RX R cos α
=
RY R sin α
Position of a point R in X 0 Y 0 frame is given by

RX 0 R cos δ
=
RY 0 R sin δ
As δ = α − θ, we can also write

RX 0 R cos(α − θ) R cos α cos θ + R sin α sin θ
= =
RY 0 R sin(α − θ) R sin α cos θ − R cos α sin θ

RX cos θ + RY sin θ cos θ sin θ RX
= =
RY cos θ − RX sin θ − sin θ cos θ RY
| {z }
Rotation matrix
Euler Angle Rotations
Euler angle
⇒ Method to specify the angular orientation of one coordinate frame w.r.t.
another frame
⇒ A series of three ordered right-handed rotations
⇒ Corresponds to the conventional roll pitch yaw angles
Euler angles are not uniquely defined since there is an infinite set of choices.
No standardized definitions of the Euler angles
For a particular choice of Euler angles, the rotation order selected and/or
defined should be consistent.
Interchange in order of rotation ⇒ different Euler angle representation.
Rotations are made about the Z, Y , X axes through an angle ψ, θ, φ angles.
These rotations are made in the positive (anticlockwise sense) when looking
down the axis of rotation toward the origin.
Rotation about Z axis in anticlockwise

direction by an angle ψ
 0    
X cos ψ sin ψ 0 X
 Y 0  =  − sin ψ cos ψ 0   Y 
Z0 0 0 1 Z
 
X
=A  Y 
Z
where
 
cos ψ sin ψ 0
A =  − sin ψ cos ψ 0 
0 0 1
Rotation about Y axis in anticlockwise

direction by an angle θ
 00    0 
X cos θ 0 − sin θ X
00
 Y  = 0 1 0  Y 0 
Z0
00
Z sin θ 0 cos θ
 0 
X
=B  Y 0 
Z0
where
 
cos θ 0 − sin θ
B = 0 1 0 
sin θ 0 cos θ
Rotation about X axis in anticlockwise

direction by an angle φ
     00 
x 1 0 0 X
 y  =  0 cos φ sin φ   Y 00 
00
z 0 − sin φ cos φ Z
 00 
X
00
=D  Y 
00
Z
where
 
1 0 0
D = 0 cos φ sin φ 
0 − sin φ cos φ
If the consecutive rotations are performed in the order ψ, θ, φ on reference

frame XY Z then we obtain the another reference frame xyz.
Rotation matrix for representing these three rotations can be obtained as
   00   0   
x X X X
00 0
 y  =D  Y  = DB  Y  = DBA  Y 
00 0
z Z Z Z
Equivalently,
   
x X
 y  = DBA  Y 
| {z }
z C Z
Equivalent rotation matrix C = DBA can be written as

   
1 0 0 cos θ 0 − sin θ cos ψ sin ψ 0
C =  0 cos φ sin φ   0 1 0   − sin ψ cos ψ 0 
0 − sin φ cos φ sin θ 0 cos θ 0 0 1
 
cos θ cos ψ cos θ sin ψ − sin θ
=  cos ψ sin θ sin φ − sin ψ cos φ sin ψ sin θ sin φ + cos ψ cos φ cos θ sin φ 
cos ψ sin θ cos φ + sin ψ sin φ sin ψ sin θ cos φ − cos ψ sin φ cos θ cos φ
This rotation matrix is called Euler angle transformation matrix.

Range of Euler angles:
π π
−π ≤ ψ ≤ π, − ≤θ ≤ , −π ≤φ≤π
2 2
Transformation of Angular Velocities
Similar to the DCM orientation, Euler angles also

vary with time when an input angular velocity vector
is applied between the two reference frames.
Angular velocity vector ω, in the body-fixed
coordinate system, has components p, q, and r in
the x, y, and z directions, respectively.
Consider each derivative of an Euler angle as the
magnitude of the angular velocity vector in the
coordinate system in which the angle is defined.
For example, ψ̇ is the magnitude of ψ̇ that lies along
the Z axis of the Earth-fixed coordinate system.
     
ψ̇x 0 −ψ̇ sin θ
ψ̇ =  ψ̇y  =C  0  =  ψ̇ cos θ sin φ 
ψ̇z ψ̇ ψ̇ cos θ cos φ
Similarly, the components of θ̇ in X 0 Y 0 Z 0 is given

by (0, θ̇, 0)T .
In body frame, it can be obtained as
   
θ̇x 0
θ̇ =  θ̇y  = DB  θ̇ 
θ̇z 0
   
1 0 0 cos θ 0 sin θ 0
=  0 cos φ sin φ   0 1 0   θ̇ 
0 − sin φ cos φ − sin θ 0 cos θ 0
 
0
=  θ̇ cos φ 
−θ̇ sin φ
00 00 00
Similarly, the components of φ̇ in X Y Z is given
by (ψ̇, 0, 0)T .
In body frame, it can be obtained as
   
φ̇x φ̇
φ̇ =  φ̇y  = D  0 
φ̇z 0
  
1 0 0 φ̇
=  0 cos φ sin φ   0 
0 − sin φ cos φ 0
 
φ̇
= 0 
0
Components of ω in the body-fixed coordinate system
ω = ψ̇ + θ̇ + φ̇
Now, we have
       
ωx p ψ̇x + θ̇x + φ̇x φ̇ − ψ̇ sin θ
 ωy  =  q  =  ψ̇y + θ̇y + φ̇y  =  ψ̇ cos θ sin φ + θ̇ cos φ 
ωz r ψ̇z + θ̇z + φ̇z ψ̇ cos θ cos φ − θ̇ sin φ
Euler angle rates

  q sin φ + r cos φ
 
ψ̇
 θ̇  =  cos θ 
 q cos φ − r sin φ 
φ̇ p + tan θ(q sin φ + r cos φ)
What happen when θ = 90◦ ?? Gimbal lock problem

How to avoid such difficulties? Nonsingular representation, e.g., quaternions

Navigation and Guidance: Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

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Navigation and Guidance

Dr. Shashi Ranjan Kumar

Flight Planning: Determination of a nominal flight path and associated

Bryson, A. E., “New Concepts in Control Theory, 1959-1984”, Journal of

Navigation may have one of two meanings.

Whenever a purposeful change in location has to take place for an aircraft

Reasons for sophisticated navigation systems

A classical approach to vehicle state estimation is to equip the vehicle with

Consider a point moving in a plane.

where, p(t), v(t), a(t) denote position, velocity, and acceleration,

p(t); v(t); a(t) p(t); v(t); a(t)

Navigation: Art of directing the movement of vehicle from one point on

Modern aircraft are of high speed and flying at high altitude.

INS outputs may not be exact due to many reasons.

Accuracy of any inertial navigation system

Figure: Guidance loop

Figure: Body control loop within guidance loop

(a) Surface-to-Air Missiles (b) Air-to-Air Missiles

Position of rigid body: position vector OR OE of origin

Rotation matrix approach utilizes 9 parameters, which obey the orthogonality

The angle between two vectors r 1 and

Direction cosine matrix transform a vector in R3 from one frame to other

Specifically, if (X, Y, Z) and (x, y, z) are the representations of a vector in

DCM projects the vector Ra into a reference frame b.

Consider a vector R coordinatized in reference frame a and b as Ra and Rb ,

Ra =(RT 1ax )1ax + (RT 1ay )1ay + (RT 1az )1az

where, RT 1ai ∀ i = x, y, z denotes scalar component of R projected along

The ith component of Rb can be expressed as

The vector Rb can be expressed as

where, I + ∆θ b is the small angle direction cosine matrix relating b frame at

In the limit ∆t → 0, ∆θ b /∆t is the skew symmetric form of angular velocity

The position of a point R in XY coordinate frame is given by

Position of a point R in X 0 Y 0 frame is given by

As δ = α − θ, we can also write

Rotation about Z axis in anticlockwise

Rotation about Y axis in anticlockwise

Rotation about X axis in anticlockwise

If the consecutive rotations are performed in the order ψ, θ, φ on reference

Equivalent rotation matrix C = DBA can be written as

This rotation matrix is called Euler angle transformation matrix.

Similar to the DCM orientation, Euler angles also

Similarly, the components of θ̇ in X 0 Y 0 Z 0 is given

Components of ω in the body-fixed coordinate system

Euler angle rates

What happen when θ = 90◦ ?? Gimbal lock problem

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