DUST RESULTING FROM BLASTING IN SURFACE MINES AND ITS

CONTROL

Sushil Bhandari 1, Akshat Bhandari 2 and Sandeep Arya 3

EXPLO 2004 CONFERENCE

1. Professor & Head. Department of Mining Engineering

Jai Narain Vyas University
JODHPUR 342 011
INDIA

Telephone: (0291) 2624063

Fax: (0291) 2513733
E-mail: sushil_bhandari@hotmail.com

2. Terrock Consulting Engineers

P O Box 829
ELTHAM VIC 3095

Telephone: (03) 9431 0033

Fax: (03) 9431 1810
E-mail: terrock@terrock.com

3. Earth Resource Centre

Sukiran, New Pali Road,
JODHPUR 342 001
INDIA

Telephone: (0291)2624063
Fax: (0291)2624063
E-mail: admin@earthresourcecentre.com

Page 1
DUST RESULTING FROM BLASTING IN SURFACE MINES AND ITS
CONTROL

Sushil Bhandari, Akshat Bhandari and Sandeep Arya

EXPLO 2004 CONFERENCE

Professor & Head. Department of Mining Engineering

Jai Narain Vyas University
JODHPUR 342 011
INDIA

Telephone: (0291) 2624063

Fax: (0291) 2513733
E-mail: sushil_bhandari@hotmail.com

Page 2
 DUST RESULTING FROM BLASTING IN SURFACE MINES AND ITS
CONTROL

Abstract
Dust emissions by blasting are of concern to both mine operators and surrounding communities.
The quantity of dust produced, and the effects of its dispersal depend substantially on geological,
blasting and meteorological conditions.

This paper provides details of methods used to quantify the amount of dust produced after
collecting samples using high volume dust samplers, and the difficulties encountered in
satisfactory dust sampling and quantification.

Also described are practical dust reduction methods by using water filled ampoules and water
filled balls.

Introduction
Dust resulting from mining operations can be a serious nuisance to mine workers and population
living in the vicinity of a mine. There are several sources of mine dust production and dispersal,
which occur during rock breakage, loading and transport. Modern surface mining often involves
huge tonnages thus increasing the potential for greater dust hazard. Blasting is one of the
operations that is carried out in most mines, and may produce very large quantities of dust. The
dust cloud can be raised to substantial heights depending on the blasting parameters. The blasting
dust cloud is normally visible for several minutes. Most of the dust settles in and around the
mining area, although some may be dispersed to long distances before settling down. Some of
the settled dust is raised again by mining activities such as moving vehicles. Depending on
meteorological conditions this dust can disperse to substantial distances adversely affecting local
communities. Damage to vegetation and agriculture is also possible. Dust deposited in the
settlements and vegetation can contribute to negative public perceptions of the mining operations
environmental performance.

Although blasting is a major source of dust generation and dispersal in mines, its time-averaged
contribution is believed to be very small. Therefore, a limited number of studies only have been
carried out to study the amount of dust produced during blasting, its dispersal, and the

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quantification of the amount of dust reaching a particular area. Some of the estimations for the
quantity of dust produced have been either based on the area of the blast (EPA Report, 1998) or
based on quantity of explosive (Prasad 1995; Mukherjee, 2001). In one investigation, drilling
operations produced 3.62 g/ton and blasting operations were measured to produce 72.5 g/ton of
dust (NTIS, 1976). Modern surface mining often involves very large blasts, thus increasing the
potential for greater dust hazard. Therefore, efforts are needed to understand the process of dust
generation and dispersion, and the steps that need to be taken to reduce its generation and the
dispersal of fines and dust.

A research effort was initiated to simulate blast dust dispersal in different meteorological
conditions and software was developed to predict dust plume movement in and around mines
(Kumar and Bhandari, 2001, 2002). Simulation of dispersal from a continuous column, as in
blasting from which dust is spewed had not been attempted earlier. This type of software could
be useful to industry to predict plume behavior so that ground conditions, wind conditions and
blasting parameters could be assessed, adjusted and blasting be carried out accordingly.

This paper provides details of experiments to quantify the amount of dust produced after
collecting samples using high volume dust samplers. During the measurements many difficulties
were experienced in quantifying the amount of dust when the plume passed through a particular
area. The difficulties encountered in satisfactory dust sampling and quantification are described.
Also described are practical dust reduction methods by using water filled ampoules and water
filled balls.

Dust is a general term used for fine particles that are suspended in the atmosphere. Dust is
formed when fine particles become entrained in the atmosphere by the turbulent action of wind,
by the mechanical disturbance of fine materials, or through the release of particulate-rich gaseous
emissions. The concentration of particles in the atmosphere can range from a few micrograms to
hundreds of micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3). Meteorological parameters such as wind
speed, temperature, vertical shear and relative humidity are crucial determinant for the dust
dispersion.

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Dust generation
A hypothesis about fines (dust) generation in the blasting process was initially formulated in
which the crushing near the blasthole plays an important role. Crushing of the rock near the
vicinity of the blasthole arises due to the enormous pressure caused by the detonation of the
explosive. The peak blasthole pressure resulting from detonation of the explosive could exceed
the compressive strength of rock and then cause crushing around the blastholes. Excessive
pressure values can be prevented by carefully selecting the composition and density of charge,
diameter of the charge and priming/ initiation system.

Several rock and blasting parameters affect dust generation. The type of rock is of course the
most important parameter. In highly porous rocks during blasting, greater dissipation of energy
results in considerable crushing and production of fines. Increase in number of joints may
increase amount of dust produced. Filler material in the joints is released and may come out as
fines and dust. Therefore, clay filled joints or packets would provide more dust as a result of
blast. Low-density rock produces more fines (and also dust) than high-density rocks. As the
strength of rock decreases the rock is more liable to crushing and hence there is an increase in
fines and dust.

Blasting parameters, which influence the generation of fines and dust are: type and amount of
explosives, burden and spacing parameters if not optimum, delay timing and sub-grade drilling.
If the various blasting parameters affecting the dust generation can be understood then more
effective steps can be taken to reduce the generation of dust.

Dispersal
Meteorological conditions, such as wind speed and direction, temperature, cloud cover and
humidity, will effect the dispersal of dust. Wind provides the mechanical energy for particle
entrainment. A certain minimum wind velocity, (often-called the threshold wind velocity) is
required before the dust particles that are raised in the atmosphere or lying on the surface begin
to move. Above this level, particle entrainment may be expected to depend strongly on wind
velocity. Atmospheric stability affects dispersion of the emission plume, determining the extent
of the vertical and horizontal, transverse and axial spreading of the emitted particulates.
Atmospheric stability depends upon the extent of solar insulation, cloudiness and wind speed.
These factors determine the vertical thermal gradient and corresponding atmospheric turbulence.

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Stability is both seasonal and diurnal. For long-term emission estimates, an average estimate of
stability condition is desirable.

Soil moisture content affects the cohesive forces between soil particles and thus their
entrainment. Above certain soil moisture content, the particle may be bound together so tightly
that no fugitive emissions may be expected. Moisture affects cohesiveness differently for
different soils. For long-term emission estimates, average soil moisture content is needed along
with frequency of precipitation. In an effort to reduce dust dispersal and settlement, the influence
of various parameters need to be quantified. Therefore, sampling measurements are needed.

Experimental measurements
Measurement of dust resulting from blasting has been very difficult work. Very few
presentations are available which report about dust measurements after blasting. The U.S. EPA
(1996) reports about blasting dust measurements using a balloon sampler. This sampling is
required because it is important to see, the effectiveness of control measures. Several
experiments were conducted in India at surface limestone mine sites at Aditya Cement
Limestone Mines, Birla Cement Mine Limestone, Chittorgarh and Sanu Limestone Mines,
Jaisalmer. Physical measurement of PM10 dust particles were made with Respirable Dust High
Volume Samplers (Envirotech APM-460).

Scheme of layout of Instrument for measurement

Five instruments were laid out in a downwind direction at a safe distance from the blast. Three
instruments were on the central lines of expected plume path (1st, 3rd & 5th) as shown in Figure 1.
Transverse to 3rd instrument two instruments were kept at equal distance on either side as 2nd and
4th.

Birla Cement Works, Chittorgarh

Birla Cement Works produces limestone from Jai-Surjana pit situated in Chittorgarh district of
Rajasthan from a deposit of Proterozoic age belonging to Vindhyan Super group. The soil cover
varies from 0 m to 2 m and overburden is about 10%. Blastholes are of 165 mm diameter and are
drilled to a depth of 8.0 m. The usual blast parameters are 6 m spacing and 5 m burden. These
holes are blasted using ANFO and slurry explosives. Blastholes are charged with 25% cap

Page 6
sensitive explosives and 75% of ANFO as column charge. Bottom initiation using Exel or
Raydet systems are adopted and air decking techniques are practiced. The mining operations are
very close to residential areas (villages 400 m away). Therefore, there is a strong need to control
dust produced by blasting operations. Dust measurements were carried out at various distances
from the point of blast. The dust collected on two samplers is shown in Figure 2. This example
show that dust remains in atmosphere not as believed for short duration but for substantial time
(exceeding over one hour) over the area falling under the moving plume. Dust cloud is visible for
short duration only, but atmosphere carries dust for much longer time. Much of this dust settles
down affecting people and agricultural fields located nearby.

Aditya Cement Works, Chittorgarh

Experiments were conducted at Aditya limestone mine producing 10000 tonnes limestone daily.
The physical and physico-mechanical properties of rock mass Specific Gravity 2.63, Hardness
2.5 to 3.5, Compressive Strength – 360 to 690 Kg/cm2. Blastholes were of 114 mm diameter to a
depth of 9.0 m. The usual blast parameters are 7.0 m spacing and 4.5 m burden. These blastholes
are charged using ANFO as column charge and slurry explosives as bottom charge. Bottom
initiation is carried out by signal tube method. Air decking along with water filled ampoules
(cartridges) and water filled plastic balls in stemming columns have been experimented. The dust
collected is shown in Figure 3. These measurements also show that dust remains in atmosphere
for much longer then that is visible.

Experiments at Jaisalmer
Experimental studies were carried out at Sanu Limestone mines. This mine is located in the
western part of Rajasthan in the Thar Desert. The limestone belongs to the Khuila formation of
the Eocene age. The area is deprived of the overburden except in the northern region where a
layer of 2-4 m topsoil exists. The limestone horizon is of 15-20 m thickness and is further
divided into hard, compact bouldery limestone and chalky limestone. Steel grade limestone only
is produced which is available in the top layer only, which is 1 m to 5 m thick. The lower layer is
of cement grade. Steel mills need limestone of a particular size. There is a size restriction; in
general the product should be -30 mm to + 45 mm. Finer material has no use. Finer material is
dumped back in the mine. Therefore, there is a need to reduce generation of fines. The blastholes
used are of 120 mm diameter and 4.0 m – 5.0 m depth. The usual blast parameters are 3.0 m

Page 7
spacing and 2.5m burden. These holes are blasted using ANFO with aluminized slurry
explosives as the bottom charge. Detonating cord and detonating cord relays are used. Five
blasts were conducted in a routine manner where dust measurements were carried out and
fragment sizes were analysed using Wipfrag software. Measurements of the dust were made at
various distances from the point of blast. As shown in previous measurement dust remains in the
atmosphere for longer times. Table 1 gives details of blasts and gives fragmentation results.

Blast Nos.1 and 2 used cap sensitive slurry explosive only. Blast Nos. 3 and 4 utilised cap
sensitive slurry explosive as booster and ANFO as a column charge. In blast No. 5, 10% sawdust
was added to ANFO and in the stemming water filled cartridges (ampoules) were put with the
stemming. By the addition of sawdust, crushing around the blasthole is likely to reduce and by
the addition of water ampoules in the stemming dust ejected from the blasthole gets moistened
thus dispersal is hampered. Blast No. 5 shows more uniform fragmentation than in Blast Nos. 1
and 2 where stronger slurry explosives were used. Many large boulders and a greater amount of
fines were observed, indicating that much energy was being consumed in crushing and energy
utilization was not optimum thereby producing boulders.

The above studies also indicated that there are several difficulties in field measurements for
quantifying dust. Examples of these difficulties are

• The Central line of plume may not be identified correctly specially when wind conditions
are unstable. Wind direction may sometimes change suddenly at the last moment, after
the entire sets of instruments have been laid. This may result in either partial dust capture
by the set of samplers or no dust at all may reach to any of the five instruments.

• Instruments need to be placed at the same level, if they are on the ground. This may be
difficult because of undulating terrain.

Control measures
A proper combination of blasting parameters, such as burden distance, blasthole spacing,
stemming height, effective sub-drilling, initiation sequence, charge distribution, priming methods
and the ratio of charge diameter to blasthole diameter, need to be tailored in such a way the blast
will give reduced fines and dust.

Page 8
If the effective burden is inadequate then this may results in dissipation of gaseous energy into
atmosphere. If the optimum burden is exceeded, then the amount of fines will increase because
of greater confinement.

An increase in powder factor may also increase production of fines and dust. There is a
correlation between the blasthole diameter, the length of the charge and the amount of fines.
Consequently, it was concluded that the fines are generated in a zone around the blasthole. The
size of the crushed zone around the blasthole and thereby the fines production, becomes greater
with increased blasthole diameter (Hagan 1979). Sub-drilling is carried out to prevent formation
of toe and to provide displacement. Effective sub-drilling should be able to accomplish these
tasks. If sub-drilling is greater than optimum, then some charge parts are over-confined. The
explosion gases are therefore given more time to fragment rock; more fines are produced and
over fragmentation takes place.

The length and width ratio of the blast should be adequate because the blast has to be given the
space to move forward (Hagan 1979). If a row is not allowed to move forward, the explosion
gases are trapped for longer time and unnecessary fines are generated.

The amount of fines generated also depends on the delay time between every row. The rock in
front of a row of blastholes must be loosened before the next section of rock behind it starts to
move, if fines are to be minimized. The amount of fines rises with the shorter delay times and a
greater number of blastholes.

Thus to reduce dust generation one has to understand and ensure that the design of a blast is
efficient. This requires a sound knowledge of blast mechanism in the immediate vicinity of the
charged section of the blasthole (the origin of fine particles generation) and related science viz.,
the influence of explosive properties, rock properties, blast geometry and delay timing on the
occurrence and extent of the fracture process.

Industry has been able to develop methods to utilise explosive energy better by retaining
stemming for longer time. These methods have included use of various types of stemming plugs,
and also by use of aggregates as stemming material instead of drill cuttings. These steps have
improved energy utilisation and also fragmentation. Further, it has been observed that the use of
these techniques have reduced dust resulting from observed blast. Further, by discontinuing the
use of detonating cord as downline, and by utilizing non-electric signal tube systems, stemming

Page 9
ejection and hence dust release has been reduced to some extent. However, dispersal of ejected
dust also needs to be reduced. Some practical methods have been adopted and are detailed
below:

Water ball filled with water

High tensile, non-brittle plastic balls have been used in the stemming column (Figures 4 and 5).
The ball works as a lock or obstruction to the blow out of stemming material for a little while
longer. This avoids the release of explosive energy from top, which in turn is used in the
productive work of rock breaking. As an innovation, the balls have been filled with water; when
the ball breaks it sprays water, which moistens dust and thus reduces dust dispersion.

Water filled ampoule in stemming

PVC ampoules (water filled or gel filled) have been used prior to 1980 in underground coal
mining in United Kingdom. They were used as a safe stemming material. They significantly
reduced dust and fumes from blasting. Water filled plastic bags were permitted device for
stemming for small diameter short holes.

In a series of blasts in Aditya Limestone Mine water filled ampoules have proven very effective
in providing confinement as water is incompressible and also in reducing dust (Figure 6 and 7).
These ampoules are 89 mm in diameter and 0.8 m long. The blasthole liner is filled with water
and formed into cartridge shape. These are placed as the last ½ m of stemming. This is done to
avoid damage to ANFO in case of incidental breakage of ampoule and damage in the column.

Observations of airborne dust when a split shot was fired with the use of water ampoules (Figure
8) showed a reduction in dust in part where ampoules were used. In this blast five blastholes
were without water ampoules and five blastholes were with water ampoules (Figure 9). The
ejection of detonation gases was reduced when water ampoules were used, which resulted in
better and uniform fragmentation.

Water sprinkling of area surrounding the blast

If soil, fines or dust is moist then it may not get airborne. Thus, the areas surrounding the blast
(bench top, face and floor) were thoroughly sprinkled with water before charging the blastholes
in the above blast. This precaution prevents dust settled out during previous operations from

Page 10
becoming airborne. Figure 9 also shows some effect of water sprinkling., In the part, where
sprinkling was not done, dust is more and denser. It is difficult to wet fines uniformly under
realistic mining conditions and the optimum moisture content would depend on the properties of
dust. Polymer-based emulsions are also widely used primarily to stabilize all soils from dust and
erosion. Spraying water with coagulants over the drill cuttings or mixed with bentonite could
reduce dispersal of dust.

Another method that can be effective in protecting areas adjacent to the mine from blasting dust
involves delaying blasting under unfavorable wind and atmospheric conditions. This requires
some flexibility in blasting schedules, but can be highly effective.

Conclusions
Measurement of dust falling from moving plume is a difficult task, which is affected by wind
direction, velocity and other parameters. The visible dust plume last for a shorter duration, then
the period that the atmosphere carries dust. In stable wind conditions this dust-laden atmosphere
may last for a longer period, which may be more then one hour. Several steps can be taken to
reduce generation of fines and dust by optimising blasting parameters. Dust dispersal can be
controlled, to some extent, by the use of water filled ampoules and water filled plastic balls in the
stemming. This enhances gas energy utilisation and also reduces dust dispersal.

Page 11
References

Hagan, T.N. 1979. “The control of fines through improved blast design”. Proc. Aust. Inst. Min.
& Metal. pp 9.

Kumar, P. and Bhandari, S. “Modelling dust dispersal near source after opencast mine blast in
weak wind conditions over flat terrain in tropical conditions”, Explo 2001 Conference, Hunters
Valley, October 28-31, 2001

Kumar, P. and Bhandari, S. “Modelling dust dispersal near source after surface mine blast over
undulated terrain in weak wind conditions, APCOM –2002, Phoenix, February 25-27, 2002

Knight. G, “Generation and control of mine airborne dust”, Proc. 2nd U.S. Mine Ventilation
Symposium, Univ. of Nevada, Reno, 23-25 Sept 1985.

EPA. MRI Project No. 4604-02, 1998, Western Surface Coal Mining. Revision of Emission
Factors for AP-42 Section 11.9, Revised Final Report.

Jamal, A. R.P. Singh and K.K. Gupta, 2001. Prediction of Geo-textual characteristics of
suspended particulate matter in Mine; institute of Engineers (India) Journal, Vol. 81, February:
33-38.

Mukherjee, M., 2001. Estimation of fugitive dust emissions in opencast mines, Journal of Mines,
Metals and Fuels, Jan-Feb: 32-34.

Page 12
List of headings

DUST RESULTING FROM BLASTING IN SURFACE MINES AND ITS

CONTROL
LEVEL 1

Abstract

Introduction Level 2

Dust generation Level 2

Dispersal Level 2

Experimental measurements Level 2

Scheme of layout of Instrument for measurement Level 2

Birla Cement Works, Chittorgarh Level 2

Aditya Cement Works, Chittorgarh Level 2

Experiments at Jaisalmer Level 2

Control measures Level 2

Water ball filled with water Level 2

Water filled ampoule in stemming Level 2

Water sprinkling of area surrounding the blast Level 2

Conclusions Level 2

Page 13
Table

Table 1 - Blast observations from the blast carried out at Sanu limestone mine, Jaisalmer

Blast No. 1 2 3 4 5
Average Burden (m) 2.27 1.93 2.44 2.42 2.62
Average Spacing (m) 2.83 2.10 2.19 2.85 2.08
Max. charge per delay (kg) 103.8 66.48 53.56 298.32 44.30
Explosive Charge Rajblast* Rajblast* Rajblast* Rajblast* Rajblast*
+ + +
ANFO ANFO ANFO with
sawdust
+
water bag
Average Fragment Size (mm) 727 755 275 317 106
Powder Factor 6.42 5.00 6.81 8.23 6.48
Fragmentation Large Large Uniform Uniform Uniform
boulders and boulders and Fragmentation Fragmentation Fragmentation
finely crushed finely crushed
* Rajblast is cap sensitive aluminised slurry.

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Layout of instruments for measurement

Figure 2: Histogram of the dust concentration monitored at limestone mine of Birla Cement
Works, Chittorgarh

Figure 3: Histogram of the dust concentration monitored at Aditya Cement Mines,

Chittorgarh

Figure 4: Ball filled with water

Figure 5: Placing ball filled with water in a blasthole

Figure 6: Water filled ampoules used in the stemming

Figure 7: Placing water ampoule into the blasthole

Figure 8: Blasthole charging using water ampoule

Figure 9: Comparative difference of dust plume after the blast with water ampoule and
water spray and without water ampoules and water sprinkling before the blast

Page 15
Figures

1
Blast point 3 5

Wind Direction
4

Figure 1 - Layout of instruments for measurement

Dust Accumulated on 14-12-01 at instrument number 3

D u st A c c um u l a t e d on 14 - 12 - 0 1 a t i nst r um e n t num be r 4

0.030 0.0278
0.015 0.0123
0.025
0.0173
Dust in gm

0.020 0.010 0.0071

0.0053 0.006
0.015 0.0105
0.0085 0.005 0.0029
0.010 0.0077

0.005 0.000
0.000 0- 15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61-75
0-15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61-75

Time interval in minutes Ti m e i nt e r v a l i n m i nu t e s

Figure 2 - Histogram of the dust concentration monitored at limestone mine of Birla Cement
Works, Chittorgarh

Dust Accumulated on 8-4-02 at instrument number 1 Dust Accumulated on 8-4-02 at instrument number 3

0.0109
0.0099 0.010
0.010 0.0079
0.008 0.0071 0.0071
0.008 0.0071
Dust in gm

0.0059
Dust in gm

0.0057 0.006
0.006 0.0047
0.004
0.004
0.002 0.0009
0.002
0.000
0.000
0-15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61-75
0-15 16-30 31-45 46-60 61-75
Time interval in minutes
Time interval in minutes

Figure 3 - Histogram of the dust concentration monitored at Aditya Cement Mines, Chittorgarh

Page 16
 Figure 4 - Ball filled with water

Figure 5 - Placing ball filled with water in a blasthole

Page 17
Figure 6 - Water filled ampoules used in the stemming

Figure 7 - Placing water ampoule into the blasthole

Figure 8 - Blasthole charging using water ampoule

Page 18
Figure 9 - Comparative difference of dust plume after the blast with water ampoule and water
spray and without water ampoules and water sprinkling before the blast

Page 19