Electromagnetic Actuators

Mechatronic system design
Mechatronic system design wb2414‐2012/2013
Course part 3
Electromagnetic
actuators
Prof.ir. R.H.Munnig Schmidt

Mechatronic System Design
1
WB2414-Mechatronic System Design 2013-2014
Delft
University of
Technology
Learning goals. The student:

• Can select and calculate a single axis functional electromagnetic actuator for
a given specification, working according to the Lorentz or reluctance force
generation principle.
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Delft
University of
Technology
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Contents
•Electricity and electromagnetism
•Electromagnetic actuators
• Lorentz actuator
• Variable reluctance actuator
• Hybrid actuator
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Ohm’s law, the definition of

impedance
Current (I) V
V  IR I
Voltage
R
+
(V) Power in Watt (W):
Impedance
V2
(Z) P  IV  I R  2
- Source R
Complex impedance Z(f)
V( f )
V ( f )  I ( f )Z ( f ) I( f ) 
Z( f )
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University of
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Rules of Kirchhoff (network theory)
1. At any node of an electronic circuit all currents add to zero.

• No charge storage in a node
2. Following any loop in an electronic circuit all voltages add to
zero.
I1  I 2  I 3  0
V1  V2  V3  0
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Combination of Impedances
Serial
•Current is shared,
•Voltage is divided
Vt V1  V2
Zs    Vt V1  V2
It It Zs   
It It
I t Z1  I t Z 2 
I t Z1  I t Z 2
 Z1  Z 2
  Z1  Z 2 It
It
Parallel
•Voltage is shared Vt Vt Vt 1
Zp    
•current is divided I t I1  I 2 V V 1 1
t
 t 
Z1 Z 2 Z1 Z 2
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3
A voltage divider
Vi
I
Z1  Z 2
Vi Z 2
Vo  I  Z 2 
Z1  Z 2
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University of
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One of the oldest electromotors

The Elias motor of 1842
An actuator is an electromotor for limited movements
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University of
Technology
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Definition of terms in Maxwell’s
equations
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University of
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Maxwell equations for magnetics
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University of
Technology
5
Gauss Law, magnetic fieldlines are
closed loops
• A magnetic field has its origin

in a dipole, North and South
pole
• Density of fieldlines is
proportional to flux density
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University of
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Faraday’s law, a changing magnetic

field causes an electric field over a wire
E, I
dl n̂ L
S
dS
The line‐integral of the electrical
field over a closed loop L equals the
change of the flux through the open
surface S bounded by the loop L.
This is a voltage source (EMF), B
where the current is driven in the
direction of the electric field.
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University of
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6
Ampere’s law, Current through a
wire gives a magnetic field
Not relevant for +
electromagnetic actuators
x
The line‐integral of the magnetic field I
over a closed loop L is proportional _
to the current through the surface S 0 I
B( x) 
enclosed by the loop L 2 x
(plus a surface‐integral term related B( x) I
H ( x)  
to electric fields) 0 2 x
0  4 107 [Vs/Am]
in vacuum/air
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The magnetic field of more current

carrying wires Current directed
towards observer
The total magnetic field is a linear vectorial combination of the
magnetic field from each separate winding.
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University of
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Average magnetic field from a coil
0 nI
Bw,av  
hc
Bw nI
H w,av  
0 hc
 0.3    1
Infinitely long coil:   1
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University of
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Hopkinson’s law of magnetics vs

Ohm’s law on electricity
Magnetomotive force (m ) vs Electromotive force = Voltage (e  V )
Magnetic flux (Φ) vs electric current (I)

Magnetic reluctance ( ) vs electrical resistance (R)
• The Magnetomotive force is the amount
of windings times the current
• The reluctance is proportional to the 
average length of the flux‐path and m  nI 
inversely proportional to cross‐section _ A
times the magnetic permeability.
• The magnetic flux follows Hopkinson’s law
of magnetics m nI
w  
 
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University of
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The magnetic flux generated inside a coil
w  nI
Bw , av   m 
Ac Ac  Ac 
  i
  i  o  i  o    0.3    1
Ai 0 Ao 0  Ai 0
This approximates to:

 0 nI
Bw,av = 0 H w,av  
i
nI
H w,av  
i
Righthand rule: North

and Southpole
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Magnetic energy
The energy equals the integral of B*H , which are connected by 0
Bxyz
Em    HdBdV [ J ]
V 0
Vt Bxyz
B B
H
0
 Em   
0 0
0
dBdV [ J ]
V  A  y
Applying some relations like and Hopkinson’s law:
V y y Bxyz w
 dV 
0
  ddA,
0 A
 H wd  m  ,
0
 
A 0
dAdB   d
0
Results in :
Bxyz w w
1 1 2
Em    HdBdV   md   d  2
2
w 
V 0 0 0
2 
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Adding a ferromagnetic material
reduces the reluctance
m  nI
y
ferromagnetic yoke 
0  r Ay
I m Ay 0  r nI
y  w  
 y
I V
+ V +
_ y y 0  r nI
Bw   
n windings Ay y
_ Ay Bw nI
Hw  
0  r y
With a large μr the flux
increases
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Magnetisation curve of ferromagnetic

material (μr > 1)
Bw Saturation
Bw  0 r H w Bw  0 H w
In vacuum or air H w (I )
With ferromagnetic core
Saturation
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A permanent magnet is a ferromagnetic
material with a high hysteresis
Bw
Area of
interest Br
Hc
H w (I )
Virgin
curve
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University of
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PM materials act like a current

carrying coil
Without an external field the magnet Br
creates its own field as if it was a coil in
air
Br  m B
m  nI equivalent  H c  m 
0 r,m
Modern PM μr,m= 1 Hc H
Br  m Br = 1 T is equivalent to
m  nI equivalent  H c  m 
0 800000 Amp turns
per meter length of magnet
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University of
Technology
11
Use a permanent magnet to create a
magnetic field in an airgap.
Ferromagnetic yoke
Ferromagnetic (iron) core/yoke
Ay The magnetic flux in
Am Ag lg y the magnet equals:
S N m B 
m   r m
t 0 t
m g
m y g Br Am
t    m 
Am 0 Ay 0 r Ag 0 Am  y A 
1  m g
Ay  m  r Ag  m
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University of
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Practical approximation
Br Am
m 
Am  y A 
Ferromagnetic yoke
Ferromagnetic (iron) core/yoke 1  m g
Ay  m  r Ag  m
Ay
Am  y
Am Ag lg  y In practice mr  Ay  m
S N Br Am
m 
A 
1 m g
m g Ag  m
But the flux in the air gap is smaller because magnetic
flux is lost outside the air gap by “fringe/stray flux”.
Air is “conductive” for magnetic fields.
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University of
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12
The fringe flux takes in practice
between 25 to 75% of the total flux!
17

50
 0.33   1  loss
 g  Bg Ag     m
 0.25     0.75
If Ag=Am and  g =  m
  m Am  Br  Br
Bg      Br
Ag Ag Am  g Ag g Bg 
1 
Ag  m Am m 2
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University of
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Flat magnets have less fringe flux

and pole pieces are not efficient!
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University of
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13
Concentration of flux by iron parts
Am >> Ag
Bg (~0,7T) > Br (~0,4T)
Much fringe flux !
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University of
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Contents
•Basic electromagnetism
• Hybrid actuator
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University of
Technology
14
With the field in the airgap an actuator can be
made with a current wire inserted in the gap
Lorentz Force on a charged particle
F = q(E + v × B)
where
•F is the vectorial force (in Newton)
•E is the electric field (in Volts per meter)
•B is the magnetic field (in Tesla)
•q is the electric charge of the particle (in coulombs)
•v is the instantaneous velocity of the particle (in meters per second)
•and × is the cross product.
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University of
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For the magnetic force on a current this

relation leads to
The Lorentz Force with q   I
F  BI  w sin 
α = the angle between the current
and the magnetic field
 w = length of the wire in the field

lw
Corkscrew rule due to
cross product
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University of
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Formulate the Lorentz force differently to
avoid mistakes l w
The Lorentz Force
F  BI  w sin 
Can also be written as : (α = π/2)
x
dw
FI
dx
For multiple windings this becomes
Because d w
dw F  nI
 B w dx
dx n = number of windings
Φw = flux per winding
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University of
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A first example, a flat Lorentz

actuator
Permanent Magnets
Ferromagnetic yoke
F
Magnetic Field
Flat wound coil
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University of
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Efficiency of a flat Lorentz
actuator
Permanent Magnets
Ferromagnetic yoke
F
Magnetic Field
Flat wound coil
F
A
Detail A
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University of
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Importance of dΦw/dx,
risk of non functional actuator
Permanent Magnets
Ferromagnetic yoke
F=0
Magnetic Field
Flat wound coil
There should be motion between coil and permanent
magnetic field.
The force acts between the current and the source of the
magnetic field.
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University of
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Extending in the x direction
Permanent Magnets Coil y
Ferromagnetic yoke
F x
Useless windings
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Extending in the y direction

y
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University of
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The loudspeaker (moving coil) motor
A Permanent Magnets Ferromagnetic yoke
Coil
A A ‐ A
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Limited range
Stiffness!
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University of
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Commutation of the coils
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Three phase force with switching at

zero-crossings (mechanical
commutation)
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University of
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Three phase force with sinusoidal
currents
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University of
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Contents
•Basic electromagnetism
• Hybrid actuator
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University of
Technology
21
A Lorentz actuator also has some
non-linear reluctance force
• Reluctance force is force on the
Ferromagnetic (iron) part
coil without the permanent
magnets
Flux from the coil
Coil
• The flux by the current in the coil
will pull the coil in the iron
F • This force is unidirectional and
depending on the position
 Stiffness!
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Ultimate solution. Avoid iron!
Non‐ferromagnetic material
• Remove the iron and use more
magnet material. (Higher cost!)
• Reluctance of outer path is
same order of magnitude as the
reluctance of the gap between
the magnets (Larger flux path
and larger cross‐section)
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University of
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Variable reluctance actuator
mover
 y,m x
dx
Ag Ag g Force based on energy balance
Energy stored in magnetic field
F
 y,s 2
stator  nI  Ag 0
Fw F   
 g
n   4
I
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University of
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Application of variable reluctance

actuator, the current relay
switch
•Avalanche effect
• Elastic hinge is pre‐strained
Elastic hinge
• Current rises until mover starts
to move
• Resulting higher force speeds
up movement
• Strong and fast connection of
I electric contacts
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University of
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Force of magnetic field to ferromagnetic
material
w nI nI 0
dx x Bg   
Ag Ag lg Ag Ag 2 g
2 Bg  g
F Φw  nI 
0
2
 nI  Ag 0 Bg2 Ag
F    
n  g  4 0
I  
F Bg2
“Magnetic pressure” Pm   1T  0.4 Mpa (4bar)
2 Ag 2 0
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The relation for attraction force is

only valid for reluctance force
Bg2 Ag
F  Two permanent magnets will attract or repel each other.
0 This is linear force related to the Lorentz force
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University of
Technology
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Electromagnetic Actuators

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Mechatronic system design

Prof.ir. R.H.Munnig Schmidt

Learning goals. The student:

Ohm’s law, the definition of

1. At any node of an electronic circuit all currents add to zero.

One of the oldest electromotors

An actuator is an electromotor for limited movements

Maxwell equations for magnetics

• A magnetic field has its origin

Faraday’s law, a changing magnetic

The magnetic field of more current

Hopkinson’s law of magnetics vs

This approximates to:

Righthand rule: North

Magnetisation curve of ferromagnetic

PM materials act like a current

Flat magnets have less fringe flux

For the magnetic force on a current this

A first example, a flat Lorentz

Extending in the y direction

Three phase force with switching at

Ultimate solution. Avoid iron!

Application of variable reluctance

The relation for attraction force is

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