Cell Biology

Editor(s): Nick Bisceglia |

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Cell biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around the concept that the cell is
the fundamental unit of life. Focusing on the cell permits a detailed understanding of the tissues and
organisms that cells compose. Some organisms have only one cell, while others are organized into
cooperative groups with huge numbers of cells. On the whole, cell biology focuses on the structure and
function of a cell, from the most general properties shared by all cells, to the unique, highly intricate
functions particular to specialized cells.

The starting point for this discipline might be considered the 1830s. Though scientists had been using
microscopes for centuries, they were not always sure what they were looking at. Robert Hooke's initial
observation in 1665 of plant-cell walls in slices of cork was followed shortly by Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek's first descriptions of live cells with visibly moving parts. In the 1830s two scientists who
were colleagues — Schleiden, looking at plant cells, and Schwann, looking first at animal cells —
provided the first clearly stated definition of the cell. Their definition stated that that all living creatures,
both simple and complex, are made out of one or more cells, and the cell is the structural and functional
unit of life — a concept that became known as cell theory.

As microscopes and staining techniques improved over the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, scientists
were able to see more and more internal detail within cells. The microscopes used by van Leeuwenhoek
probably magnified specimens a few hundredfold. Today high-powered electron microscopes can
magnify specimens more than a million times and can reveal the shapes of organelles at the scale of a
micrometer and below. With confocal microscopy a series of images can be combined, allowing
researchers to generate detailed three-dimensional representations of cells. These improved imaging
techniques have helped us better understand the wonderful complexity of cells and the structures they
form.

There are several main subfields within cell biology. One is the study of cell energy and the biochemical
mechanisms that support cell metabolism. As cells are machines unto themselves, the focus on cell
energy overlaps with the pursuit of questions of how energy first arose in original primordial cells, billions
of years ago. Another subfield of cell biology concerns the genetics of the cell and its tight interconnection
with the proteins controlling the release of genetic information from the nucleus to the cell cytoplasm. Yet
another subfield focuses on the structure of cell components, known as subcellular compartments.
Cutting across many biological disciplines is the additional subfield of cell biology, concerned with cell
communication and signaling, concentrating on the messages that cells give to and receive from other
cells and themselves. And finally, there is the subfield primarily concerned with the cell cycle, the rotation
of phases beginning and ending with cell division and focused on different periods of growth and DNA
replication. Many cell biologists dwell at the intersection of two or more of these subfields as our ability to
analyze cells in more complex ways expands.

In line with continually increasing interdisciplinary study, the recent emergence of systems biology has
affected many biological disciplines; it is a methodology that encourages the analysis of living systems
within the context of other systems. In the field of cell biology, systems biology has enabled the asking
and answering of more complex questions, such as the interrelationships of gene regulatory networks,
evolutionary relationships between genomes, and the interactions between intracellular signaling
networks. Ultimately, the broader a lens we take on our discoveries in cell biology, the more likely we can
decipher the complexities of all living systems, large and small.

Cell Origins and Metabolism

Editor(s): Gary Coté, Mario De Tullio |
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The study of cell origins primarily involves the question of how cells became individual units, separate
from the external environment and capable of producing energy to sustain themselves. Cellular
metabolism is the set of biochemical processes by which energy is either created or used in the cell, and
energy resources in eukaryotic cells are regulated by two well-studied organelles: the mitochondrion and
the chloroplast. Due to the widely held contention that these organelles once existed as separate
organisms, the study of cell energy is inherently linked to the study of cell origins.

How do scientists study the origin of cells, a process that obviously occurred long before the origin of
humans? Genomic comparisons between Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya, the three main categories of
organisms, yield clues. In fact, a prevailing hypothesis emerging from genomic and other comparisons is
that the first eukaryote actually evolved from collaboration between an archaeon and a bacterium.
Scientists study the structure and function of mitochondria and chloroplasts as well as their fascinating
separate genomes to see what evidence might be left of the entities they once were. The focus on the
origin of the cell is not restricted to the study of energy-generating organelles. Indeed, scientists spend
much time and debate on the fundamental question of how gradients of protons separated by cell
membranes enabled energy creation in primordial conditions. In addition, studies of cell origin focus on
the evolution of multicellularity, the state of cells cooperating to form a single organism, a large step
toward the creation of the vertebrates and invertebrates we know today. Comparative genomics has
helped map out these paths to multicellularity and diagram evolutionary divergence as well as
convergence.

Aside from being the basic structures of life, cells have evolved the impressive capability of modifying
organic molecules to make other useful organic molecules. This set of sequential modifications, largely
mediated by enzymes, defines cell metabolism. One approach to the study of metabolism is to ask how
biochemical pathways have evolved, what organisms share the same pathways, and which do not.
Looking at evolutionary relationships between enzymes in biochemical pathways can help us deduce
evolutionary relationships of microorganisms. Another approach is to focus on the starting point: Where
do cells get their nutrient resources? Do they generate their own energy, or do they rely on other
organisms for nutrient courses? Among those that generate their own energy are the photosynthetic
organisms — cyanobacteria and plants. Other organisms consume carbohydrates and other organic
molecules produced by these pioneering photosynthetic organisms. Therefore, all life is in some way,
directly or indirectly, reliant on the energy produced by photosynthetic organisms.

The study of cell energy and metabolism has broad implications beyond bacteria, plants, and the
organisms that consume them. The energy-generating mechanisms of photosynthetic organisms have
the potential to be a renewable energy resource for humankind, a prospect that looks more and more
appealing as fossil fuel resources become depleted. Indeed, the investigation into unlocking the potential
of cultivated algae or crop agriculture for the generation of biofuels is an exciting new area for discovery,
ready to be tackled by innovative young scientists.

Proteins and Gene Expression

Editor(s): Laura Vargas-Parada |
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Through a cell biology lens, the study of gene expression is tightly linked to our understanding of proteins.
Since the early work of Christian Anfinsen in the 1950s, we know that the sequence of amino acids in a
protein determines its final three-dimensional structure. Following from that, scientists have repeatedly
observed that protein structure dictates where it will act and what it will do. Nowhere has this been more
obvious than with the function of enzymes. The shape and structure of proteins is a crucial aspect of gene
expression biology and links our understanding of gene expression to the biology of the cell. While
primarily concerned with protein molecules that act on DNA and RNA sequences, such as transcription
factors and histones, the study of gene expression also focuses on where in the cell expression is
modulated. In fact, the modulation of gene expression can occur in the nucleus, the cytoplasm, or even at
the cell membrane due to the impact of proteins on RNA in those cellular subregions.

How do scientists study protein shape and function? A technique called mass spectrometry permits
scientists to sequence the amino acids in a protein. After a sequence is known, comparing its amino acid
sequence with databases allows scientists to discover if there are related proteins whose function is
already known. Often similar amino acid sequences will have similar functions within a cell. The amino
acid sequence also allows scientists to predict the charge of the molecule, its size, and its probable three-
dimensional structure. The charge and size can later be confirmed experimentally (via SDS-PAGE and
double-dimension gels). To deduce the intricacies of three-dimensional structure, scientists will try to
crystallize the protein to confirm its molecular structure through X-ray crystallography and/or nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy (pNMR).

How do scientists study the impact of proteins on genes or other proteins? A good way to study the
function of the protein is to see what happens in the cell when the protein is not present. For this
scientists use model systems, such as cell culture or whole organisms, wherein they can test the function
of specific proteins or genes by modifying or mutating them. The expression level of a gene can be
calculated by measuring the transcribed mRNA (northern blot), the expressed protein (Western Blot), or
by directly staining the protein or mRNA when it is still in the cell. New techniques have changed the way
we study gene expression — DNA microarrays, serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE), and high-
throughput sequencing allow larger screens of multiple molecules simultaneously and have opened up
the possibility of new and broader kinds of questions. To analyze large datasets and see how networks of
molecules interact, a new discipline called systems biologyprovides the framework for these larger and
more integrated understandings of regulatory networks.

Interestingly, proteins are not the only gene regulators. Regulatory molecules come in the form of RNA
and act on other nucleic acids by changing or disrupting them. One example is the family of riboswitches,
ribonucleic acid molecules that form three-dimensional structures that halt or interfere with transcription,
given the proper external signal. Another example of RNA acting on other RNA is the mechanism of RNA
interference (RNAi), whereby double-stranded RNA molecules degrade mRNA before translation, thus
effectively interfering with protein expression. The dissection of this mechanism and its subsequent
experimental imitation has been a boon to those interested in manipulating gene function.

Ultimately, results from these kinds of studies have fundamental relevance, from the basic understanding
of normal cell function, such as cell differentiation, growth, and division, to informing radically new
approaches for treating disease. In fact, some human diseases can arise simply from a defect in a
protein's three-dimensional structure. Through the study of gene expression and proteins, it is easy to see
how minute changes at the molecular level have a reverberating impact.
Image: Biochemical Algorithms Library.

Subcellular Compartments
Editor(s): Jacob Krans |
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The study of subcellular compartments is the study of efficiency and divided labor within the cell. Just as
our society has professions in which people do a specific job very well, the cell creates subregions, each
of which allows certain cell functions to operate more effectively. As such, the subdivision of cells into
discrete compartments or parts enables the cell to create specialized environments for specific functions.
These compartments can be organelles, specific structures that take on sets of tasks within the cell, or
they can be local regions of the cell defined by the concentration of molecules or distinct physical
characteristics and proportions.

Subcellular compartments are key to the way we organize the domains of life. In fact, if there is a key
characteristic that separates the eukaryotes from the prokaryotes, it is likely the presence of specialized
compartments within the cell. Although the nucleus is the defining structure (eukaryote is Greek for "true
kernel," referring to the highly visible nucleus), almost all eukaryotic cells also contain a variety of
structures not found in prokaryotes. Many of these structures are surrounded by one or
two membranes that separate the contents from the rest of the cytoplasm. These compartments allow a
variety of environments to exist within a single cell, each with its own pH and ionic composition, and
permit the cell to carry out specific functions more efficiently than if they were all in the same environment.
For example, the lysosome has a pH of about 5.0 compared with the rest of the cytoplasm at pH 7.2. Not
surprisingly, the enzymes that work within this organelle have a pH optimum at about 5, which makes
them distinct from those in the main cellular cytoplasm.

One challenge for subcellular compartments is how to get materials in and out across the membranes,
and each compartment has its own solution. The complexity of the structures ranges from mitochondria
and plastids (with their own DNA and ribosomes), to the Golgi apparatus with its multiple cisternae, to
fairly simple vacuoles and vesicles. In addition to the membrane-bound structures, eukaryotes also have
a complex cytoskeleton made of three distinctly different components: microtubules, actin filaments, and
intermediate filaments. Each of the three plays a role in maintaining cell shape, and microtubules and
actin are also involved in internal transport as well as cell motility. Defects in any of these structures may
lead to clinical disorders. For example, altered intermediate filaments in the nuclear envelope causes a
cardiomyopathy, mitochondrial defects can lead to a variety of neuromuscular disorders, and mutations in
cilia or flagella may lead to polycystic kidney disease or sterility.

The study of subcellular structures involves many questions. How and under what conditions does a
mitchondrion divide? How do viruses take over a cell's endocytic machinery to propagate themselves?
What controls the movement of mRNA from one region of cytoplasm to another? Such research involves
nearly all tools available to cell biologists. Initial research was done with specific staining and light
microscopy. Closer scrutiny of micrometer- and nanometer-sized subcellular structures was later enabled
by the rise of electron microscopy, which illuminated the complexity of organelles and their varying
positions within the cell. The current use of fluorescent antibodies coupled with three-dimensional imaging
using confocal microscopy allows us to observe these organelles via time-lapse images and reveals how
they function in living cells. Other key techniques are the use of differential centrifugation to purify
components, autoradiography to follow processes over space and time, biochemistry to understand what
each component is doing at the molecular level, and the use of inhibitors to selectively turn key events on
and off and observe the outcome. Finally, genetics, in all its forms, has allowed us to dissect the structure
and function of these subcellular compartments by selective disruption of individual cell components. The
more all these structures are studied, the more it becomes clear how they all interact in a variety of ways
(e.g., molecular motors carry vesicles along microtubules from the Golgi to the plasma membrane), and it
is important to view all the cell's substructures not as isolated parts but as an integrated whole.

Future research in these areas of cell biology are likely to continue current trends. For instance, the role
of primary cilia and intraflagellar transport are two rapidly growing areas, with implications for treatment of
various disorders, including cancer. Research into alternative energy sources will certainly pay attention
not only to the role of mitochondria and chloroplasts, but also to less known organelles such as the
hydrogenosome, which makes hydrogen. As with all research, however, it may well be that the
unexpected discoveries become the most important, opening new fields for our understanding of the cell‘s
operations and providing new technologies for use in medicine, agriculture, and the environment.

Cell biology (also called cytology, from the Greek κυτος, kytos, "vessel") is a
branch of biology that studies the structure and functionof the cell, which is the
basic unit of life.[1] Cell biology is concerned with
the physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life
cycle, chemical composition and interactions of the cell with their environment.
This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level as it
encompasses prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Knowing the components of
cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences; it is also
essential for research in bio-medical fields such as cancer, and other diseases.
Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular
biology, immunology and cytochemistry .

Part of a series on

Biochemistry
 Key components

 Biomolecules
 Metabolism

 Index
 Outline

History and topics

 History

 Biochemistry
 Cell biology
 Bioinformatics
 Enzymology
 Genetics
 Immunology
 Molecular biology
 Plant biochemistry
 Structural biology

 Branches of biochemistry

 List of biochemists

Glossaries

 Glossary of biology
 Glossary of chemistry
 Portals: Biology, MCB

 v
 t
 e

Cell biology (also called cytology, from the Greek κυτος, kytos, "vessel") is a
branch of biology that studies the structure and functionof the cell, which is the
basic unit of life.[1] Cell biology is concerned with
the physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life
cycle, chemical composition and interactions of the cell with their environment.
This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level as it
encompasses prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Knowing the components of
cells and how cells work is fundamental to all biological sciences; it is also
essential for research in bio-medical fields such as cancer, and other diseases.
Research in cell biology is closely related to genetics, biochemistry, molecular
biology, immunology and cytochemistry .

Contents

 1History
 2Cell structure
 3Internal cellular structures
o 3.1Chemical and molecular environment
o 3.2Organelles
 4Processes
o 4.1Growth and development
o 4.2Other cellular processes
 5Notable cell biologists
 6See also
 7Notes
 8External links

History[edit]
Cells, which were once invisible to the naked eye, were first seen in 17th century
Europe with the invention of the compound microscope. Robert Hooke was the
first person to term the building block of all living organisms as "cells" after
looking at cork.[2] The cell theory states that all living things are made up
cells.[3] The theory also states that both plants and animals are composed of cells
which was confirmed by plant scientist, Matthias Schleiden and animal
scientist, Theodor Schwann in 1839.[4] 19 years later, Rudolf Virchow contributed
to the cell theory, arguing that all cells come from the division of preexisting
cells.[5] In recent years, there have been many studies which question the cell
theory. Scientists have struggled to decide whether viruses are alive or not.
Viruses lack common characteristics of a living cell, such as membranes,
cell organelles, and the ability to reproduce by themselves.[6] Viruses range from
0.005 to 0.03 micrometers in size whereas bacteria range from 1-5
micrometers.[7]Modern day cell biology research looks at different ways to culture
and manipulate cells outside of a living body to further research in human
anatomy and physiology, to derive treatments and other medications, etc. The
techniques by which cells are studied have evolved. Advancement in microscopic
techniques and technology such as fluorescence microscopy, phase-contrast
microscopy, dark field microscopy, confocal microscopy, cytometry, transmission
electron microscopy, etc. have allowed scientists to get a better idea of the
structure of cells.[8]

Cell structure[edit]
There are two fundamental classifications of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
The major difference between the two is the presence and/or absence of
organelles. Other factors such as size, the way in which they reproduce, and the
number of cells distinguish them from one another.[9] Eukaryotic cells include
animal, plant, fungi, and protozoa cells which all have a nucleus enclosed by a
membrane, with various shapes and sizes.[10] Prokaryotic cells, lacking an
enclosed nucleus, include bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotic cells are much
smaller than eukaryotic cells, making prokaryotic cells the smallest form of
life.[11] Cytologists typically focus on eukaryotic cells whereas prokaryotic cells are
the focus of microbiologists, but this is not always the case.

Internal cellular structures[edit]

The generalized structure and molecular components of a cell

Chemical and molecular environment[edit]
The study of the cell is done on a molecular level; however, most of the
processes within the cell are made up of a mixture of small organic molecules,
inorganic ions, hormones, and water. Approximately 75-85% of the cell’s volume
is due to water making it an indispensable solvent as a result of its polarity and
structure.[12] These molecules within the cell, which operate as substrates, provide
a suitable environment for the cell to carry out metabolic reactions and signalling.
The cell shape varies among the different types of organisms, and are thus then
classified into two categories: eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In the case of
eukaryotic cells - which are made up of animal, plant, fungi, and protozoa cells -
the shapes are generally round and spherical or oval[10] while for prokaryotic cells
– which are composed of bacteria and archaea - the shapes are: spherical
(cocci), rods (bacillus), curved (vibrio), and spirals (spirochetes).[13]
Cell biology focuses more on the study of eukaryotic cells, and their signalling
pathways, rather than on prokaryotes which is covered under microbiology. The
main constituents of the general molecular composition of the cell includes:
proteins and lipids which are either free flowing or membrane bound, along with
different internal compartments known as organelles. This environment of the cell
is made up of hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions which allows for the exchange
of the above-mentioned molecules and ions. The hydrophilic regions of the cell
are mainly on the inside and outside of the cell, while the hydrophobic regions
are within the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane. The cell membrane
consists of lipids and proteins which accounts for its hydrophobicity as a result of
being non-polar substances.[12] Therefore, in order for these molecules to
participate in reactions, within the cell, they need to be able to cross this
membrane layer to get into the cell. They accomplish this process of gaining
access to the cell via: osmotic pressure, diffusion, concentration gradients, and
membrane channels. Inside of the cell are extensive internal sub-cellular
membrane-bounded compartments called organelles.
Organelles[edit]
Cells contains specialized sub-cellular compartments including cell
membrane, cytoplasm and ribosomes. See organelle.

Processes[edit]
Growth and development[edit]
The growth process of the cell does not refer to the size of the cell, but instead
the density of the number of cells present in the organism at a given time. Cell
growth pertains to the increase in the number of cells present in an organism as
it grows and develops; as the organism gets larger so too does the number of
cells present. Cells are the foundation of all organisms, they are the fundamental
unit of life. The growth and development of the cell are essential for the
maintenance of the host, and survival of the organisms. For this process the cell
goes through the steps of the cell cycle and development which involves cell
growth, DNA replication, cell division, regeneration, specialization, and cell death.
The cell cycle is divided into four distinct phases, G1, S, G2, and M. The G
phases – which is the cell growth phase - makes up approximately 95% of the
cycle.[14] The proliferation of cells is instigated by progenitors, the cells then
differentiate to become specialized, where specialized cells of the same type
aggregate to form tissues, then organs and ultimately systems.[12] The G phases
along with the S phase – DNA replication, damage and repair - are considered to
be the interphase portion of the cycle. While the M phase
(mitosis and cytokinesis) is the cell division portion of the cycle.[14] The cell cycle
is regulated by a series of signalling factors and complexes such as cyclin-
dependent kinases and p53, to name a few. When the cell has completed its
growth process, and if it is found to be damaged or altered it undergoes cell
death, either by apoptosis or necrosis, to eliminate the threat it cause to the
organism’s survival.
Other cellular processes[edit]

 Active transport and Passive transport - Movement of molecules into and out
of cells.
 Autophagy - The process whereby cells "eat" their own internal components
or microbial invaders.
 Adhesion - Holding together cells and tissues.
 Cell movement - Chemotaxis, contraction, cilia and flagella.
 Cell signaling - Regulation of cell behavior by signals from outside.
 Division - By which cells reproduce either by mitosis (to produce clones of the
parent cell) or Meiosis (to produce haploid gametes)
 DNA repair - Cell death and cell senescence.
 Metabolism - Glycolysis, respiration, photosynthesis, and chemosynthesis.

 Signalling - The process by which the activities in the cell areregulated.

 Transcription and mRNA splicing - Gene expression.