Column and Strut (Class Notes)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM
Columns and Struts

Column or strut is defined as a member of a structure, which is subjected to axial
compressive load.
If the member of the structure is vertical and both of its ends are fixed rigidly while
subjected to axial compressive load, the member is known as column. Example of column:
vertical pillar between the roof and floor.
If the member of the structure is not vertical and one or both of its ends are hinged or pin
joined, the bar is known as strut. Examples of struts are: connecting rods, piston rods etc.
Failure of a Column:
The failure of a column takes place due to anyone of the following stresses set up in the
columns:
(i) Direct compressive stresses,
(ii) Buckling stresses, and
(iii) Combined direct compressive and buckling stresses.
Failure of a Short Column:
A short column of uniform cross-sectional area 𝐴, subjected to an axial

compressive load 𝑃, is shown in the figure.
If the compressive load on the short column is gradually increased, a

stage will reach when the column will be on the point of failure by
crushing. The stress induced in the column corresponding to this load is
known as crushing stress and the load is called crushing load.
Let, 𝑃𝑐 = Crushing load,

𝜎𝑐 = Crushing stress, and
𝐴 = Area of cross-section
Then,
𝑃𝑐
𝜎𝑐 =
𝐴
All short columns fail due to crushing.
Columns and Struts Page 1

Failure of a Long Column:
A long column of uniform cross-sectional area 𝐴 and of length 𝑙, subjected

to an axial compressive load 𝑃, is shown in the figure.
A column is known as long column if the length of the column in

comparison to its lateral dimensions, is very large. Such columns do not fail
by crushing alone, but also by bending (also known as buckling) as shown.
The load, at which the column just buckles, is known as buckling load or
critical load or crippling load. The buckling load is less than the crushing
load for a long column. Actually the value of buckling load for long
columns is low whereas for short columns the value of buckling load is
relatively high.
Let,
𝑙 = Length of a long column
𝑃 = Compressive load at which the column has just buckled
𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of the column
𝑒 = Maximum bending of the column at the centre

𝑃
𝜎𝑜 = Stress due to direct load = 𝐴
𝑃×𝑒
𝜎𝑏 = Stress due to bending at the centre of the column = 𝑍
Where, 𝑍 = Section modulus about the axis of loading.
The extreme stresses on the mid-section are given by
Maximum stress = 𝜎𝑜 + 𝜎𝑏 , and
Minimum stress = 𝜎𝑜 − 𝜎𝑏
The column will fail when maximum stress (i.e. 𝜎𝑜 + 𝜎𝑏 ) is more than the crushing stress, 𝜎𝑐 .
But in case of long columns, the direct compressive stresses are negligible as compared to
buckling stresses. Hence very long columns are subjected to buckling stresses only.

End Conditions for Long Columns:
In case of long columns, the stress due to direct load is very small in comparison with the
stress due to buckling. Hence the failures of long columns take place entirely due to
buckling.
The following four types of end conditions of the columns are important.
1. Both the ends of the column are hinged (or pinned)
2. One end is fixed and the other end is free.
3. Both the ends of the column are fixed.
4. One end is fixed and the other is pinned.
For a hinged end, the deflection is zero.
For a fixed end, both the deflection and slope are zero.
For a free end, the deflection is not zero.
Sign Conventions:
The following sign conventions for the bending of the

columns will be used:
1. A moment which will bend the column with its

convexity towards its initial central line as shown in the
figure (a) is taken as positive.
2. A moment which will tend to bend the column with its

concavity towards its initial centre line as shown in the
figure (b) is taken as negative.
Euler’s Column Theory:
Assumptions:
1. The column is initially perfectly straight and the load is applied axially.
2. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.

3. The column material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous and isotropic and obeys Hook’s
law.
4. The length of the column is very large as compared to its lateral dimensions.
5. The direct stress is very small as compared to the bending stress.
6. The column will fail by buckling alone.
7. The self-weight of column is negligible.
(A) Euler’s Crippling Load Expression for Both Ends Hinged Column:
The load at which the column just buckles (or bends) is called crippling load.
Let us consider a column 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙 and uniform cross-sectional

area, hinged at both of its ends 𝐴 and 𝐵.
Let 𝑃 be the crippling load at which the column has just buckled.
Due to the crippling load, the column will deflect into a curved form
𝐴𝐶𝐵 as shown in the figure.
Let us consider any section at a distance 𝑥 from the end 𝐴.
Let 𝑦 = Lateral deflection at the section
The moment due to the crippling load at the section, = −𝑃. 𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦
But, moment = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
Equating the two moments, we have
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = −𝑃. 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
⇒ 𝐸𝐼 + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃
⇒ 2 + .𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ 2 + 𝛼2. 𝑦 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = √
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

The solution of the above differential equation is
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos(𝛼. 𝑥) + 𝐶2 sin(𝛼. 𝑥)
𝑃 𝑃
𝑦 = 𝐶1 . cos (𝑥 √ ) + 𝐶2 . sin (𝑥 √ ) … … (𝑖)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
Where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are the constants of integration.
The values of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are found from the following boundary conditions:
(I) At 𝐴, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0
(II) At 𝐵, 𝑥 = 𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0
From the boundary condition (I)
0 = 𝐶1 . cos 0 + 𝐶2 . sin 0
⇒ 0 = 𝐶1 + 0
∴ 𝐶1 = 0 … … (𝑖𝑖)
From the boundary condition (II)
𝑃 𝑃
0 = 𝐶1 . cos (𝑙 × √ ) + 𝐶2 . sin (𝑙 × √ )
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ 0 = 0 + 𝐶2 . sin (𝑙 × √ ) [∵ 𝐶1 = 0]
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ 0 = 𝐶2 . sin (𝑙 √ ) … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
∴ 𝐸𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝐶2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 sin (𝑙 √ ) = 0
𝐸𝐼
As 𝐶1 = 0, then if 𝐶2 is also equal to zero, then from equation (𝑖), 𝑦 = 0
This means the bending of the column will be zero or the column will not bend at all, which
is not true.

𝑃
∴ sin (𝑙 √ )=0
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ sin (𝑙 √ ) = sin(𝑛𝜋) [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … … . ]
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ 𝑙√ = 𝑛𝜋 [𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … … . ]
𝐸𝐼
Taking the least practical value,
𝑃
𝑙√ = 𝜋
𝐸𝐼
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
∴𝑷= … … … (𝟏)
𝒍𝟐
(B) Euler’s Crippling Load Expression for One End Fixed and Other End Free Column:
Let us consider a column 𝐴𝐵, of length 𝑙 and uniform cross-

sectional area, fixed at the end 𝐴 and free at the end 𝐵.
Let 𝑃 be the crippling load at which the column has just buckled.
Let us consider any section at a distance 𝑥 from the fixed end 𝐴.
Let,
𝑦 = Lateral deflection at the section
𝑎 = Deflection at the free end 𝐵
Now, the moment at the section due to the crippling load = 𝑃(𝑎 − 𝑦)
𝑑2 𝑦
But, moment = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
Equating the two moments, we have
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 𝑃(𝑎 − 𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2𝑦
⇒ 𝐸𝐼 2 + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 𝑃. 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ 2 + .𝑦 = .𝑎
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ 2 + 𝛼2. 𝑦 = 𝛼2. 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝛼 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = √
The complete solution of the above differential equation is given by
𝛼2 × 𝑎
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos(𝛼. 𝑥) + 𝐶2 sin(𝛼. 𝑥) +
𝛼2
𝑃 𝑃
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (𝑥 √ ) + 𝐶2 sin (𝑥√ ) + 𝑎 … … (𝑖𝑣)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
(I) For a fixed end, the deflection as well as slope are zero.
𝑑𝑦
Hence, at 𝐴 (𝑥 = 0), 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝑑𝑥
(II) For a free end, the deflection is not zero.
Hence, at the free end 𝐵 (𝑥 = 𝑙), 𝑦 = 𝑎
Substituting, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0in the equation (𝑖𝑣) above
0 = 𝐶1 cos 0 + 𝐶2 sin 0 + 𝑎
⇒ 0 = 𝐶1 + 𝑎
⇒ 𝐶1 = −𝑎 … … (𝑣)
Differentiating equation (𝑖𝑣) w.r.t. 𝑥, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
= 𝐶1 . [− sin (𝑥 √ )] . √ + 𝐶2 [cos (𝑥√ )] . √ + 0
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

⇒ = −𝐶1 . √ . sin (𝑥√ ) + 𝐶2 . √ . cos (𝑥 √ )

𝑑𝑦
Substituting, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 in the above equation
𝑑𝑥
𝑃 𝑃
0 = −𝐶1 . √ . sin 0 + 𝐶2 . √ . cos 0
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ 0 = 𝐶2 . √
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
Since for the crippling load 𝑃, the value √𝐸𝐼 cannot be equal to zero.
∴ 𝐶2 = 0
Substituting 𝐶1 = −𝑎 and 𝐶2 = 0 in the equation (𝑖𝑣) above, we get
𝑃
𝑦 = −𝑎. cos (𝑥√ )+𝑎 … … (𝑣𝑖)
𝐸𝐼
Substituting 𝑥 = 𝑙 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 in equation (𝑣𝑖) above, we get
𝑃
𝑎 = −𝑎. cos (𝑙. √ )+𝑎
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ 0 = −𝑎. cos (𝑙. √ )
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ 𝑎. cos (𝑙. √ ) = 0
𝐸𝐼
Since ′𝑎′ cannot be equal to zero

𝑃
∴ cos (𝑙. √ ) = 0
𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
⇒ cos (𝑙. √ ) = cos 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝑜𝑟 cos 𝑜𝑟 … …
𝐸𝐼 2 2 2
𝑃 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
∴ 𝑙. √ = 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 … …
𝐸𝐼 2 2 2
𝑃 𝜋
𝑙. √ =
𝐸𝐼 2
𝑃 𝜋
⇒√ =
𝐸𝐼 2𝑙
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
⇒𝑷= … … … (𝟐)
𝟒𝒍𝟐
(C) Euler’s Crippling Load Expression for Both Ends Fixed Column:

area fixed at both of its ends 𝐴 and 𝐵 as shown in the figure. Let 𝑃
be the crippling load at which the column has buckled.
Due to the crippling load 𝑃, the column will deflect as shown in the
figure. Due to the fixed ends, there will be fixed end moments at the
ends 𝐴 and 𝐵.
The fixed end moments will be acting in such direction so that slope
at the fixed ends becomes zero.
Let us consider a section at a distance 𝑥 from the end 𝐴.
Let, 𝑦 = Lateral deflection at the section
𝑀𝑜 = Fixed end momenta at 𝐴 and 𝐵.
Then, moment at the section = 𝑀𝑜 − 𝑃. 𝑦

𝑑2 𝑦
Also, moment at the section = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
Equating the two moments, we get
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = 𝑀𝑜 − 𝑃. 𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
⇒ 𝐸𝐼 + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 𝑀𝑜
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑀𝑜
⇒ 2
+ .𝑦 =
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑀𝑜
⇒ 2 + .𝑦 = .
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
𝑑2𝑦 𝑀𝑜 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ 2 + 𝛼2. 𝑦 = 𝛼2. 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝛼 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = √
𝑑𝑥 𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The complete solution of this differential equation is
𝑀𝑜
𝛼2.
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos(𝛼. 𝑥) + 𝐶2 sin(𝛼. 𝑥) + 𝑃
𝛼2
𝑃 𝑃 𝑀𝑜
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (√ × 𝑥) + 𝐶2 sin (√ × 𝑥) +
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
𝑃 𝑃 𝑀𝑜
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (𝑥. √ ) + 𝐶2 sin (𝑥. √ ) + … … (𝑣𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑦
Hence, at 𝐴 (𝑥 = 0), 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
(II) Similarly, at 𝐵 (𝑥 = 𝑙), 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝑑𝑥
Substituting the value 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0 in equation (𝑣𝑖𝑖) above, we get

𝑀𝑜
0 = 𝐶1 cos 0 + 𝐶2 sin 0 +
𝑃
𝑀𝑜
⇒ 0 = 𝐶1 +
𝑃
𝑀𝑜
⇒ 𝐶1 = − … … (𝑣𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑃
Differentiating equation (𝑣𝑖𝑖) w.r.t. 𝑥, we get
= 𝐶1 . [− sin (𝑥. √ )] . √ + 𝐶2 . [cos (𝑥. √ )] . √ + 0
⇒ = −𝐶1 . √ . sin (𝑥. √ ) + 𝐶2 . √ . cos (𝑥. √ )

𝑑𝑦
Substituting the value 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑑𝑥 = 0 in the above equation, we get
𝑃 𝑃
0 = −𝐶1 × √ × 0 + 𝐶2 × √ × 1
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ 0 = 𝐶2 √
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
∴ 𝐶2 = 0
𝑀𝑜
Substituting 𝐶1 = − and 𝐶2 = 0 in the equation (𝑣𝑖𝑖) above, we get
𝑃
𝑀𝑜 𝑃 𝑀𝑜
𝑦=− cos (𝑥. √ ) + 0 +
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
⇒𝑦=− cos (𝑥. √ ) + … … (𝑖𝑥)
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃

Substituting the value 𝑥 = 𝑙 and 𝑦 = 0 in equation (𝑖𝑥) above, we get
0=− cos (𝑙. √ ) +
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
⇒ cos (𝑙. √ ) =
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
𝑃
⇒ cos (𝑙. √ )=1
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ cos (𝑙. √ ) = cos 0 𝑜𝑟 cos 2𝜋 𝑜𝑟 cos 4𝜋 𝑜𝑟 cos 6𝜋 … … … ..
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ 𝑙. √ = 0 𝑜𝑟 2𝜋 𝑜𝑟 4𝜋 𝑜𝑟 6𝜋 … … …
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
𝑙. √ = 2𝜋
𝐸𝐼
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
⇒𝑷= … … … (𝟑)
𝒍𝟐
(D) Euler’s Crippling Load Expression for One End Fixed and Other End Hinged Column:

area fixed at the end 𝐴 and hinged at the end 𝐵 as shown in the figure.
Let 𝑃 be the crippling load at which the column has buckled. Due to the
crippling load 𝑃, the column will deflect as shown in the figure.
There will be fixed end moment at the fixed end 𝐴. This will try to bring
back the slope of deflected column zero at 𝐴. Hence it will be acting
anticlockwise at 𝐴.
The fixed end moment at 𝐴 will be balanced by a horizontal reaction at

the top end 𝐵 as shown in the figure.
Let us consider a section at a distance 𝑥 from the end 𝐴.
Let, 𝑦 = Lateral deflection at the section
𝑀𝑜 = Fixed end moment at 𝐴, and
𝐻 = Horizontal reaction at 𝐵.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜

The moment at the section = ( )+( )
𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝐵 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝐵
= −𝑃. 𝑦 + 𝐻. (𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑑2 𝑦
Also, the moment at the section = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
Equating the two moments, we get
𝑑2𝑦
𝐸𝐼 2 = −𝑃. 𝑦 + 𝐻. (𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
⇒ 𝐸𝐼 + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 𝐻. (𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝐻
⇒ 2
+ . 𝑦 = . (𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝐻(𝑙 − 𝑥)
⇒ + . 𝑦 = .
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
𝑑2𝑦 2 2
𝐻(𝑙 − 𝑥) 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ + 𝛼 . 𝑦 = 𝛼 . 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝛼 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = √
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The complete solution of this differential equation is
𝐻(𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝛼2.
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos(𝛼. 𝑥) + 𝐶2 sin(𝛼. 𝑥) + 𝑃
𝛼2
𝑃 𝑃 𝐻(𝑙 − 𝑥)
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (√ × 𝑥) + 𝐶2 sin (√ × 𝑥) +
𝑃 𝑃 𝐻
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (𝑥. √ ) + 𝐶2 sin (𝑥. √ ) + (𝑙 − 𝑥) … … (𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
Hence, at 𝐴 (𝑥 = 0), 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝑑𝑥
(II) For a hinged end, the deflection is zero.
Hence, At 𝐵 (𝑥 = 𝑙), 𝑦 = 0
Substituting the value 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0 in equation (𝑥) above, we get
𝐻
0 = 𝐶1 cos 0 + 𝐶2 sin 0 + (𝑙 − 0)
𝑃
𝐻
⇒ 0 = 𝐶1 + .𝑙
𝑃
𝐻
∴ 𝐶1 = − .𝑙 … … (𝑥𝑖)
𝑃
Differentiating the equation (𝑥) w.r.t. 𝑥, we get
𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝐻
= 𝐶1 . [− sin (𝑥. √ )] . √ + 𝐶2 . [cos (𝑥. √ )] . √ −
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
𝑑𝑦 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 𝐻
⇒ = −𝐶1 . √ . sin (𝑥. √ ) + 𝐶2 . √ . cos (𝑥. √ ) . −
𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝑃

𝑑𝑦
Substituting the value 𝑥 = 0 and = 0 in the above equation, we get
𝑑𝑥
𝑃 𝑃 𝐻
0 = −𝐶1 . √ . sin 0 + 𝐶2 . √ . cos 0 −
𝑃 𝐻
⇒ 0 = 𝐶2 . √ −
𝐸𝐼 𝑃

𝐻 𝐸𝐼
⇒ 𝐶2 = √
𝑃 𝑃
𝐻 𝐻 𝐸𝐼
Substituting the values of 𝐶1 = − 𝑃 . 𝑙 and 𝐶2 = 𝑃 √ 𝑃 in the equation (𝑥), above
𝐻 𝑃 𝐻 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝐻
𝑦=− 𝑙. cos (𝑥. √ ) + √ . sin (𝑥. √ ) + (𝑙 − 𝑥)
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
Substituting the value 𝑥 = 𝑙 and 𝑦 = 0 in the above equation, we get
𝐻 𝑃 𝐻 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝐻
0=− 𝑙. cos (𝑙. √ ) + √ . sin (𝑙. √ ) + (𝑙 − 𝑙)
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
𝐻 𝑃 𝐻 𝐸𝐼 𝑃
⇒0=− 𝑙. cos (𝑙. √ ) + √ . sin (𝑙. √ )
𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝑃 𝐸𝐼
𝐻 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝐻 𝑃
⇒ √ . sin (𝑙. √ ) = 𝑙. cos (𝑙. √ )
𝑃 𝑃 𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝐻 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ sin (𝑙. √ ) = × 𝑙 × × √ . cos (𝑙. √ )
𝐸𝐼 𝑃 𝐻 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ sin (𝑙. √ ) = 𝑙. √ . cos (𝑙. √ )
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
𝑃 𝑃
⇒ tan (𝑙. √ ) = 𝑙. √
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The solution to the above equation is
𝑃
𝑙. √ = 4.5 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
𝐸𝐼
Squaring both sides, we get

𝑃
𝑙2. = 4.52 = 20.25
𝐸𝐼
𝐸𝐼
⇒ 𝑃 = 20.25
𝑙2
But, 20.25 = 2𝜋 2 (𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦)
𝟐𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
∴𝑷= … … … (𝟒)
𝒍𝟐
Effective Length (or Equivalent Length) of a Column:
The effective length of a given column with given end conditions is the length of an
equivalent column of the same material and cross-section with hinged ends, and having the
value of the crippling load equal to that of the given column. Effective length is also called
equivalent length.
Let, 𝐿𝑒 = Effective length of a column,
𝑙 = Actual length of the column, and
𝑃 = Crippling load for the column
Then the crippling load for any type of end condition is given by
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰
𝑷= … … … (𝟓)
𝑳𝒆 𝟐
The crippling load (𝑃) in terms of actual length and effective length and also the relation
between effective length and actual length are given in the following table.
Sl. End conditions Crippling load in terms of Relation between effective

No. Of column Actual length Effective length length and actual length
1. Both ends hinged 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐿𝑒 = 𝑙
𝑙2
2. One end fixed and 𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐿𝑒 = 2𝑙
other end free 4𝑙 2 2
𝜋 𝐸𝐼
3. Both ends fixed 4𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐿𝑒 2 𝑙
𝐿𝑒 =
𝑙2 2
4. One end fixed and 2𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝑙
𝐿𝑒 =
other end hinged 𝑙2 √2
There are two values of moment of inertia i.e. 𝐼𝑥𝑥 and 𝐼𝑦𝑦

The value of moment of inertia (𝐼) in the above expressions should be taken as the least
value of the two moments of inertia as the column will tend to bend in the direction of least
moment of inertia.
Crippling Stress in Terms of Effective Length and Radius of Gyration:
The moment of inertia (𝐼) can be expressed in terms of radius of gyration (𝑘) as
𝐼 = 𝐴𝑘 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴 =Area of cross-section
Let, 𝐼 = Least value of moment of inertia, and
𝑘 = Least radius of gyration of the column section
Now, crippling load 𝑃, in terms of effective length is given by
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋 2 𝐸 × 𝐴𝑘 2
𝑃= =
𝐿𝑒 2 𝐿𝑒 2
𝝅𝟐 𝑬 × 𝑨
⇒𝑷= … … … (𝟔)
𝑳𝒆 𝟐
( )
𝒌
And the stress corresponding to crippling load is given by
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
𝜋2𝐸 × 𝐴
=
𝐿 2
𝐴 ( 𝑒)
𝑘
𝝅𝟐 𝑬
𝑪𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = … … … (𝟕)
𝑳 𝟐
( 𝒆)
𝒌
Slenderness Ratio:
The ratio of the actual length of a column to the least radius of gyration of the column is
known as slenderness ratio.
Mathematically, slenderness ratio is given by
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛

𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐿𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛

𝒍
∴ 𝑺𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = … … … (𝟖)
𝒌
Limitation of Euler’s Formula:
From equation (6), we have
𝜋2𝐸
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐿 2
( 𝑒)
𝑘
For a column with both ends hinged, 𝐿𝑒 = 𝑙. Hence,
𝜋2𝐸 𝑙
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑙 2 𝑘
( )
𝑘
𝑙
If the slenderness ratio (𝑘) is small, the crippling stress will be high. But for the column
material, the crippling stress cannot be greater than the crushing stress. Hence, when the
slenderness ratio is less than a certain limit, Euler’s formula gives a value of crippling stress
𝑙
greater than the crushing stress. In the limiting case, we can find the value of for which
𝑘
crippling stress is equal to crushing stress.
For example, for a mild steel column with both ends hinged,
Crushing stress = 330 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Young’s modulus, 𝐸 = 2.1 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Equating the crippling stress to the crushing stress corresponding to the minimum value of
slenderness ratio, we get
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜋2𝐸 𝜋 2 × 2.1 × 105

= 330 𝑜𝑟 = 330
𝑙 2 𝑙 2
( ) ( )
𝑘 𝑘
𝑙 2 𝜋 2 × 2.1 × 105
∴( ) = = 6282
𝑘 3302
𝑙
∴ = √6282 = 79.27 = 80(𝑠𝑎𝑦)
𝑘
Hence, if the slenderness ratio is less than 80 for mild steel column, with both ends hinged,
the Euler’s formula will not be valid.

Euler’s Curve:
We know that,
𝜋2𝐸 𝑙
𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 2 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑙 𝑘
( )
𝑘
Above figure shows the graphical representation of the above equation, in which the curve
𝐴𝐵𝐶 is plotted for critical stress or crippling stress versus the slenderness ratio and is known
as Euler’s curve. The curve is entirely defined by the magnitude of modulus of elasticity 𝐸.
At higher values of slenderness ratio or for long columns, the value of critical stress falls
rapidly. The condition cannot be improved even by taking a steel of higher strength as
modulus of elasticity 𝐸 does not vary with alloy and heat treatment.
If 𝑂𝐷 represents the Yield stress of the material, obviously the Euler formula cannot be
𝑙
applied if slenderness ratio, (𝑘) is less than 𝑂𝐻 as below this value the material will become
plastic and will not follow the Hooke’s law.

Problem:
A simply supported beam of length 𝟒 metre is subjected to a uniformly distributed load of

𝟑𝟎 𝒌𝑵/𝒎 over the whole span and deflects 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝒎 at the centre. Determine the
crippling loads when this beam is used as a column with the following conditions:
(i) one end fixed and other end hinged
(ii) both the ends pin joined.
Solution:
Given data:
𝑙 =Length of the beam = Actual length of the column= 4 𝑚
𝑤 = Uniformly distributed load= 30 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
𝑦 = Deflection at the centre= 15 𝑚𝑚
We know that, for a simply supported beam with u.d.l. over the whole span, the central
deflection is given by
5 𝑤 × 𝑙4
𝑦= ×
384 𝐸𝐼
−3
5 30 × 103 × 44
⇒ 15 × 10 = ×
384 𝐸𝐼
5 30 × 103 × 44
⇒ 𝐸𝐼 = ×
384 15 × 10−3
⇒ 𝐸𝐼 = 6.67 × 106 𝑁/𝑚2
(i) Crippling load when the beam is used as a column with one end fixed and other end
hinged is given by
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿𝑒 2
Where, 𝐿𝑒 = Equivalent length of column with one end fixed and other end hinged
𝑙
=
√2
4
= 𝑚
√2

𝜋 2 × 6.67 × 106
∴𝑃=
4 2
( )
√2
⇒ 𝑷 = 𝟖𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵 = 𝟖𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝑵
(ii) Crippling load when the beam is used as a column with both ends are pin-jointed is given
by
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿𝑒 2
Where, 𝐿𝑒 = Equivalent length of column with both ends are pin-jointed
=𝑙
= 4𝑚
𝜋 2 × 6.67 × 106
∴𝑃=
42
⇒ 𝑷 = 𝟒𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟑𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑵 = 𝟒𝟏𝟏𝟒. 𝟑𝟗 𝒌𝑵
Problem:
Determine the crippling load for a 𝑻-section of

dimensions 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝒄𝒎 × 𝟐 𝒄𝒎 and of length 𝟓 𝒎
when it is used as a strut with both of its ends hinged.
Take Young’s modulus, 𝑬 = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 .
Solution:
Given data:
Dimensions of the 𝑇-section = 10 𝑐𝑚 × 10 𝑐𝑚 × 2 𝑐𝑚
𝑙 =actual length of the strut = 5 𝑚
𝐸 =Young's modulus of elasticity= 2.0 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 = 2.0 × 1011 𝑁/𝑚2
Let,
𝑦̅ = Distance of the centroid of the section from bottom

𝑎1 𝑦1 + 𝑎2 𝑦2
=
𝑎1 + 𝑎2
Where, 𝑎1 = 10 × 2 = 20 𝑐𝑚2
𝑎2 = 8 × 2 = 16 𝑐𝑚2
2
𝑦1 = 10 − = 9 𝑐𝑚
2
8
𝑦2 = = 4 𝑐𝑚
2
20 × 9 + 16 × 4
∴ 𝑦̅ = = 6.78 𝑐𝑚
20 + 16
Moment of inertia of the section about the horizontal axis 𝑋-𝑋, is given by
10 × (10 − 6.78)3 4 × (8 − 6.78)3 2 × (6.78)3

𝐼𝑋𝑋 = [ −2× ]+
3 3 3
= 314.2224 𝑐𝑚4
Moment of inertia of the section about the vertical axis 𝑌-𝑌, is given by
2 × 103 8 × 23
𝐼𝑌𝑌 = +
12 12
= 172 𝑐𝑚4
Since, 𝐼𝑌𝑌 < 𝐼𝑋𝑋 ,
∴ 𝐼𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 172 𝑐𝑚4 = 172 × 10−8 𝑚4
Now, Crippling load is given by
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿𝑒 2
Where, 𝐿𝑒 = Equivalent length of column with both ends hinged
=𝑙
= 5𝑚
𝜋 2 × 2.0 × 1011 × 172 × 10−8

∴𝑃=
52
⇒ 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓𝟖𝟎𝟓. 𝟕𝟔 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟑𝟓. 𝟖 𝒌𝑵

Rankine’s Formula:
We know that Euler’s formula gives correct results only for very long columns.
On the basis of results of experiments performed by Rankine, he established an empirical

formula which is applicable to all columns whether they are short or long. The empirical
formula given by Rankine is known as Rankine’s formula, which is given as
1 1 1
= + … … … (𝑥𝑖𝑖)
𝑃 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐸
Where,
𝑃 = Crippling load by Rankine formula
𝑃𝐶 = Crushing load = 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴
𝜎𝑐 = Ultimate crushing stress or Yield stress
𝐴 = Area of cross-section
𝑃𝐸 = Crippling load by Euler’s formula
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
=
𝐿𝑒 2
𝐿𝑒 = Effective length
For a given column material, the crushing stress or yield stress, 𝜎𝑐 is constant. Hence, the
crushing load 𝑃𝐶 (= 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴) will also be constant for a given cross-sectional area of the
column. In equation (𝑥𝑖𝑖) above, 𝑃𝐶 is constant and hence value of 𝑃 depends upon the
value of 𝑃𝐸 . But for a given column material and given cross-sectional area, the value of 𝑃𝐸
depends upon the effective length of the column.
(I) If the column is short

1
For short column, 𝐿𝑒 is small and therefore 𝑃𝐸 will be large. Hence 𝑃 will be small enough
𝐸
1
and negligible as compared to 𝑃 .
𝐶
1
So, for short column, neglecting 𝑃 in the equation (𝑥𝑖𝑖) above, we get
𝐸
1 1
≅ 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 ≅ 𝑃𝐶
𝑃 𝑃𝐶
Hence, the crippling load by Rankine’s formula for short column is approximately equal to
crushing load. Therefore, short columns fail due to crushing only.

(II) If the column is long

1
For long column, 𝐿𝑒 is large and therefore 𝑃𝐸 will be small. Hence will be large enough
𝑃𝐸
1 1
compared with 𝑃 . Hence 𝑃 may be neglected in the equation (𝑥𝑖𝑖) above.
𝐶 𝐶
1
So, for long column, neglecting 𝑃 in the equation (𝑥𝑖𝑖) above, we get
𝐶
1 1
≅ 𝑜𝑟 𝑃 ≅ 𝑃𝐸
𝑃 𝑃𝐸
Hence, the crippling load by Rankine’s formula for long column is approximately equal to
crippling load given by Euler’s formula.
1 1 1
Hence the Rankine’s formula 𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 gives satisfactory results for all lengths of columns,
𝐶 𝐸
ranging from short to long columns.
Now,
1 1 1
= +
𝑃 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐸
1 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐶
⇒ =
𝑃 𝑃𝐶 . 𝑃𝐸
𝑃𝐶 . 𝑃𝐸
⇒𝑃=
𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝐶
⇒𝑃=
𝑃
1 + 𝑃𝐶
𝐸
𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴
⇒𝑃=
𝜎 ×𝐴
1 + 𝑐2
𝜋 𝐸𝐼
( 2)
𝐿𝑒
𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴
⇒𝑃=
𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴 × 𝐿𝑒 2
1+ 2
𝜋 𝐸 × 𝐴𝑘 2
𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴
⇒𝑃=
𝜎𝑐 𝐿𝑒 2
1+ . ( )
𝜋2𝐸 𝑘

𝝈𝒄 × 𝑨
∴𝑷= … … … (𝟗)
𝑳 𝟐
𝟏 + 𝒂. ( 𝒆 )
𝒌
Where,
𝜎𝑐
𝑎= = 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒 ′ 𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝜋2𝐸
The values of 𝜎𝑐 and 𝑎 for some column materials are given below:
Sl. No. Material 𝜎𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝑎

1
1 Wrought Iron 250
9000
1
2 Cast Iron 550
1600
1
3 Mild Steel 320
7500
1
4 Timber 50
750
Problem:
A 𝟏. 𝟓 𝒎 long Cast Iron column has a circular cross-section of 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎 diameter. One of the
ends of the column is fixed in direction and position and other end is free. Taking factor of
safety as 𝟑, calculate the safe load using:
(a) Rankine’s formula
(b) Euler’s theory

𝟏
Take yield stress, 𝝈𝒄 = 𝟓𝟔𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 , Rankine’s constant, 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎 and Young’s modulus,
𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 for Cast Iron.
Solution:
Given:
𝑙 = Length of the C.I. column = 1.5 𝑚
𝑑 = Diameter of the column= 50 𝑚𝑚
End condition = One end is fixed and other end is free

𝑚 = Factor of safety= 3
𝜎𝑐 =Yield stress= 560 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2,

1
𝑎 =Rankine’s constant= 1600
𝐸 =Young’s modulus= 1.2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Now, Area
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= 𝑑 = (50)2 = 19.635 × 102 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Moment of inertia,
𝜋 4 𝜋
𝐼= 𝑑 = (50)4 = 30.7 × 104 𝑚𝑚4
64 64
Least radius of gyration,
𝐼 30.7 × 104
𝑘=√ =√ = 12.5 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 19.635 × 102
Effective length,
𝐿𝑒 = 2𝑙 for one end fixed and other end free
= 2 × 1.5 = 3 𝑚
(a) Crippling load by Rankine’s formula
𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴
𝑃=
𝐿 2
1 + 𝑎. ( 𝑒 )
𝑘
560 × 19.635 × 102
⇒𝑃= 2
1 3 × 103
1 + 1600 . ( )
12.5
⇒ 𝑃 = 29708.1 𝑁
Therefore,
𝑷 𝟐𝟗𝟕𝟎𝟖.𝟏
Safe load = 𝒎 = = 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟐. 𝟕 𝑵
𝟑
(b) Crippling load by Euler’s formula

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿𝑒 2
𝜋 2 × 1.2 × 105 × 30.7 × 104

⇒𝑃=
(3 × 103 )2
⇒ 𝑃 = 40200 𝑁
Therefore,
𝑷 𝟒𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟎
Safe load = 𝒎 = = 𝟏𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝑵
𝟑
Problem:
Find the Euler crushing load for a hollow cylindrical cast iron column 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 external
diameter and 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒎 thick, if it is 𝟔 𝒎 long and is hinged at both ends.
Take 𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 .
Compare the load with the crushing load as given by the Rankine’s formula, taking
𝟏
𝝈𝒄 = 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 and 𝒂 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎. For what length of the column would these two
formulae give the same crushing load?
Solution:
Given:
𝐷 = External diameter of the column = 200 𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = Thickness of the hollow cylindrical column
𝑙 = Length of the column = 6 𝑚
End condition = Both ends hinged
𝐸 =Young’s modulus= 1.2 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝜎𝑐 =Yield stress= 560 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2,

1
𝑎 =Rankine’s constant= 1600
Now,
Internal diameter of the column,

𝑑 = 𝐷 − 2𝑡 = 200 − 2 × 25 = 150 𝑚𝑚
Cross sectional area of the column,

𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= (𝐷 − 𝑑 2 ) = (2002 − 1502 ) = 13744 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Moment of inertia of the column cross section,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼= (𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 ) = (2004 − 1504 ) = 53689300 𝑚𝑚4
64 64
𝐼 53689300
𝑘=√ =√ = 62.5 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 13744
Effective length of the column, for both ends hinged
𝐿𝑒 = 𝑙 = 6 𝑚
Therefore, Euler’s crushing load is given by
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
𝑃=
𝐿𝑒 2
𝜋 2 × 1.2 × 105 × 53689300

⇒𝑃=
(6 × 103 )2
⇒ 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔𝟔𝟑𝟎𝟕 𝑵
Crushing load by Rankine’s formula is given by
𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴
𝑃=
𝐿 2
1 + 𝑎. ( 𝑒 )
𝑘
550 × 13744
⇒𝑃= 2
1 6 × 103
1 + 1600 . ( )
62.5
⇒ 𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟐𝟒. 𝟖 𝑵
Let,
𝐿 = Length of the column for which both Euler’s and Rankine formulae give the same
crushing load
Therefore,

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴
=
𝐿2 𝐿 2
1 + 𝑎. ( )
𝑘
𝜋 2 × 1.2 × 105 × 53689300 550 × 13744

⇒ =
𝐿2 1 𝐿 2
1 + 1600 . ( )
62.5
𝜋 2 × 1.2 × 105 × 53689300 𝐿2
⇒ =
550 × 13744 𝐿2
1+
6250000
𝐿2
⇒ 8411800 =
𝐿2
1+
6250000
𝐿2
⇒ 8411800 (1 + ) = 𝐿2
6250000
8411800 × 6250000 + 8411800 × 𝐿2

⇒ = 𝐿2
6250000
⇒ 8411800 × 6250000 + 8411800 × 𝐿2 = 6250000 × 𝐿2
⇒ (8411800 − 6250000) × 𝐿2 = −8411800 × 6250000
−8411800 × 6250000
⇒ 𝐿2 =
(8411800 − 6250000)
−8411800 × 6250000
⇒𝐿=√
2161800
⇒ 𝐿 = 4931.47𝑖
Since it is an imaginary quantity, therefore it is not possible to have the same length of the
column, which have the same crushing load for the two given formulae.

Formula by Indian standard Code (I. S. Code) for Mild Steel:
The direct stress in compression on the gross area of the section of an axially loaded
compression member shall not exceed the values of 𝜎𝑐 , calculated as follows:
𝜎𝑦
𝑚 𝐿𝑒
𝜎𝑐 = 𝜎𝑐 ′ = (𝑓𝑜𝑟 = 0 𝑡𝑜 160)
𝐿 𝑚𝜎 ′ 𝑘
1 + 0.20 sec [ 𝑒 √ 4𝐸𝑐 ]
𝑘
And
𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑒
𝜎𝑐 = 𝜎𝑐 ′ (1.2 − ) (𝑓𝑜𝑟 = 160 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒)
800𝑘 𝑘
Where,
𝜎𝑐 = Allowable axial compression stress obtained from following Table.
𝜎𝑐 ′ = A value obtained from the above secant formula
𝜎𝑦 = The guaranteed minimum yield stress taken as 260 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 for mild steel
𝑚 = Factor of safety taken as 1.68 for mild steel

𝐿𝑒
= Slenderness ratio
𝑘
𝐸 = Modulus of elasticity = 2.047 × 105 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Safe stresses (𝜎𝑐 ) in axial compression according to I.S. code for mild steel column is given
in the following Table for various values of slenderness ratio.
Slenderness Safe Stress Slenderness Safe Stress Slenderness Safe Stress

Ratio (𝜎𝑐 ) Ratio (𝜎𝑐 ) Ratio (𝜎𝑐 )
𝐿𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝐿𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
( ) ( ) ( )
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
0 1.25 100 84.0 200 27.0
10 124.6 110 75.3 210 24.3
20 123.9 120 67.1 220 21.9
30 122.4 130 59.7 230 19.9
40 120.3 140 53.1 240 18.1
50 117.2 150 47.4 250 16.6
60 113.0 160 42.3 300 9.9
70 107.5 170 37.3 350 7.6
80 100.7 180 33.6
90 92.8 190 30.0

Problem:
Determine the safe load by I.S. code for a hollow cylindrical mild steel tube of 𝟒𝟎 𝒎𝒎
external diameter and 𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒎 internal diameter when the tube is used as a column of
length 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎 long with both ends hinged.
Given that according to I.S. code, for slenderness ratios 𝟏𝟑𝟎, 𝟏𝟒𝟎, 𝟏𝟓𝟎, 𝟏𝟔𝟎 & 𝟏𝟕𝟎, the
safe stresses are 𝟓𝟗. 𝟕, 𝟓𝟑. 𝟏, 𝟒𝟕. 𝟒, 𝟒𝟐. 𝟑 & 𝟑𝟕. 𝟑 𝑵/𝒎𝒎𝟐 respectively for mild steel.
Solution:
Given:
𝐷 = External diameter of the column = 40 𝑚𝑚
𝑑 = Internal diameter of the column = 30 𝑚𝑚
𝑙 = Length of the column = 2.5 𝑚
End Conditions = Both ends hinged
According to I.S. code, slenderness ratios and safe stresses for mild steel are as follows:
𝐿
Slenderness Ratio ( 𝑘𝑒 ) Safe Stress (𝜎𝑐 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
130 59.7
140 53.1
150 47.4
160 42.3
170 37.3
Now, Area
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= (𝐷 − 𝑑 2 ) = (402 − 302 ) = 175𝜋 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Moment of inertia,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼= (𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 ) = (404 − 304 ) = 27343𝜋 𝑚𝑚4
64 64
𝐼 27343𝜋
𝑘=√ =√ = 15.62 𝑚𝑚
𝐴 175𝜋
Effective length for both ends hinged column,
𝐿𝑒 = 𝑙 = 2.5 𝑚

Therefore, slenderness ratio
𝐿𝑒 2.5 × 103
= = 160
𝑘 15.62
The safe load for the column = 𝜎𝑐 × 𝐴
= 42.3 × 175𝜋 𝑁
= 𝟐𝟑𝟐𝟓𝟓. 𝟔 𝑵
Columns with Eccentric Load:
Figure shows a column 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙, fixed at end

𝐴 and free at the end 𝐵. The column is subjected to
a load 𝑃 which is eccentric by an amount 𝑒. The free
end will sway sideways by an amount ‘𝑎’ and the
column will deflect as shown.
Let, 𝑎 = Deflection at free end 𝐵
𝑒 = Eccentricity
𝐴 = Area of cross-section of column
Let us consider a section at a distance 𝑥 from the

fixed end 𝐴. Let 𝑦 be the deflection at the section.
The bending moment at the section = 𝑃(𝑎 + 𝑒 − 𝑦)
𝑑2 𝑦
Also, bending moment = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2 𝑦
∴ 𝐸𝐼 2 = 𝑃(𝑎 + 𝑒 − 𝑦) = 𝑃(𝑎 + 𝑒) − 𝑃. 𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦
⇒ 𝐸𝐼 2 + 𝑃. 𝑦 = 𝑃(𝑎 + 𝑒)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ 2
+ 𝑦 = (𝑎 + 𝑒)
𝑑2𝑦 𝑃 𝑃
⇒ + 𝛼 2 𝑦 = 𝛼 2 (𝑎 + 𝑒) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝛼 2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛼 = √
𝑑𝑥 2 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
The complete solution of the above equation is,

𝛼 2 (𝑎 + 𝑒)
𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos(𝛼. 𝑥) + 𝐶2 sin(𝛼. 𝑥) +
𝛼2
𝑃 𝑃
⇒ 𝑦 = 𝐶1 cos (𝑥. √ ) + 𝐶2 sin (𝑥. √ ) + (𝑎 + 𝑒) … … (𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
Differentiating the above equation (𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖) w.r.t. 𝑥, we get
= 𝐶1 . [− sin (𝑥. √ )] . √ + 𝐶2 . [cos (𝑥. √ )] . √ + 0
⇒ = −𝐶1 . √ . sin (𝑥. √ ) + 𝐶2 . √ . cos (𝑥. √ ) … … (𝑥𝑖𝑣)
𝑑𝑦
Hence, at 𝐴 (𝑥 = 0), 𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =0
𝑑𝑥
(II) For a free end, the deflection is not zero.
Hence, at the free end 𝐵 (𝑥 = 𝑙), 𝑦 = 𝑎
Substituting, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0in the equation (𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖) above
0 = 𝐶1 cos 0 + 𝐶2 sin 0 + (𝑎 + 𝑒)
⇒ 0 = 𝐶1 + (𝑎 + 𝑒)
⇒ 𝐶1 = −(𝑎 + 𝑒) … … (𝑥𝑣)

𝑑𝑦
Substituting, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 in the equation (𝑥𝑖𝑣) above
𝑑𝑥
𝑃 𝑃
0 = −𝐶1 . √ . sin 0 + 𝐶2 . √ . cos 0
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

𝑃
⇒ 0 = 𝐶2 . √
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
∴ 𝐶2 = 0
Substituting 𝐶1 = −(𝑎 + 𝑒) and 𝐶2 = 0 in the equation (𝑥𝑖𝑖𝑖) above, we get
𝑃
𝑦 = −(𝑎 + 𝑒). cos (𝑥 √ ) + (𝑎 + 𝑒) … … (𝑥𝑣𝑖)
𝐸𝐼
Substituting 𝑥 = 𝑙 and 𝑦 = 𝑎 in equation (𝑥𝑖𝑣) above, we get
𝑃
𝑎 = −(𝑎 + 𝑒). cos (𝑙. √ ) + (𝑎 + 𝑒)
𝐸𝐼
𝑃
⇒ (𝑎 + 𝑒). cos (𝑙. √ ) = (𝑎 + 𝑒) − 𝑎 = 𝑒
𝐸𝐼
𝑒
⇒ (𝑎 + 𝑒) =
𝑃
cos (𝑙. √𝐸𝐼 )
𝑃
⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑒 = 𝑒. sec (𝑙. √ ) … … (𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖)
𝐸𝐼
Maximum Stress:
Direct compressive stress,
𝑃
𝜎𝑜 =
𝐴
Therefore, maximum stress
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑜 + 𝜎𝑏
Where, 𝜎𝑏 = Maximum banding stress

Banding stress will be maximum at the fixed end 𝐴, as at this point banding moment is
maximum.
Maximum bending moment at 𝐴,
𝑀 = 𝑃 × (𝑎 + 𝑒)
𝑃
⇒ 𝑀 = 𝑃 × 𝑒. sec (𝑙. √ ) [𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑒)𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑥𝑣𝑖𝑖)]
𝐸𝐼
Now,
𝑀 𝜎𝑏
=
𝐼 𝑦
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
⇒ 𝜎𝑏 = ×𝑦 = =
𝐼 𝐼
(𝑦) 𝑍
𝐼
Where, 𝑍 = 𝑦 = Section modulus
𝑃
𝑃 × 𝑒. sec (𝑙. √𝐸𝐼 )
∴ 𝜎𝑏 =
𝑍
Hence maximum compressive stress
𝑷
𝑷 × 𝒆. 𝐬𝐞𝐜 (𝒍. √𝑬𝑰)
𝑷
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 = + … … … (𝟏𝟎)
𝑨 𝒁
Equation (10) is used for a column whose one end is fixed, other end is free and load is
eccentric to the column. In this equation, 𝑙 is the actual length of the column. The relation
between actual length and the effective length for a column whose one end is fixed and
other end is free is given by
𝐿𝑒 = 2𝑙
𝐿𝑒
∴𝑙=
2
Substituting the value of 𝑙 in equation (10) above, we get the general formula which can be
used for any end condition.
Hence general formula for maximum stress is

𝐿 𝑷
𝑷 × 𝒆. 𝐬𝐞𝐜 ( 2𝑒 . √𝑬𝑰)
𝑷
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 = + … … … (𝟏𝟏)
𝑨 𝒁
Problem:
A column of circular section is subjected to a load of 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒌𝑵. The load is parallel to the
axis but eccentric by an amount of 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎. the external and internal diameters of
columns are 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒎 and 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒎 respectively. If both the ends of the column are hinged
and column is 𝟐. 𝟏 𝒎 long, determine the maximum stress in the column.
Take, 𝑬 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑮𝑵/𝒎𝟐 .
Solution:
Given:
𝑃 =Load = 120 𝑘𝑁
𝑒 =Eccentricity = 2.5 𝑚𝑚
𝐷 = Outside diameter of the column section = 60 𝑚𝑚
𝑑 = Inside diameter of the column section = 50 𝑚𝑚
𝑙 = Length of the column = 2.1 𝑚
End condition = Both ends hinged
𝐸 =Young's smodulus of elasticity= 200 𝐺𝑁/𝑚2
Now, Area
𝜋 2 𝜋
𝐴= (𝐷 − 𝑑 2 ) = (602 − 502 ) = 863.94 𝑚𝑚2
4 4
Moment of inertia,
𝜋 𝜋
𝐼= (𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 ) = (604 − 504 ) = 329376.35 𝑚𝑚4
64 64
Equivalent length,
𝐿𝑒 = 𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑
= 2.1 𝑚

Section modulus,
𝐼
𝑍=
𝑦
𝜋
(𝐷4 − 𝑑4 )
⇒𝑍= 64
𝐷
(2)
329376.35 𝑚𝑚4
⇒𝑍=
60
( ) 𝑚𝑚
2
⇒ 𝑍 = 10979.21 𝑚𝑚3
The maximum stress is given by
𝐿 𝑃
𝑃 × 𝑒. sec ( 2𝑒 . √𝐸𝐼 )
𝑃
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = +
𝐴 𝑍
2.1 120 × 103

120 × 103 × 2.5 × 10−3 . sec ( 2 . √ )
120 × 10 3 200 × 10 × 329376.35 × 10−12
9
= +
863.94 × 10−6 10979.21 × 10−9
300. sec(1.41716 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠)

= 138.898 × 106 +
10979.21 × 10−9
180
= 138.898 × 106 + 27.324 × 106 × sec (1.41716 × )
𝜋
27.324 × 106
6
= 138.898 × 10 +
cos(81.197)
= 𝟑𝟏𝟕. 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑵/𝒎𝟐

Column and Strut (Class Notes)

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DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

JORHAT ENGINEERING COLLEGE, JORHAT-785 007, ASSAM

Columns and Struts

(i) Direct compressive stresses,

(ii) Buckling stresses, and

(iii) Combined direct compressive and buckling stresses.

Failure of a Short Column:

A short column of uniform cross-sectional area 𝐴, subjected to an axial

If the compressive load on the short column is gradually increased, a

Let, 𝑃𝑐 = Crushing load,

Columns and Struts Page 1

Failure of a Long Column:

A long column of uniform cross-sectional area 𝐴 and of length 𝑙, subjected

A column is known as long column if the length of the column in

𝑙 = Length of a long column

𝑃 = Compressive load at which the column has just buckled

𝐴 = Cross-sectional area of the column

𝑒 = Maximum bending of the column at the centre

Where, 𝑍 = Section modulus about the axis of loading.

The extreme stresses on the mid-section are given by

Maximum stress = 𝜎𝑜 + 𝜎𝑏 , and

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End Conditions for Long Columns:

1. Both the ends of the column are hinged (or pinned)

2. One end is fixed and the other end is free.

3. Both the ends of the column are fixed.

4. One end is fixed and the other is pinned.

For a hinged end, the deflection is zero.

For a free end, the deflection is not zero.

The following sign conventions for the bending of the

1. A moment which will bend the column with its

2. A moment which will tend to bend the column with its

Euler’s Column Theory:

2. The cross-section of the column is uniform throughout its length.

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5. The direct stress is very small as compared to the bending stress.

6. The column will fail by buckling alone.

7. The self-weight of column is negligible.

Let us consider a column 𝐴𝐵 of length 𝑙 and uniform cross-sectional

Let us consider any section at a distance 𝑥 from the end 𝐴.

Let 𝑦 = Lateral deflection at the section

The moment due to the crippling load at the section, = −𝑃. 𝑦

Equating the two moments, we have

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The solution of the above differential equation is

Where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are the constants of integration.

From the boundary condition (I)

From the boundary condition (II)

As 𝐶1 = 0, then if 𝐶2 is also equal to zero, then from equation (𝑖), 𝑦 = 0

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Taking the least practical value,

Let us consider a column 𝐴𝐵, of length 𝑙 and uniform cross-

Let us consider any section at a distance 𝑥 from the fixed end 𝐴.

𝑦 = Lateral deflection at the section

𝑎 = Deflection at the free end 𝐵

Equating the two moments, we have

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The complete solution of the above differential equation is given by

Where 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 are the constants of integration.

(II) For a free end, the deflection is not zero.

Hence, at the free end 𝐵 (𝑥 = 𝑙), 𝑦 = 𝑎

From the boundary condition (I)

Substituting, 𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 0in the equation (𝑖𝑣) above