DEVELOPMENT O F ROLL WAVES

IN OPEN CHANNELS

by

Richard R . Brock

Project Supervisor:
Vito A. Vanoni
P r o f e s s o r of Hydraulics

Supported by the
Los Angeles County Flood Control D i s t r i c t
and the
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation

W. M. Keck L a b o r a t o r y of Hydraulics and Water R e s o u r c e s

Division of Engineering and Applied Science
California Institute of Technology
P a s a d e n a , California

R e p o r t No. KH-R-16 July 1967

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To D r . Vito A. Vanoni, the w r i t e r e x p r e s s e s his deepest appreciation

for the advice and encouragement offered throughout the investigation.

F o r t h e i r advice on v a r i o u s p h a s e s of the investigation the w r i t e r

w i s h e s to thank Dr. Norman H. B r o o k s and D r . F r e d r i c Raichlen.

The w r i t e r i s indebted to Mr. Elton Daly f o r the construction of the

channel used in t h i s study. The w r i t e r a l s o w i s h e s t o extend h i s

gratitude t o the following p e r s o n s for t h e i r contributions t o t h e p r o j e c t :

M r . Robert L. Greenway f o r a s s i s t i n g with the construction of the

channel; Mr. Robert Dickenson and M r . Edward Thompson for analyzing

data and p r e p a r i n g drawings; M r . J i i n - j e n Lee for analyzing d a t a ;

Mr. Leonard F i s h e r for a s s i s t i n g with the p r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i m e n t s ;

M r . C a r l G r e e n f o r p r e p a r i n g d r a w i n g s ; M r . C a r l Eastvedt f o r a l l the

photographic work; M r s . P a t r i c i a A . Rankin f o r typing the m a n u s c r i p t ;

M i s s Sophia Yen f o r p r e p a r i n g t a b l e s ; and M r s . P a t r i c i a A. B r o c k f o r

typing much of the f i r s t draft.

F i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e w a s r e c e i v e d by the w r i t e r in the f o r m of a

United S t a t e s Public Health S e r v i c e T r a i n i n g G r a n t (1963-64), Graduate

R e s e a r c h A s s i s t a n t s h i p (1964-65) f r o m the California Institute of

Technology, fellowship provided by the George H. Mayr Educational

Foundation (1964-65), and National Science Foundation Graduate

T r a i n e e s h i p (1965-66 and 1966-67). T h i s a s s i s t a n c e i s gratefully

acknowledged.
 iii

The investigation w a s supported by t h e L o s Angeles County Flood

Control D i s t r i c t f r o m August 1964 t o September 1966. Support f o r the

l a s t y e a r w a s f r o m t h e A l f r e d P. Sloan Foundation. The r e s e a r c h was

p e r f o r m e d i n t h e W. M. Keck L a b o r a t o r y of Hydraulics and W a t e r

R e s o u r c e s a t t h e California I n s t i t u t e of Technology.

T h i s r e p o r t w a s submitted by t h e w r i t e r , i n J u n e 1967, a s a t h e s i s

with the s a m e t i t l e t o t h e California Institute of Technology i n p a r t i a l

fulfillment of the r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r the d e g r e e of Doctor of Philosophy

i n Civil E n g i n e e r i n g .
 ABSTRACT

T h i s study is concerned with some of the p r o p e r t i e s of r o l l waves

t h a t develop n a t u r a l l y f r o m a turbulent uniform flow in a wide r e c t a n g u -

l a r channel on a constant s t e e p slope. The wave p r o p e r t i e s considered

w e r e depth a t t h e wave c r e s t , depth a t the wave trough, wave period,

and wave velocity. The p r i m a r y focus was on the m e a n values and

s t a n d a r d deviations of the c r e s t depths and wave p e r i o d s a t a given

station and how t h e s e quantities v a r i e d with distance along the channel.

The wave p r o p e r t i e s w e r e m e a s u r e d in a l a b o r a t o r y channel in

which r o l l waves developed naturally f r o m a uniform flow. The F r o u d e

number F (F = u /&
n n
, un = n o r m a l velocity, h
n
= n o r m a l depth,

g = a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y ) ranged f r o m 3 . 4 to 6 . 0 f o r channel slopes

S of . 0 5 and
0
. 12 r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n the initial p h a s e of their development

the r o l l waves a p p e a r e d a s s m a l l amplitude waves with a continuous

w a t e r s u r f a c e profile. T h e s e s m a l l amplitude waves subsequently

developed into l a r g e amplitude shock waves. Shock waves w e r e found

to o v e r t a k e and combine with other shock waves with the r e s u l t that the

c r e s t depth of the combined wave was l a r g e r than the c r e s t depths before

the overtake. Once r o l l waves began to develop, the m e a n value of the

c r e s t depths h i n c r e a s e d with distance. Once the shock waves

max
began t o o v e r t a k e , the m e a n wave period T i n c r e a s e d approximately
av
l i n e a r l y with distance.

F o r a given F r o u d e number and channel slope the observed quan-

tities I;m a x /hn, T ' (TI = So T a v fin

), and the s t a n d a r d deviations of
-
h / h and TI, could b e e x p r e s s e d a s unique functions of & / h
max n n
(4, = distance f r o m beginning of channel) for the two-fold change in hn
o c c u r r i n g in the observed flows. A given value of hrnax / h n occurred

a t s m a l l e r v a l u e s of & / h as the F r o u d e number w a s i n c r e a s e d . For

n
a given value of I;rnax /hn the growth r a t e aEmax/a&of the shock waves
i n c r e a s e d as the F r o u d e number w a s i n c r e a s e d .

A l a b o r a t o r y channel w a s a l s o used to m e a s u r e the wave p r o p e r t i e s

of periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves. F o r a given F r o u d e number and

channel slope the h /h v s . T ' r e l a t i o n did not a g r e e with a theory

rnax n
i n which the weight of the shock f r o n t was neglected. After the theory

w a s modified to include t h i s weight, the o b s e r v e d values of h

rnax / h n
w e r e within a n a v e r a g e of 6 . 5 p e r c e n t of the p r e d i c t e d v a l u e s , and the

m a x i m u m d i s c r e p a n c y was 13.5 p e r c e n t .

For
max
/h
n
sufficiently l a r g e (Em a x / h n > approximately 1.5)
it was found that the /h v s . T ' r e l a t i o n f o r n a t u r a l r o l l waves
rnax n
w a s p r a c t i c a l l y identical to the h /h vs. T ' r e l a t i o n for periodic
rnax n
permanent r o l l waves a t the s a m e F r o u d e n u m b e r and slope. As a

r e s u l t of t h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between p e r i o d i c and n a t u r a l r 011 waves,

the growth r a t e aErnax /as of shock waves was p r e d i c t e d t o depend on

the channel s l o p e , and this slope dependence w a s observed i n the

experiments.
 vi

TABLE O F CONTENTS

Chapter Page

INTRODUCTION 2

11. PREVIOUS STUDIES

A. B a s i c Equations

B. C r i t e r i a for Unstable Flow

C. L a r g e Amplitude Wave Studies

D. F r i c t i o n F a c t o r s i n Unstable F l o w s

E. Summary

ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION

A. S m a l l Amplitude T h e o r y

1. S t a t e m e n t and Solution of P r o b l e m

2. D i s c u s s i o n of Solution

B. L a r g e Amplitude P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t
R o l l Wave T h e o r y

1. S t a t e m e n t a n d Solution of P r o b l e m

2. D i s c u s s i o n of Solution

IV. LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS - APPARATUS AND

PROCEDURE

A. Introduction and Objective

B. Preliminary Experiments

C. Apparatus

1. Steep Channel

2. M e a s u r i n g and Recording Equipment

 T A B L E O F CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Chapter Page

D. Experimental Procedure 56

1. D e s i g n of E x p e r i m e n t s

2. N o r m a l Depth

3. Wave P r o p e r t i e s M e a s u r e d

4. G e n e r a l P r o c e d u r e f o r N a t u r a l and P e r i o d i c
R o l l Wave R u n s

V. PRESENTATION O F EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

A. I n l e t Condition

1. S m o o t h and Rough I n l e t

2. Drawdown C u r v e s N e a r Inlet

B. H y d r a u l i c C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of L a b o r a t o r y Channel

C. N a t u r a l R o l l Waves

1. G e n e r a l D e s c r i p t i o n

2. Tabulated Basic Data

3. D i m e n s i o n l e s s Development R e l a t i o n s

4. F r e q u e n c y D i s t r i b u t i o n s and Wave Shape

D. P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t R o l l Waves

1. 130-ft C h a n n e l

2. S t e e p Channel

E. O b s e r v a t i o n s on Individual Waves

F. Additional D a t a - L a b o r a t o r y and F i e l d

1. G h a m b a r i a n L a b o r a t o r y Data

2. F i e l d Data
 viii

T A B L E O F CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Chapter Page

VI. DISCUSSION O F RESULTS 130

A. Development of Natural Roll Waves i n T e r m s

of Distance Along Channel

1. A v e r a g e Maximum Depth and A v e r a g e

Period

2. S m a l l Amplitude Roll Waves and the

L i n e a r Theory

3. Effect of Channel Slope on S m a l l

Amplitude N a t u r a l Roll Waves

4. F r e q u e n c y Distributions

B. Development of N a t u r a l Roll Waves i n T e r m s

of Wave P e r i o d

C. Effect of Inlet on Development of X a t u r a l

Roll Waves

D. Motion of Individual N a t u r a l Roll Waves

E. Ghambarian and LACFCD Data

1. Ghambarian L a b o r a t o r y Data

2. LACFCD F i e l d Data

VII- MODIFIED PERIODIC PERMANENT ROLL WAVE

THEORY

A. Assumptions in P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t
Roll Wave T h e o r y

B. Effect of Side-Walls and Variable

Friction Factor

1. P r o b l e m and Method of Solution

2. Discussion of R e s u l t s
 TABLE O F CONTENTS (Cont'd)

Chapter Page

C. Modified Shock Condition 170

1. G e n e r a l Shock Condition 170

2. T h e o r y B a s e d on Modified Shock
Condition

3. D i s c u s s i o n of Modified T h e o r y

D. R e-Evaluation of L a b o r a t o r y R e s u l t s with
Consideration t o Effect of Channel Slope

1. P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t Waves

2. N a t u r a l Roll Waves

VIII. PREDICTION O F MAXIMUM DEPTHS IN LARGE

CHANNELS

A. Channel Slope Effect

B. P r e d i c t i o n of M a x i m u m Depths i n Wide
R e c t a n g u l a r Channels with a Constant Slope

C. P r e d i c t i o n of M a x i m u m Depths in Wide
R e c t a n g u l a r Channels with a Changing Slope

D. Influence of Side-Walls

IX. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

LIST O F SYMBOLS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDIX I
 LIST O F FIGURES

Figure Page
No. Title No.

1 View of r o l l w a v e s in Santa Anita W a s h , A r c a d i a ,

C a l i f o r n i a , about one m i l e d o w n s t r e a m of i n l e t ,
d i s c h a r g e about 195 c f s

2 G r a p h of d i m e n s i o n l e s s a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r
~ T ~ C ~ / C ,aYg a, i n s t S O l / F 2 h n f r o m s m a l l
amplitude theory

3 G r a p h of d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave v e l o c i t y , C r y a g a i n s t
S 'n/F2h f r o m s m a l l amplitude theory 20
o n

4 Definition s k e t c h f o r p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l w a v e s 25

5 P e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave w a t e r - s u r f a c e p r o f i l e
w i t h point of inflection 25

6 G r a p h s of s o l u t i o n s f o r hh
max' min'
and c a s
functions of F r o u d e n u m b e r , F , a n d S o J h n f r o m
p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave t h e o r y

7 G e n e r a l view of c h a n n e l , S = .08429,
0
4, = 128 f t , no flow

8 View of t y p i c a l joint f o r c h a n n e l

9 View of c h a n n e l showing s u p p o r t b r a c k e t and

p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g station

10 Drawing of c r o s s s e c t i o n of c h a n n e l at a s t a t i o n
with a s u p p o r t i n g b r a c k e t

11 Drawing of i n l e t box f o r c h a n n e l
 xi

LIST CF F I G U R E S (Cont'd)

Figure Page
No. Title No.

12 View of inlet box a n d c h a n n e l n e a r i n l e t with flow

13 Closeupviewofroughchannel

14 T y p i c a l p r e s s u r e and w i r e gage r e c o r d f o r s h o c k -
.
type r o l l w a v e s , S = 1192, h = .210 in. ,
n
s t a t i o n 36, srnoothOinlet 49

15 View of w i r e gage and p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r with

waves approaching 50

16 View of 4 - c h a n n e l o s c i l l o g r a p h r e c o r d e r with
w i r e gage a n d p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r

17 T y p i c a l c a l i b r a t i o n of the p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g s y s t e m 55

18 T y p i c a l w i r e gage r e c o r d u s e d to m e a s u r e n o r m a l
depths

19 G r a p h of t y p i c a l w a t e r - s u r f a c e p r o f i l e s n e a r
a s m o o t h i n l e t f o r a n o r m a l depth of . 2 in.

20 T y p i c a l s m o o t h - i n l e t and r o u g h - i n l e t -
development
curves for average maximum depth, h a t
maxa
n o r m a l depth of . 2 in. 72

21 G r a p h s of w a t e r - s u r f a c e p r o f i l e s n e a r inlet of c h a n n e l 74

22 G r a p h of the r o u g h c h a n n e l r e l a t i o n m - 2.03 l o g l O ( r / k )
a s a function of k / 6 , u s i n g m e a s u r e d f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s ,
f, in rough channel 77

23 G r a p h of f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s , f , m e a s u r e d i n s m o o t h
c h a n n e l a s a function of Reynolds n u m b e r , R
 xii

LIST O F FIGURES (Cont'd)

Figure Page
No. Title No.

24 G e n e r a l view of channel with n a t u r a l r o l l waves,

S = .1192, h = .2lO in.
o n

25 Side view of r o l l wave, S = .08429, h = .208 i n . ,

o n
s t a t i o n 94-98

26 -
Development c u r v e f o r a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth,
h in channel with slope of .050 11
max'

27 -
Development c u r v e f o r a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth,
h in channel with slope of . 0 8429
max'

28 -
Development c u r v e f o r a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth,
h
max
, i n channel with slope of . 1192

29 _Development c u r v e for a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth,

h
max
, in rough channel with slope of 1 1 9 2 .
30 Development c u r v e f o r a v e r a g e wave p e r i o d , T
in channel with slope of .05011 av'

31 Development c u r v e for a v e r a g e p e r i o d , Tav,

in channel with slope of .08429

32 Development c u r v e for a v e r a g e p e r i o d , T
i n channel with slope of 1192 . av'

33 -
Development c u r v e s for a v e r a g e m i n i m u m depth,
h
m in
, f o r c h a n n e l s l o p e s o f . 0 5 0 1 1 , -08429, . I 1 9 2

34 Development c u r v e s f o r a v e r a g e wave velocity, c

f o r channel s l o p e s of .O5Oll, .08429, 1192 . av'
 xiii

LIST O F FIGURES (Cont'd)

Figure Page
No* Title No.

35 Development c u r v e s f o r t h e s t a n d a r d deviation of
t h e m a x i m u m depth a
h
, f o r channel s l o p e s of
.05011, . 0 8 4 2 9 , . 1192 m a x 100

36 Development c u r v e s f o r t h e s t a n d a r d deviation of
t h e wave p e r i o d , f o r channel s l o p e s of .O5O 11,
.08429, 1192 . OT'
101

37 T y p i c a l cumulative f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s of
m a x i m u m depth, h 102
max

38 T y p i c a l cumulative f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s of
wave p e r i o d , T

39 T y p i c a l cumulative f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o r , ~of
minimum depth, h
min

40 T y p i c a l cumulative f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s of
wave velocity, c

41 T y p i c a l p r e s s u r e a n d w i r e gage r e c o r d for
s m a l l a m p l i t u d e r o l l w a v e s , S = .05011,
h = . 3 1 4 i n . , s t a t i o n 36, srno%th i n l e t
n

42 Definition s k e t c h f o r c o o r d i n a t e s of water- s u r f a c e
profiles f o r periodic permanent r o l l waves

43 G r a p h of m e a s u r e d and t h e o r e t i c a l w a t e r - s u r f a c e
p r o f i l e f o r p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves i n 130 ft
channel, F = 2.65, TI = 1.30, S = .0194 108
0

44 G r a p h of e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l solutions
f o r hmaxs fiminy a n d c a s functions of d i m e n s i o n l e s s
wave p e r i o d T f a n d F r o u d e n u m b e r F , f o r p e r i o d i c
permanent r o l l waves
 xiv

LIST O F FIGURES ( C o n t ' d )

Figure Page
No. Title No.

45 G r a p h s of m e a s u r e d w a t e r - s u r f a c e p r o f i l e s f o r
periodic permanent roll waves

46 P r e s s u r e r e c o r d s f o r a t r a i n o f 12shock-type
r o l l w a v e s a t s t a t i o n s 4 2 , 54, 66, 78, f o r
n o
.
h = . 2 1 0 i n . , S = 1192, r o u g h i n l e t

47 P r e s s u r e r e c o r d s f o r shock-type r o l l w a v e s a t
s t a t i o n s 6 0 , 66, 72, 78, f o r h , = .210 i n . ,
.
So = 1192, s m o o t h i n l e t , showing 3 o v e r t a k e s :
w a v e s 1 a n d 2 i n fig. 4 7 a ; w a v e s 3 a n d 4 i n
fig. 47b; a n d w a v e s 5 a n d 6 i n fig. 4 7 c 119

48 G r a p h-of G h a m b a r i a n ' s r e s u l t s f o r a v e r a g e m a x i m u m
d e p t h hmax as a function of d i s t a n c e f r o m beginning
of c h a n n e l &, f o r c h a n n e l s l o p e = 10 . 123

49 View of i n l e t t o S a n t a A n i t a W a s h , A r c a d i a ,
C a l i f o r n i a , d i s c h a r g e a b o u t 21 0 c f s

50 G r a p h of a v e r a g e m a x i m u m d e p t h a s a function
max
of d i s t a n c e f r o m beginning of c h a n n e l -L f o r
Santa Anita Wash

51 G r a p h of a v e r a g e m a x i m u m d e p t h as a function
max
of d i m e n s i o n l e s s w a v e p e r i o d T ' , f o r S a n t a A n i t a '

Wash 129

52 -
Development c u r v e s for a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth
h f o r c h a n n e l s l o p e s of . 0 5 0 1 1 , . 0 8 4 2 9 , a n d
max
. 1192

53 D e v e l o p m e n t c u r v e s f o r small v a l u e s of a v e r a g e
m a x i m u m d e p t h j;: f o r c h a n n e l s l o p e s of . 0 5 0 11,
.
.08429, and 1l 9 P a x 136
 LIST O F FIGURES ( C o n t l d )

Figure Page
No. Title No.

54 -
Graph of r e l a t i o n s between a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth
h and d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave p e r i o d T ' f o r :
max
p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t h e o r y with F r o u d e n u m b e r
of 3.5, p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave e x p e r i m e n t s i n
channel with s l o p e of .05011, and n a t u r a l wave
e x p e r i m e n t s i n c h a n n e l with slope of .05011

55 -
Graph of r e l a t i o n s between a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth
hmax and d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave p e r i o d T ' f o r :
p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t h e o r y with F r o u d e n u m b e r
of 4 . 6 , p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave e x p e r i m e n t s i n
channel with s l o p e of .08429, and n a t u r a l wave
e x p e r i m e n t s i n channel with slope of .08429

56 -
G r a p h of r e l a t i o n s between a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth
hm,, and d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave p e r i o d T ' f o r :
p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t h e o r y with F r o u d e n u m b e r
of 5.6, p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave e x p e r i m e n t s i n
.
channel with s l o p e of 1192, a n d n a t u r a l wave
e x p e r i m e n t s in c h a n n e l with slope of 1192 .
57 -
G r a p h of r e l a t i o n s between a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth
h m a x and d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave p e r i o d TI f o r :
p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t h e o r y with F r o u d e n u m b e r
of 3. 7 , p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave e x p e r i m e n t s in
.
rough c h a n n e l with s l o p e of 1192, and n a t u r a l wave
e x p e r i m e n t s i n r o u g h channel with s l o p e of 1192 . 148

58 G r a p h of t h e o r e t i c a l p e r i o d p e r m a n e n t w a t e r - s u r f a c e
p r o f i l e s including e f f e c t s of v a r i a b l e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r f
a n d s i d e - w a l l s , F r o u d e n u m b e r = 5.6, d i m e n s i o n l e s s
wave length S i / h = 27.3 16 9
o n

59 Drawing of t y p i c a l s h a p e of shock f r o n t , b a s e d on
p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave r u n with F = 5.60,
.
S = 1192, T ' = 4 . 2 5
0
 xvi

LIST G F FIGURES ( C o n t ' d )

Figure Page
No. Title No.

60 G r a p h of m e a s u r e d g e o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s f o r shock
f r o n t : a v e r a g e depth of shock f r o n t h e , length of
shock f r o n t L . , and volume of shock f r o n t p e r unit
width h L - a h e x p r e s s e d a s a function of r a t i o
e J'
between depth a t c r e s t a n d depth a t t r o u g h h /h 179
max min

61 G r a p h of e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s and t h e o r e t i c a l solutions
( f r o m modified and unmodified t h e o r y ) f o r hmax, hmin,
a n d c a s functions of d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave period TI f o r
p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t w a v e s : F r o u d e n u m b e r = 3.5,
c h a n n e l s l o p e = . 0 5 0 11 182

62 G r a p h of e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s and t h e o r e t i c a l solutions
( f r o m modified and unmodified t h e o r y ) f o r h mas'
and c a s functions of d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave p e r i o T l o r
h~ ' n '

p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t waves : F r o u d e n u m b e r = 4.6,
c h a n n e l slope = .Of3429 183

63 G r a p h of e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s a n d t h e o r e t i c a l solutions
( f r o m modified and unmodified t h e o r y ) f o r hmax, hmin,
and c a s functions of d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave p e r i o d T ' for
periodic permanent waves: Froude number = 5.6,
.
c h a n n e l s l o p e = 1192 184

64 G r a p h of e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s and t h e o r e t i c a l solutions
( f r o m modified and unmodified t h e o r y ) f o r hmaxy ina
a n d c a s functions of d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave p e r i o d ~ ' Y o r
periodic permanent waves: Froude number = 3.7,
r o u g h channel, channel s l o p e = 1192 . 185

65 G r a p h of t h e length of h y d r a u l i c jumps L in sloping

c h a n n e l s as a function of t h e F r o u d e num&er a t the
m i n i m u m depth F ( f r o m Chow (29)) 187
m in
 xvii

LIST O F TABLES

Table Page
No. Title No.

Sieve A n a l y s i s of Sand in Rough Channel

Types of M e a s u r e m e n t s Obtained for E a c h Slope

and D i s c h a r g e

C o r r e c t i o n Lengths Added to Smooth-Inlet

Development R elations

Hydraulic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of L a b o r a t o r y Channel

B a s i c Data f o r N a t u r a l Roll Waves

B a s i c Data f o r P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t Roll Waves

Observed Wave Shape f o r P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t

Roll Waves

Values of hmax/h for Twelve Consecutive N a t u r a l

n
Waves

Wave Velocities during Overtaking

Maximum A v e r a g e Wave Depths After Ghambar ian

S u m m a r y of Santa Anita Data

Slopes and Widths f o r Santa Anita Channel

O b s e r v e d D i m e n s i o n l e s s Wave Lengths of S m a l l
Amplitude N a t u r a l Roll Waves

Sample Calculations of Maximum Depth f o r Channel

with a B r e a k i n Slope
 CHAPTER I

INTR ODU'CTION

When w a t e r flows down a long and sufficiently s t e e p open channel,

i t i s found that the depth of flow i s not uniform a s it would be if the

s a m e channel had a v e r y s m a l l slope. The flow is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

a s e r i e s of hydraulic b o r e s t h a t extend a c r o s s the width of the channel

and propagate downstream. A c r o s s t h e s e b o r e s o r shocks the depth

of flow v a r i e s abruptly. Between s u c c e s s i v e b o r e s t h e depth of flow

v a r i e s gradually. Waves of t h i s kind a r e t e r m e d r o l l waves and flows

with s u c h waves a r e called slug flows by s o m e w o r k e r s . Figure 1

shows a typical r o l l wave t r a i n .

In 1904 Cornish ( I ) + o b s e r v e d and elegantly d e s c r i b e d r o l l waves

i n p r i s m a t i c o r a r t i f i c i a l channels which i s the type of channel i n

which they a r e usually observed. However they have a l s o been observed

i n a s u p e r g l a c i a l s t r e a m (2) which indicates t h a t r o l l waves a r e not

r e s t r i c t e d to a r t i f i c i a l channels.

The m a x i m u m depth of flow i n a r o l l wave t r a i n m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y

b e g r e a t e r than the n o r m a l o r undisturbed depth. Thus a prismatic

channel designed to convey a d i s c h a r g e a t n o r m a l depth, m a y not be

capable of conveying t h i s s a m e d i s c h a r g e with r o l l waves p r e s e n t

without s o m e of the w a t e r leaving the confines of the channel. A

d r a m a t i c example of t h i s w a s observed by H o l m e s ( 3 ) i n a channel

=:Numbers i n p a r e n t h e s e s r e f e r to publications listed i n the

Bibliography.
 Negative No. 7804

F i g . 1. View of r o l l waves i n S a n t a Anita Wash,

A r c a d i a , C a l i f o r n i a , about one m i l e down-
s t r e a m of inlet, d i s c h a r g e about 195 cfs
that had w a t e r overtopping the 8 f t s i d e walls when the d i s c h a r g e w a s

e s t i m a t e d to be l e s s than 25 p e r cent of the design d i s c h a r g e . Thus

the p r a c t i c a l need f o r understanding the mechanics of r o l l waves i s

clear.

In g e n e r a l one would like to be able to p r e d i c t whether a channel

will exhibit r o l l waves f o r a n y p a r t i c u l a r discharge. Furthermore,

i f r o l l waves a r e to be p r e s e n t , i t i s d e s i r a b l e to know w h e r e they will

s t a r t , and how high they w i l l be a t any section of the channel. From

the p r e s e n t knowledge (1967) of r o l l waves, one can d e t e r m i n e the

n e c e s s a r y conditions f o r r o l l waves to exist. However the sufficient

conditions (the length of channel), and the dimensions of a developing

r o l l wave t r a i n have not been defined.

The purpose of t h i s investigation is to d e s c r i b e the g e o m e t r i c

p r o p e r t i e s of r o l l wave t r a i n s that develop naturally f r o m a turbulent

flow a t n o r m a l depth i n a wide rectangular channel on a constant slope.

T h i s was done by m e a n s of e x p e r i m e n t s i n a steep l a b o r a t o r y channel

w h e r e r o l l waves f o r m e d naturally. Some analytical work a l s o aided

i n the understanding of t h e b a s i c phenomenon.

In Chapter I1 the p r e v i o u s work on r o l l waves is s u m m a r i z e d .

I n Chapter I11 t h e o r i e s for s m a l l amplitude p e r t u r b a t i o n s on a uniform

flow, and l a r g e amplitude p e r i o d i c permanent r o l l wave t r a i n s a r e

presented. Chapter IV d e s c r i b e s the laboratory e x p e r i m e n t s p e r -

f o r m e d , the r e s u l t s of which a r e in Chapter V. In Chapter VI t h e s e

r e s u l t s a r e d i s c u s s e d and compared with t h e o r y where possible.

 The l a r g e amplitude t h e o r y is examined closely i n Chapter VII

and modified to substantially improve the a g r e e m e n t between t h e o r y

and experiment. In Chapter VIII methods for utilizing the r e s u l t s

of this study t o determine maximum depths for r o l l wave t r a i n s a r e

presented. In Chapter IX the p r i m a r y r e s u l t s and conclusions a r e

stated.
 CHAPTER Il

PREVIOUS STUDIES

This chapter s u m m a r i z e s the significant analytical and e x p e r i -

m e n t a l w o r k t h a t h a s been done on r o l l waves. F i r s t , the b a s i c

d i f f e r e n t i a l equations t h a t a r e u s e d i n a l l of the analytical studies t o

be d i s c u s s e d w i l l be considered.

11-A BASIC EQUATIONS

T h e cantinuity equation for a flow of a n i n c o m p r e s s i b l e fluid i n

a n open channel i s ,

At + ( u A ) ~= 0 (2.1)

w h e r e A = A(x, t ) is t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of the fluid, u = u ( x , t ) i s

the a v e r a g e velocity ( Q / A , w h e r e Q = Q ( x , t ) is the d i s c h a r g e i n volume

of fluid p e r unit of t i m e ) o v e r A, x is the coordinate along the channel,

t is t i m e , and the s u b s c r i p t s x and t denote p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s with

r e s p e c t to t h e s e v a r i a b l e s .

F l o w s with r o l l waves a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y typical h o r i z o n t a l

d i m e n s i o n s (wave lengths) that a r e l a r g e c o m p a r e d to typical v e r t i c a l

d i m e n s i o n s (water d e p t h s ) , s o t h a t the well-known shallow-water

equations a r e valid. F o r a turbulent flow i n a n inclined channel, the

i n t e g r a t e d (over the c r o s s - s e c t i o n A) f o r m of the momentum equation

is,
In t h i s equation:

S = s i n 8 , 8 = angle of inclination of channel;

0

h = h ( x , t ) = depth of flow in c r o s s s e c t i o n ;

g = gravitational constant (32. 16 f t / s e c 2 ) ;

1
a=- u2 dA = velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n coefficient;
A U ~J A p
u = u ( x , y, z , t ) = fluid velocity a t t h e point ( y , z ) i n the
P P
c r o s s section A;

p = m a s s d e n s i t y of fluid;

= 7 ( x , t ) = s h e a r s t r e s s i n t h e x-direction averaged over

0

the channel walls and bottom; and

r = r ( x , t ) = A / (wetted p e r i m e t e r of channel) = hydraulic r a d i u s .

Equation 2. 2 can be derived f r o m t h e Navier -Stokes equations by

a s s u m i n g that the predominate motion i s i n the x - d i r e c t i o n , and thus

for example the t e r m v is s m a l l c o m p a r e d to u Equation 2.2

t t'
i m p l i e s t h a t the p r e s s u r e distribution i n a c r o s s s e c t i o n is hydrostatic.

A p a r t i c u l a r l y lucid d e r i v a t i o n of t h i s equation h a s been given by

Keulegan and P a t t e r s o n (4).

In a l l of the s t u d i e s concerning r o l l w a v e s , .r h a s been evaluated

0

b y using a r e l a t i o n d e r i v e d f r o m uniform flow considerations. A

uniform flow i s one i n which all p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s i n the x - d i r e c t i o n

a r e zero, a /a x E 0 , and by definition the depth of flow f o r a uniform

flow is the n o r m a l depth, h

n
. F o r e x a m p l e , f r o m the Chezy equation

there results,
where u i s the a v e r a g e velocity ( Q / A ) f o r u n i f o r m flow, and f i s the
n
Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n f a c t o r . I t h a s been a s s u m e d that t h i s s a m e

r e l a t i o n is valid f o r unsteady, gradually v a r i e d flow, w h e r e u is

n
replaced by u. F o r uniform flows f v a r i e s with the Reynolds n u m b e r

a n d / o r the r e l a t i v e roughness. In s o m e r o l l wave studies i t h a s been

a s s u m e d that f does not v a r y i n the x - d i r e c t i o n and is equal t o i t s

value f o r uniform flow. Fowever i n c a s e s w h e r e f h a s not been held

fixed, i t s v a r i a t i o n i n the x - d i r e c t i o n h a s been a s s u m e d to have t h e

s a m e dependence on the Reynolds number (smooth channel) o r r e l a t i v e

roughness (rough channel) a s it does for u n i f o r m flows.

11-B CRITERIA FOR UNSTABLE FLOW

The m a j o r i t y of the l i t e r a t u r e on r o l l waves is concerned with

the determination of the n e c e s s a r y conditions under which r o l l waves

can exist. The a p p r o a c h h a s been to investigate the stability of a

uniform flow on a constant slope by imposing s m a l l f r e e - s u r f a c e

p e r t u r b a t i o n s on it. If t h e s e p e r t u r b a t i o n s i n c r e a s e i n amplitude a s

t i m e i n c r e a s e s , the flow i s s a i d to be unstable. Presumably these

s m a l l amplifying p e r t u r b a t i o n s would eventually r e s u l t i n the c l e a r l y

visible l a r g e amplitude r o l l waves. ( F i g u r e 1)

J e f f r e y s (5) c o n s i d e r e d a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel, uniform

velocity distribution (a = I ) , and a n unvarying f r i c t i o n factor (f). F o r

t h i s c a s e , the condition f o r a n unstable flow was that the F r o u d e

number F, (F = u / , hn = n o r m a l depth) be g r e a t e r than 2.

n
 Since J e f f r e y s , m a n y o t h e r s ( 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ) have derived c r i t e r i a of

varying d e g r e e s of g e n e r a l i t y . D r e s s l e r and Pohle (7) considered

a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel, a = 1 , and a g e n e r a l power law r e s i s t a n c e

n m
r e l a t i o n ( T =~ const. u / h ) C r a y a (6) considered a channel of

a r b i t r a r y s h a p e , a = 1 , and a power law r e s i s t a n c e . Iwasa (8)

developed a g e n e r a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r the c r i t i c a l F r o u d e number (Fc r )

applicable f o r a r b i t r a r y channel shape, friction law, and value of a .

Using I w a s a ' s r e s u l t f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r channel of any width, Koloseus

(9) h a s evaluated values of F by using the logarithmic r e s i s t a n c e law

cr
f o r both a smooth and a rough boundary.

F r o m a l l of t h e s e s t u d i e s t h e r e r e s u l t s F values which in
cr
g e n e r a l depend on t h e channel shape, f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e law, and

the value of a. The value of F i s 2.0 for a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel

Cr

with a n unvarying f. If f is evaluated f r o m the logarithmic r e s i s t a n c e

law, Fcr f o r a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel (rough o r smooth) depends

slightly on f , but i s about 1 . 6 for f = .02. Fcr is i n c r e a s e d a s a i s

i n c r e a s e d , and a l s o i n c r e a s e s a s the r e c t a n g u l a r channel becomes

narrower. In g e n e r a l , channels of o t h e r s h a p e s , such a s c i r c u l a r o r

t r i a n g u l a r , have a h i g h e r Fcr than a r e c t a n g u l a r channel.

A flow with a value of F considerably higher than Fcr m a y not

exhibit visible r o l l waves. T h i s f a c t w a s noted b y Montouri (10) i n

h i s investigation of field d a t a collected in E u r o p e and Russia. This

led h i m to develop a c r i t e r i o n f o r predicting f o r m a t i o n of r o l l waves

(but not t h e i r d i m e n s i o n s ) , involving not only the value of F but

cr'
a l s o the length of the channel. F r o m t h i s c r i t e r i o n , one finds that
a s the d i s c h a r g e and hence n o r m a l depth i n c r e a s e s , t h e length r e q u i r e d

f o r visible r o l l waves to develop a l s o i n c r e a s e s . This basic observa-

tion i s m o s t i m p o r t a n t i n studying the development of r o l l waves.

11-C LARGE AMPLITUDE WAVE STUDIES

P r i o r to 1940 Thomas conducted e x p e r i m e n t s on a r t i f i c i a l l y

produced p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves (to be c o n s i d e r e d i n Chapter

111) i n a l a b o r a t o r y channel. T h i s study i s r e f e r r e d to i n a p a p e r by

T h o m a s ( 11) but p e r s o n a l communication with h i m r e v e a l e d that h i s

r e s u l t s w e r e never published and have since been lost. However, he

did s t a t e t h a t h i s e x p e r i m e n t s gave a s a t i s f a c t o r y check on the

t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s of p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t waves.

I n 1954 l a b o r a t o r y work on r o l l waves w a s done a t Kyoto Uni-

v e r s i t y i n a smooth channel 36 feet long. T h i s w o r k w a s r e f e r r e d to

i n a l a t e r paper by I s h i h a r a e t al. (12). By contacting p e r s o n n e l a t

Kyoto, i t w a s found that the data taken w e r e not sufficient t o d e s c r i b e

the growth of r o l l waves a s a function of the d i s t a n c e along the

channel. In f a c t f o r m a n y r u n s depths w e r e not m e a s u r e d .

In a r e c e n t p a p e r (1965), Ghambarian (13) d i s c u s s e s s o m e

l a b o r a t o r y work t h a t h a s been done i n the A r m e n i a n Soviet Socialist

Republic. The channel slope v a r i e d f r o m S

0
= . 10 to . 8 6 , and the

length f r o m 10 m to 60 m . Roll waves developed n a t u r a l l y and

m e a s u r e m e n t s of m a x i m u m depth, wave length, wave velocity, and

wave p e r i o d w e r e taken a t v a r i o u s stations along the channel. Fre-

quency distributions of t h e s e quantities w e r e m e a s u r e d a s a function

of d i s t a n c e along the channel.

 Unfortunately the r e s u l t s of m a x i m u m depth v s . d i s t a n c e f o r a l l

s l o p e s a r e c o m p r e s s e d into one s m a l l g r a p h and only the e x p e r i m e n t a l

r e l a t i o n s a r e shown without the n u m e r i c a l d a t a t h a t w e r e used to

derive these relations. However i n t h e paper f o r S

0
= . 10 by
Ghambarian and Mayilian (14) the e x p e r i m e n t a l points w e r e taken f r o m

a graph. T h e s e d a t a , along with s o m e e x t r a c t e d f r o m the 1965 p a p e r

w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n Chapter V. M o r e information concerning t h e s e

e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d a l s o .

In 1965 the Los Angeles County Flood Control D i s t r i c t conducted

a field study in Santa Anita Wash located i n A r c a d i a , California. Data

on the r o l l waves that developed w e r e t a k e n and will be p r e s e n t e d in

Chapter V along with a d e s c r i p t i o n of the e x p e r i m e n t s .

T h e f i r s t a t t e m p t to d e s c r i b e l a r g e amplitude r o l l waves

analytically was by Thomas (11). He considered a p e r i o d i c t r a i n of

waves of constant shape and velocity (permanent). By piecing together

two g r a d u a l l y v a r i e d w a t e r - s u r f a c e p r o f i l e s f o r unsteady flow, he

managed to construct a wave p r o f i l e s i m i l a r t o observed r 011 waves.

D r e s s l e r (15), using T h o m a s ' s b a s i c i d e a s , was able to find closed

f o r m solutions f o r a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel with a n unvarying

friction factor. In Chapter 111 the p r o c e d u r e for constructing t h e s e

p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t solutions w i l l be given.
11-D FRICTION FACTORS I N UNSTABLE FLOWS

When the F r o u d e number f o r a flow i s g r e a t e r than F the flow

cr
i s s a i d to be unstable. Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s have found that in unstable

flows the f r i c t i o n f a c t o r m e a s u r e d i n a r e a c h of uniform flow is a

function of the F r o u d e number a s w e l l a s the r e l a t i v e roughness (rough

boundary) o r Reynolds n u m b e r (smooth boundary). Koloseus (16)

found t h i s F r o u d e number effect i n a rough channel, and Rouse (17)

found it i n a smooth channel.

In the c o u r s e of t h e p r e s e n t investigation f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s w e r e

m e a s u r e d i n two smooth channels: a 130 f t tiltable channel, and a

s t e e p a l u m i n u m channel. T h e F r o u d e number effect noted above w a s

not detected i n either of t h e s e channels. These r e s u l t s f o r the 130 f t

channel a r e included in a published d i s c u s s i o n of R o u s e ' s p a p e r (17),

which is i n Appendix I. T h e hydraulic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the s t e e p

a l u m i n u m channel a r e given i n Chapter V.

I E SUlMMAR Y

After p r e s e n t i n g the b a s i c equations u s e d f o r r o l l wave i n v e s t i -

gations, the significant studies t h a t have been done on r o l l waves w e r e

discussed. The c r i t e r i o n f o r unstable flow c a n be e x p r e s s e d by a

c r i t i c a l F r o u d e n u m b e r which in g e n e r a l depends on the channel s h a p e ,

f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e law, and the velocity distribution i n a c r o s s

section. Some a n a l y t i c a l w o r k on non-linear waves h a s been done f o r

a p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t r a i n . The only available l a b o r a t o r y data

on r o l l wave development w e r e d i s c u s s e d briefly and will be p r e s e n t e d

i n Chapter V , along with s o m e available field data.

 CHAPTER 111

ANALYTICAL INVESTIGATION

The l a b o r a t o r y r e s u l t s to be p r e s e n t e d in Chapter V show that

the g e o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s of r o l l waves (i. e . m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m

depth, wave length, etc. ) a r e not only functions of d i s t a n c e along t h e

channel, but v a r y f r o m one wave to another a t a fixed station. This

was o b s e r v e d both f o r the s m a l l amplitude waves with a continuous

w a t e r s u r f a c e (which o c c u r r e d d o w n s t r e a m of the uniform flow and

u p s t r e a m of the shock w a v e s ) , and the l a r g e amplitude shock waves.

Thus a complete t h e o r y f o r d e s c r i b i n g n a t u r a l r o l l waves m u s t be a b l e

to p r e d i c t the frequency distributions of the g e o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s a s

a function of distance. Needless to s a y , no such t h e o r y e x i s t s .

I n t h i s chapter two t h e o r i e s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r periodic wave

t r a i n s ; one f o r s m a l l amplitude sinusoidal w a v e s , and the o t h e r f o r

l a r g e amplitude p e r m a n e n t waves with shocks. Because of the

periodicity a s s u m p t i o n , it is c l e a r f r o m the above d e s c r i p t i o n t h a t

these t h e o r i e s do not d i r e c t l y r e l a t e to n a t u r a l r o l l waves. However

it will be shown in Chapter VII that the l a r g e amplitude t h e o r y i s a t

l e a s t i n d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to n a t u r a l r o l l waves in t e r m s of a v e r a g e

values of t h e g e o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s . P e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t waves w e r e

produced i n the l a b o r a t o r y channel and i n Chapter VI t h e i r c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c s w i l l be c o m p a r e d with the theory. Also i n Chapter VI i t w i l l

be shown that some t r e n d s derived f r o m the s m a l l amplitude t h e o r y

a g r e e with the observations on the s m a l l amplitude n a t u r a l waves.

111-A SMALL AMPLITUDE THEORY

1. S t a t e m e n t and Solution of P r o b l e m

J e f f r e y s (5) i m p o s e d a s m a l l sinusoidal p e r t u r b a t i o n on a uniform

flow i n a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel with a n unvarying f r i c t i o n f a c t o r .

The r e s u l t w a s t h a t f o r a value of F of two the disturbance w a s

n e u t r a l l y s t a b l e , o r i t s amplitude neither i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d with

time. I n f a c t a l l of the w o r k on stability c r i t e r i a d i s c u s s e d i n

Chapter I1 w a s concerned with finding t h i s n e u t r a l l y stable condition.

The object of t h i s investigation, a s s t a t e d above, i s to study

the development of n a t u r a l r o l l wave t r a i n s f r o m a uniform flow. T h i s

development only o c c u r s if the uniform flow i s unstable and t h e r e f o r e

the growth r a t e s of s m a l l p e r t u r b a t i o n s f o r F r o u d e n u m b e r s above 2.0

a r e of i n t e r e s t .

F o r a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel ( r = h ) , a = 1, and the simplifying

a s s u m p t i o n s outlined i n Chapter 11, equations 2.1 and 2.2 b e c o m e ,

- u2 /F2 gh),

a f t e r using the r e l a t i o n ,

which r e s u l t s f r o m a s s u m i n g that f does not v a r y f r o m i t s value a t

uniform flow. To r e n d e r t h e s e equations d i m e n s i o n l e s s the following

d i m e n s i o n l e s s quantities a r e introduced:
 x ' = x/X, 1 = wave length;
t ' = u t / 1 , un = n o r m a l velocity ( q / h );
n n
H = h/hn, h = n o r m a l depth; and
n
u = ulun.

Equations 3. 1 and 3 . 2 can now be w r i t t e n a s ,

where F is the F r o u d e number f o r uniform flow (F = u n / G n ) .

Equations 3 . 8 and 3.9 a r e now linearized b y a s s u m i n g t h a t the

deviations f r o m the undisturbed or uniform flow condition a r e small.

T h i s assumption is e x p r e s s e d a s ,

U = l + U 1 (3.10)

H = l t q (3.11)

w h e r e U' and q a r e the perturbation quantities which a r e s m a l l com-

p a r e d to unity. It is f u r t h e r a s s u m e d that t h e d e r i v a t i v e s of U' and q

a r e a l s o s m a l l compared to unity. Substituting equations 3. 10 and

3. 11 into 3. 8 and 3 . 9 , and neglecting p r o d u c t s of any two s m a l l t e r m s

(i. e. U'U'x,, Uf\,, qUlxl, etc. ), yields two l i n e a r equations,

The quantity U ' is then eliminated f r o m equations 3. 12 and 3. 13 to give

a second o r d e r linear p a r t i a l differential equation f o r q ,

A sinusoidal p e r t u r b a t i o n can be e x p r e s s e d a s the r e a l p a r t of,

which is equivalent t o ,

rl = Toe'* 'it' exp [i 2a (xi - c r t f ) ]

where:

= the amplitude a t t ' = 0 ;

'Qo
C = C
r
tic.1 dimensionless complex velocity;

C = dimensionless phase velocity of t h e perturbation

r
q ; and

Ci = dimensionless number pertaining t o the growth r a t e .

To convert the amplitude of the perturbation (qoe?ITCit') f r o m a function

of t i m e t o a function of d i s t a n c e , the e x p r e s s i o n ,

is u s e d , w h e r e 4, i s the dimensional distance over which the wave

t r a i n t r a v e l s in the t i m e t, and c i s the dimensional phase velocity.

Using the e x p r e s s i o n ,

C
r
= clu, (3.18)

and equations 3.5 and 3.17, a n e x p r e s s i o n f o r t ' can be w r i t t e n a s ,

Then equation 3.16 c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s ,

w h e r e Y i s defined by,

Y i s a d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave length, and the t e r m (2nCi/CrY) will be

r e f e r r e d to a s the amplification f a c t o r .

The p r o b l e m i s reduced to finding a solution f o r the amplifica-

tion f a c t o r and Cr. When t h e s e two quantities a r e known, equation

3. 20 shows that t h e behavior of q w i l l be known. To obtain the

e x p r e s s i o n s involving C. and C equation 3. 15 is substituted into

1 r'
equation 3. 14 which r e s u l t s i n ,

Separating r e a l and i m a g i n a r y p a r t s of t h i s equation l e a d s to,

T h e s e two equations give,

T h e s e e x p r e s s i o n s show that the quantities C and C. a r e functions of
r 1

Y and F , and thus the amplification factor c a n a l s o be e x p r e s s e d i n

t e r m s of Y and F. The functional r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r the amplification

f a c t o r and the phase velocity w e r e d e t e r m i n e d n u m e r i c a l l y f o r v a l u e s

of F of 2.5, 3.5, and 5 . 0 , and a r e shown in f i g u r e s 2 and 3.

The n e u t r a l l y stable solution o c c u r s when the amplitude d o e s not

change with t i m e which r e q u i r e s the value of C. to vanish. Then f r o m

1

equations 3.25 and 3.26 t h e r e r e s u l t s ,

which w a s the solution obtained by J e f f r e y s (5).

F o r s m a l l values of Y ( Y << 1) equations 3.23 and 3.24 b e c o m e ,

Equation 3.30 r e q u i r e s t h a t Cr equal unity, o r that C. is of t h e s a m e

1

o r d e r of magnitude a s Y. If C is unity, equation 3.29 shows t h a t Ci

r
m u s t b e i m a g i n a r y which it is not. T h e r e f o r e C. is a l s o s m a l l , and
1

equation 3.29 is f u r t h e r simplified t o ,

f r o m which t h e r e r e s u l t s ,
Then equation 3.24 yields,

T h i s a s y m p t o t i c solution f o r the amplification factor is shown on

f i g u r e 2.

F o r l a r g e v a l u e s of Y (Y>> 1) equations 3.23 and 3 . 2 4 b e c o m e ,

and

f r o m which r e s u l t s ,

and

T h i s a s y m p t o t i c solution is shown on f i g u r e 2.

2. D i s c u s s i o n of Solution
-

The solution f o r q i s given b y equation 3.20 w h e r e the

amplification f a c t o r and p h a s e velocity a r e shown i n f i g u r e s 2 and 3,

respectively. At a fixed t i m e t 2 0 , the solution d e s c r i b e s a t r a i n of

sinusoidally shaped waves, e a c h wave having the s a m e amplitude,

p h a s e velocity, and wave length. F u r t h e r m o r e t h i s t r a i n of waves

extends indefinitely along the channel b e c a u s e x w a s not r e s t r i c t e d i n

any way. As t i n c r e a s e s , the amplitude of e a c h wave i n c r e a s e s e x -

ponentially (if F > 2), but according to equation 3 . 2 0 the wave shape

and phase velocity r e m a i n the s a m e .

Amplitudes of n a t u r a l r o l l waves i n c r e a s e a s the waves t r a v e l

along the channel, and ultimately shock waves a r e formed. Therefore

i t is c l e a r that a t a fixed t i m e the amplitudes of n a t u r a l r o l l waves i n -

c r e a s e i n the d o w n s t r e a m d i r e c t i o n , w h e r e a s i n t h e t h e o r y i t w a s

a s s u m e d that a l l waves had the s a m e amplitude a t a fixed time. It is

likely that a t h e o r y i n which the amplitudes of the waves i n c r e a s e d i n

the x - d i r e c t i o n ( a t a n y given t i m e ) would p r e d i c t different growth r a t e s

than the periodic t h e o r y c o n s i d e r e d h e r e .

Boundary conditions other than the initial conditions ( p e r i o d i c in

x)used h e r e would b e r e q u i r e d t o obtain a b e t t e r m o d e l for n a t u r a l r o l l

waves, although it is not obvious what t h e s e might be. In g e n e r a l t h i s

would l e a d to a m o r e difficult p r o b l e m than w a s c o n s i d e r e d above,

because of the additional dependence on x. However the above t h e o r y

i s u s e f u l f o r obtaining a t l e a s t qualitative r e s u l t s concerning the

effect of wave length and F r o u d e number on the growth r a t e .

The growth r a t e w i l l be defined a s the r a t e of i n c r e a s e of the

m a x i m u m depth ( o r the amplitude) with r e s p e c t to distance along the

channel. F r o m equation 3 . 2 0 the growth r a t e b e c o m e s ,

where q i s the amplitude,
max

- [(z=c./c
rY ) ( s ~ / F ~ ) ( . L / ~ ~ ) ]
7 m a x - q o exp 1 (3.39)

which v a r i e s with 4, . Equation 3.3 shows that the t e r m S / F is

~
0

r e l a t e d to the f r i c t i o n factor which v a r i e s v e r y little with slope o r

F r o u d e number i n a given channel. T h e r e f o r e i t suffices to examine

the amplification factor to d e t e r m i n e the effect of wave length and

F r o u d e number on the growth r a t e .

F r o m figure 2 the growth r a t e is seen t o i n c r e a s e a s t h e wave

length d e c r e a s e s and e s s e n t i a l l y to a t t a i n i t s m a x i m u m value a t values

of Y such that the shallow w a t e r t h e o r y is s t i l l valid. F o r example

with F = 5 t h e maximum amplification factor i s r e a c h e d a t about

Y = .1, s o that the value of k / h n is about 50 i f the slope is . 0 5 which

i s a p r a c t i c a l situation. The o c c u r r e n c e of a wave length with a

m a x i m u m growth r a t e is usually i n t e r p r e t e d to m e a n that t h i s will be

the observed wave length i n a situation where d i s t u r b a n c e s of a l l wave

lengths a r e amplifying. In t h i s c a s e one would expect to o b s e r v e any

wave length corresponding to the s m a l l values of Y w h e r e t h e c u r v e s

of f i g u r e 2 a r e a l m o s t horizontal.

F i g u r e 2 shows that the growth r a t e i n c r e a s e s as t h e F r o u d e

number i n c r e a s e s . T r a n s f e r r i n g t h i s r e s u l t to n a t u r a l r o l l w a v e s , it

i s not unreasonable to expect that r o l l waves will a p p e a r a t i n c r e a s i n g l y

s h o r t e r d i s t a n c e s f r o m the beginning of the channel a s the F r o u d e

number i s i n c r e a s e d , providing the initial d i s t u r b a n c e s a r e of the

same size.
 By c o n s i d e r i n g a problem w h e r e q w a s p r e s c r i b e d a s a function

of t i m e a t the e n t r a n c e to a channel, Lighthill and Whitham (18) found

the solution valid n e a r the wave f r o n t of the disturbance initiated a t

the e n t r a n c e . The amplitude of t h e i r solution is p r e c i s e l y the s a m e

a s the amplitude of the above solution f o r s m a l l values of Y (equations

3 . 3 3 and 3 . 3 9 ) . Although the full significance of t h i s i s not c l e a r , i t

p r e s u m a b l y s e r v e s a s a check on the p r e s e n t work.

111-B. LARGE AMPLITUDE PERIODIC PERMANENT ROLL WAVE

THEORY

The method of solution p r e s e n t e d h e r e is e s s e n t i a l l y that used

by D r e s s l e r (15) except t h a t the introduction of t h e n o r m a l depth i n t o

the t h e o r y is new.

1. Statement and Solution of P r o b l e m

A wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel with a f r i c t i o n f a c t o r that does not

v a r y f r o m i t s value a t uniform flow i s c o n s i d e r e d (equation 3 . 2). A

p e r m a n e n t wave is one whose shape and velocity does not change with

t i m e o r position. Thus f o r a p e r m a n e n t wave the t variable c a n be

eliminated by introducing a coordinate s y s t e m t h a t moves with the

wave a t the velocity of the wave. Such a coordinate f o r a wave t r a v e l -

ing in the + x d i r e c t i o n is X = x - c t , w h e r e c is the constant wave

velocity. T h u s f o r a p e r m a n e n t w a v e , u ( x , t ) = u(X), and h(x,t) = h(X).

The d e r i v a t i v e s a r e t r a n s f o r m e d by,
 Equations 3 . 1 and 3 . 2 r e d u c e to two o r d i n a r y differential

equations in u and h. Combining t o eliminate u g i v e s ,

dh/dX = So
h3 - (ch - K ) / ~ g ~ ~
h3 - h3C

where

K = ( c - u ) h = constant (3.42)

and

T h i s definition of h w i l l prove to b e v e r y convenient.

C

The shock condition which r e l a t e s hmax to hmin i s now con-

s i d e r e d (figure 4 ) . It i s a s s u m e d t h a t the thickness of the shock i s

sufficiently s m a l l s o t h a t the x-component of its weight i s s m a l l c o m -

p a r e d to the p r e s s u r e f o r c e s , t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s

h y d r o s t a t i c , and the velocity distribution is uniform (a = 1). T h e s e

a s s u m p t i o n s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d in Chapter VII, with the .aid of the

experimental results. Equating the p r e s s u r e f o r c e s a c r o s s the shock

t o the net m o m e n t u m flux through the shock r e s u l t s i n ,

This is a f a m i l i a r f o r m f o r wave v e l o c i t i e s of shallow w a t e r waves.

T h i s c a n a l s o be w r i t t e n ,
F i g . 4. Definition sketch f o r periodic p e r m a n e n t
r 011 waves

F i g . 5. P e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave water-sur -
f a c e p r o f i l e with point of inflection
Setting c equal to z e r o i n equation 3.45 gives the e x p r e s s i o n commonly

used f o r a h y d r a u l i c jump on a h o r i z o n t a l channel. Thus the shock

considered h e r e can be r e g a r d e d a s a moving hydraulic jump.

Using the e x p r e s s i o n f o r K and the definition of h equation

c
3.45 c a n be w r i t t e n ,

h m a x / h m i n = 112 [Jl + 8 (hc/hmin)3 -1 ] (3.46)

F r o m equation 3.46 it is s e e n t h a t when h / h equals unity, the

c tnin
value of hmax/h i s a l s o unity. F u r t h e r m o r e if h i s l e s s than
min c
h i s r e q u i r e d to be l e s s than hmin which is meaningless.
hmin' rnax
Therefore,

Solving equation 3.46 f o r h

rnax / h c g i v e s ,

h m a x / h c = 112 [ 4 h m i n / h c )2 + 8 h c / hm i n - hminihc] (3.48)

f r o m which i t is c l e a r t h a t ,

h /hc z 1
rnax

Therefore h i s i n the closed i n t e r v a l f r o m h

c m i n to h m a x o r 1

h m i n < hc s h (3.50)
rnax

Now i f the wave t r a i n i s a s s u m e d p e r i o d i c , t h e r e is only one

value of hmin and h f o r a l l waves. Equation 3.50 i n s u r e s t h a t h

max c
m u s t e x i s t a t s o m e section between s u c c e s s i v e shocks on the g r a d u a l l y

varying w a t e r s u r f a c e . However equation 3.41 r e q u i r e s the value of

d h / d x to a p p r o a c h infinity a t h = h unless the n u m e r a t o r vanishes a t
C

h =h
C
. A p e r i o d i c solution with d h l d x infinite a t hc would appear a s

i n f i g u r e 5, w h e r e h is a point of inflection. However a point of

C

inflection r e q u i r e s d2h/dX2 to vanish a t h = which D r e s s l e r showed

hc '
t o be i m p o s s i b l e .

The c o r r e c t solution i s one i n which the n u m e r a t o r of equation

3.41 v a n i s h e s a t h = h
C
, which r e s u l t s i n a smooth w a t e r s u r f a c e ,

concave upwards. Setting the n u m e r a t o r of equation 3.41 to z e r o f o r

h = hc, and using equation 3.43 to eliminate K , r e s u l t s i n a n e x p r e s s i o n

for C,

c l m = 1 t F, (3.51)
C

Both t h e n u m e r a t o r and denominator of equation 3.41 a r e cubic

a l g e b r a i c e x p r e s s i o n s with hc a s one of the t h r e e roots. This common

root c a n b e f a c t o r e d out and equation 3.41 c a n b e w r i t t e n a s ,

w h e r e a n a s t e r i s k denotes division by h
C
. The d i m e n s i o n l e s s

quantities h* and h t a r e t h e other two r o o t s , b e s i d e s hc (or h: = l),

a
of the n u m e r a t o r . By equating the n u m e r a t o r of equation 3.52 to that

of equation 3.41, and using equation 3.43 to eliminate K and equation

3. 51 to evaluate c , t h e r e r e s u l t s ,

w h e r e the positive s q u a r e r o o t i s used f o r h:k and the negative s q u a r e

a'
root f o r h:: s o t h a t h:k > h::
b' a b*
 Equation 3. 52 c a n be integrated, and with X = 0 at h = h there
C

results,

and X4 = X / h c

This relation between X:g and h* h a s the g e n e r a l shape shown in

f i g u r e 4. Evaluating equation 3.54 a t h* and h* gives a n

max min
e x p r e s s i o n involving the wave length,

h::: -h* h :::

where K, = In h*
max a
+:;
m ax -hb"
K, = In h:;min - hg
min a

In a p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m the channel slope, So, and the F r o u d e

number a t uniform flow, F, will be known. Then the relationship

between X* and h: c a n be found f r o m equation 3.54. However to

d e t e r m i n e h:; equation 3.56 shows t h a t S X* and h::: must also

max ' o min
be known, which r e q u i r e s two additional r e l a t i o n s involving A:;,

h:::
max '
and h*
m i n e The shock condition ,equation 3.46, provides a

relation between the quantity h:k /h*: and h k i n . T h e r e f o r e a unique

max min
solution e x i s t s between h* and X* (including h* and h k i n ) , for a
max
given S and F , if the value of S 1::' is a l s o fixed. The above solution
0 0

is e s s e n t i a l l y the f o r m of the solution that D r e s s l e r (15) p r e s e n t e d .

The above solution is in t e r m s of the depth h which c a n not be

C

found f r o m the values of S and F ( a s s u m e d to be given). Therefore

0

i t is d e s i r a b l e to have t h e solution in t e r m s of s o m e known depth. The

m o s t significant depth i s the undisturbed o r n o r m a l depth (h ) There-

n
f o r e a n e x p r e s s i o n f o r h* = h n / h c will be found. With the value of h*
n n
known, the solution c a n be e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s of h
n*
F r o m the definition of the d i s c h a r g e p e r unit width and equation

3.42,

The a v e r a g e d i s c h a r g e o v e r one wave length, and thus the a v e r a g e

d i s c h a r g e over a l l w a v e s , is then,

If the a v e r a g e depth is defined a s ,

then equation 3 , 5 9 i s ,

The n o r m a l depth depends only on the a v e r a g e d i s c h a r g e and F r o u d e

number a s can be s e e n f r o m ,
An e x p r e s s i o n for h:: i s found b y eliminating q between equations
n av
3.6 1 and 3.62, using equation 3 . 5 1 to evaluate c , and using equation

3.43 to evaluate K. The r e s u l t i s ,

n
,312
h .- = [(l + F) h,Tv - 1 1 IF (3.63)

The f i n a l s t e p is to find h::

av
. F i r s t equation 3.60 is r e w r i t t e n ,
h::
h: = 1 / ~ " max h:g(X:$)dX%
av h*
rnin

o r when equation 3.52 is u s e d t o evaluate dX*,

h*
so ~*h:: = m a x h+ h:K2 t h* 1 +
dh*
av h* (h:$-h*) (h*-hg)
min a

This can also be written a s ,

S Xhh:: = J ~ ' ~ ~
o av h:k
rnin

which is i n a convenient f o r m f o r integration by p a r t s . Performing

t h i s integration, and using equation 3.56 to evaluate SOX*, l e a d s t o ,

F r o m the above a n a l y s i s it can be shown that f o r a given value of

F and Soh/hn, the wave shape and velocity a r e uniquely d e t e r m i n e d .

Equations 3.63 and 3.67 show t h a t ,

h:: = f, (F, h* h% )
n max' min
where fl i s s o m e function. F r o m equation 3.56,

:: )
S0 l / h c = fa (F, h L a x , h ,in (3.69)

Dividing equation 3.69 by 3.68 gives,

S o l / h n = fa (F, h:: h+ 1 (3.70)

max' m i n

The shock condition, equation 3.46, gives a relation between h::

max
and h k i n ,

h :: = f (h* ) (3. 71)

max 4 min

F o r given values of F and S h / h h: and hx: can i n p r i n c i p l e be

o n' m a x min
found f r o m the l a s t two equations. Equation 3 . 6 8 i s then u s e d t o

convert t h e s e to h /h and h /hn. Then the value of h* f r o m

rnax n min n
equation 3.68 i s applied to equation 3.51 to get c / m n . Therefore

i t is c o r r e c t to w r i t e ,

The wave shape c a n be e x p r e s s e d a s , (equation 3.54),

Dividing t h i s by equation 3.6 8 gives ,

h/h = f ( F , hx: ,h S X/h ) (3.74)

n 9 max min' o n
But equations 3.70 and 3. 7 1 show t h a t h* and h* a r e functions
max min
of F and S o h / h
n
. Thus equation 3.74 b e c o m e s ,

which is equivalent t o ,

T h e r e f o r e the wave shape (equation 3.76) and velocity (equation 3.72)

a r e unique functions of F and S X/h

o n
. The wave period, T , is defined

by,

1= cT (3.77)

which l e a d s to t h e e x p r e s s i o n ,

However b e c a u s e c / < i s a function of F and S h/hn,

0

where T'S S ~ Tg / h (3.80)

n

T h e r e f o r e one c a n p r e s c r i b e T ' i n s t e a d of S ~ / h
o no
T h e f o r m of the equations is s u c h that the g e n e r a l functions i n

equations 3. 72 and 3.76 c a n not be w r i t t e n explicitly. The solutions

for c / c h
n ' m a x Ih,, and hmin/hn a r e plotted i n figure 6 f o r values

of F of 2.0, 2.5, 3.5, and 5 . 0 , and v a l u e s of S h / h up to 60. These

o n
r e l a t i o n s w e r e found n u m e r i c a l l y using a d i g i t a 1 computer and

the above r e l a t i o n s . Instead of s t a r t i n g with values of F and S X/h

o n'
 Fs2.5 MAX- 1.75

Fs2.0

F i g . 6. G r a p h s of solutions f o r hmax, hmin, and c a s functions of

F r o u d e n u m b e r , F, and S X/h f r o m p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t
o n
r o l l wave t h e o r y
i t was m o r e convenient t o start with values of F and h:: and find the
rnin
r e s u l t i n g value of S ~ / h In t h i s way no t r i a l and e r r o r p r o c e d u r e s
o n'
were required.

The asymptotic solution f o r l a r g e values of So h / h n can be

obtained by f i r s t observing f r o m equation 3.52 that because the value

ofdh/dXiszeroath*=h:: theminimumvalue ofh* ish*. Equa-

a' min a
tion 3.54 shows t h a t S X: approaches minus infinity a t h k i n = h* and
o a'
equation 3.56 indicates that Soh* a p p r o a c h e s infinity (because K1

approaches infinity). T h e r e f o r e f o r l a r g e values of S h/hn, h*

o min
a p p r o a c h e s h:g f r o m above, and the w a t e r s u r f a c e becomes p a r a l l e l t o
a
the channel floor a t h k i n .

The value of hmax/hmin i s a function only of F for l a r g e values

of SoXlhn. I t c a n be calculated f r o m equations 3.53 and 3.46, which

f o r h* = h:: become,
a rnin

hm
+ in = ( 1 / 2 ~ ~ ) [ 1 + 2 F + , / - ]
hmax'hrnin = 112 [dl + ( 2 / hm+ i n - 1 ]
Because K1 a p p r o a c h e s infinity, equation 3.67 shows that h* b e c o m e s
av
equal to h* o r h* T h e r e f o r e equation 3.63 c a n be written a s ,
a min'

As SoX/h a p p r o a c h e s infinity the distance f r o m h * = 1 (X:: = 0) to

n
h:: = h:: a l s o approaches infinity, w h e r e a s the distance f r o m
rnin
h* = 1 t o h* = hg: r e m a i n s finite. Thus i t is c l e a r that the a v e r a g e
max
d i s c h a r g e m u s t equal the d i s c h a r g e at hmin because the distance over
which hmin o c c u r s is infinite, and that h m u s t equal hmin. T h i s can
n
be proven by working with equations 3. 83 and 3.81. To get a r e l a t i o n

between h* and h* F would have t o be eliminated between 3.83 and

n min'
3. 81, but t h i s is not a simple manipulation. However, by using a n

a r b i t r a r y positive value of F i n equation 3.81 and substituting the

resulting value of h* into equation 3. 83, the value of h:k is found t o

min n
c o r r e s p o n d t o that of h:k
m in
. T h e r e f o r e a s S h / h a p p r o a c h e s infinity,
o n

The wave velocity i s then only a function of F,

c / a = ( 1 t F)/h:k
n min

where h* is found f r o m equation 3 . 8 1. Asymptotic values f o r l a r g e

min
Soh/hn a r e indicated on figure 6.

2. Discussion of Solution

F r o m f i g u r e 6 it is s e e n that h i n c r e a s e s with both F and

m a x / hn
Souhn. At a F r o u d e number of 2, t h i s solution d e g e n e r a t e s to uniform

flow. This indicates that t h e r e a r e no periodic solutions of the type

considered f o r F r o u d e n u m b e r s of 2 o r l e s s . F o r the l i n e a r p r o b l e m

considered i n Section 111-A a non-trivial solution existed f o r a F r o u d e

number of 2, but the wave amplitude did not change with distance.

F o r a F r o u d e number above 2, the wave amplitude i n c r e a s e d exponen-

t i a l l y with distance. Thus, the behavior of the linear and non-linear

t h e o r i e s is quite compatible.
 The wave velocity h a s the expected value (cl* = 1 + F) a t a
vanishing wave length (uniform flow). In both the l i n e a r and non-

l i n e a r t h e o r y it i s s e e n t h a t t h e t e r m So ~ /n ha p p e a r s . This allows a

c o m p a r i s o n between the wave velocities a t a fixed value of F and Y.

F o r vanishing v a l u e s of Y the values of c / K a r e the same

( c = 1 + F), and f o r Y > 0 the non-linear wave velocity i s

larger. T h i s c a n be s e e n by comparing v a l u e s given by f i g u r e s 3 and

6 f o r fixed v a l u e s of F and Y. This i s because the wave amplitude of

the non-linear t h e o r y is not r e s t r i c t e d to be s m a l l , and the velocity

of a shallow w a t e r wave i n c r e a s e s with the amplitude.

A s t h e wave length a p p r o a c h e s infinity the wave shape and

velocity a p p r o a c h a finite solution which gives r a t h e r substantial

values of hmax/hn. T h i s c o r r e s p o n d s to one wave of infinite length

i n a channel of infinite length. F o r this limiting c a s e hmin a p p r o a c h e s

Schonfeld (19) h a s c l a i m e d to have found t h a t only the solution

with hmax/h = 2.07 is a stable one. However, i n h i s work r e l a t i o n s

n
w e r e d e r i v e d b y a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e r e w a s a discontinuity in the w a t e r

s u r f a c e at h = hn (in addition to the one a t t h e shock). The above

solution h a s no discontinuities of this type, and t h e r e f o r e Schonfeld's

r e s u l t is doubtful. A stability a n a l y s i s of t h e periodic permanent solu-

tion m a y lead to s o m e interesting r e s u l t s . T h i s r e m a i n s to be done.

 CHAPTER IV

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS - APPARATUS AND PROCEDURE

IV-A INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE

The two objectives of the l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e :

1) To obtain information on r o l l wave t r a i n s t h a t develop

n a t u r a l l y f r o m a u n i f o r m flow; and

2) To obtain information on p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves to

c o m p a r e with theory. A long s t e e p channel w a s c o n s t r u c t e d f o r t h i s

study in the W. M. Keck L a b o r a t o r y of Hydraulics and Water R e s o u r c e s .

In t h i s chapter the s t e e p channel and the a p p a r a t u s used f o r the

measurements a r e described. The e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e , including

a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e quantities m e a s u r e d and the r a n g e of v a r i a b l e s

used is a l s o included. In the next section is a s h o r t d e s c r i p t i o n of

s o m e p r e l i m i n a r y w o r k p e r f o r m e d i n a 130-ft channel.

IV-B PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS

A 130-ft tiltable l a b o r a t o r y channel 3.61 f t wide with a m a x i m u m

slope of 270 (i. e. s i n 8 = . 0 2 w h e r e 0 = angle of inclination f r o m h o r i -

zontal) was utilized for s o m e i n i t i a l observations. It w a s found that,

b e c a u s e of insufficient length, r o l l waves w e r e not f o r m e d i n this

channel, even a t the m a x i m u m F r o u d e number of 2.65. Therefore

p e r i o d i c d i s t u r b a n c e s w e r e introduced a t the inlet using a motorized

r e c i p r o c a t i n g sluice gate. The plan of t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s w a s f i r s t

to make s m a l l d i s t u r b a n c e s and o b s e r v e t h e i r growth i n the 130-ft

length of the channel. The next s t e p of the plan w a s t o i n c r e a s e the s i z e

of the d i s t u r b a n c e s produced to c o r r e s p o n d t o t h a t o b s e r v e d a t the out-

l e t of the channel i n t h e first experiment and t o o b s e r v e t h e i r growth.

By r e p e a t i n g t h i s p r o c e d u r e it w a s thought that one could, in effect,

study the growth of waves i n a v e r y long channel. T h i s objective was

only p a r t i a l l y realized. The difficulty was that i t was not possible t o

produce waves a t the s l u i c e gate t h a t had the exact s i z e and shape of

those o b s e r v e d a t the channel outlet. This m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e to

r e l i a b l y piece together the different segments of the growing wave and

t h u s to p r e d i c t f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t s the wave growth a s a function of

distance along the channel.

In t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s t h e r e w a s one r u n in which the a r t i f i c i a l l y

produced d i s t u r b a n c e s w e r e l a r g e enough s o that periodic p e r m a n e n t

waves w e r e established n e a r the d o w n s t r e a m end of t h e flume. Because

the F r o u d e number w a s l e s s than any in the s t e e p channel, the d a t a on

wave shape and velocity f o r this r u n will be included i n the next c h a p t e r .

The method of obtaining data in this 130-ft channel was quite s i m i l a r to

t h a t used in the s t e e p channel which is d e s c r i b e d below. The periodic

wave p r o f i l e was obtained f r o m a p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s i m i l a r to t h a t i n

f i g u r e 14. In the 130 -ft channel the m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m depths

w e r e m e a s u r e d with a point gage. T h e s e point gage m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e

obtained a t five locations a c r o s s the 3.61 -ft wide channel, and a t five

m e t e r i n t e r v a l s along the flume. The periodic waves w e r e considered

to be p e r m a n e n t when the m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m depth did not change

o v e r significant length. The 130-ft channel is d e s c r i b e d b r i e f l y i n

Appendix I and in m o r e d e t a i l by Vanoni (20) and F i s c h e r (21).

IV-C APPARATUS

1.

The bulk of the e x p e r i m e n t s w a s c a r r i e d out i n a n extruded

aluminum r e c t a n g u l a r channel 4- 5 / 8 in. wide and 1 - 13/ 16 in. high.

This shape i s available c o m m e r c i a l l y i n lengths up to 16 ft. For a

channel length of 128 ft and s l o p e s of .08429 and .O5011, eight of

t h e s e 16-ft lengths w e r e joined ( s e e figure 7). The length was l a t e r

changed to 80 f t with a slope of . 1192 by removing t h r e e of the 16-ft

lengths. The lengths of channel w e r e joined by p l a t e s bolted to both

lengths as shown in f i g u r e 8. The ends of the two lengths w e r e

s e p a r a t e d by about 1/ 8-in. and body putty w a s used to f i l l the void.

F i n a l l y the joint w a s sanded to give a v e r y smooth finish.

The channel w a s supported at 5- 112-ft i n t e r v a l s b y b r a c k e t s

bolted to 2 x 4-in. t i m b e r s which w e r e fixed to the c o n c r e t e w a l l of

the l a b o r a t o r y . J - b o l t s w e r e used to c l a m p the channel to the b r a c k e t s .

Two adjusting bolts a t the b r a c k e t s w e r e used t o l e v e l the channel

transversely. F o r m e a s u r e m e n t of s t a t i c p r e s s u r e on the channel

floor, 1132-in.diameter h o l e s w e r e d r i l l e d through the floor a t the

approximate c e n t e r line. T h e s e h o l e s s t a r t e d a t s t a t i o n 6 (6 f t down-

s t r e a m of station 0.0 shown on f i g u r e 11 ) and w e r e put a t 6-ft i n t e r v a l s

o v e r the t o t a l length. A fitting w a s affixed to the underside of the

channel f l o o r , to which a p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r could be attached. The

d e t a i l s of the b r a c k e t and p r e s s u r e hole c a n be s e e n in f i g u r e 9 .

F i g u r e 10 shows the p r i n c i p a l dimensions a t a station with a supporting

bracket.
 N e g a t i v e No. 7 8 3 5

F i g . 7. G e n e r a l v i e w of c h a n n e l , S =
0
. 08429, 4, = 1 2 8 f t ,
n o flow

N e g a t i v e No. 7836

F i g . 8. V i e w of t y p i c a l j o i n t f o r c h a n n e l
 Negative No. 7837

F i g . 9. V i e w of c h a n n e l showing s u p p o r t
b r a c k e t and p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g
station
F i g . 10. Drawing of c r o s s section of channel
a t a station with a supporting b r a c k e t
INSIDE DIAMETER.. RECTANGULAR
I
VAR1E.S FROM 21%"

5"
7"
TO 3 8 -
 The galvanized s h e e t s t e e l inlet box had the s a m e inside width a s

the channel to avoid d i s t u r b a n c e s t h a t would r e s u l t f r o m a contraction

o r expansion. A drawing of the box is shown i n figure 11 . Observa-

tions on the flow i n the inlet a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r s V and VI. A

p l a s t i c paddle hinged on the u p s t r e a m w a l l of the inlet box and d r i v e n

by a v a r i a b l e speed f r a c t i o n a l h o r s e p o w e r m o t o r w a s used to c r e a t e

p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t waves. F i g u r e 12 shows the inlet in operation.

Flow w a s supplied by a constant head t a n k located n e a r t h e down-

s t r e a m end o f d h e channel. One reach. of the supply line to t h e inlet box

w a s a 3-in. d i a m e t e r pipe i n which a 1- 118-in. flange type o r i f i c e plate

w a s i n s t a l l e d f o r m e a s u r e m e n t of flow r a t e s . After installation t h i s

o r i f i c e plate w a s c a l i b r a t e d volumeCrically u s i n g a mcexcury o r w a t e r

m a n o m e t e r to r e c o r d the p r e s s u r e d r o p a c r o s s t h e orifice plate,

The slope of the channel w a s changed twice a f t e r the o r i g i n a l

setting. To obtain a given slope a l l the b r a c k e t s w e r e f i r s t placed a t

a p p r o x i m a t e l y the d e s i r e d elevation, and then the adjusting b o l t s a t

e a c h b r a c k e t w e r e used to obtain the f i n a l elevation. A surveyor's

t r a n s i t and a rod t h a t could b e attached to the channel was u s e d i n

obtaining the final elevation. The r o d w a s graduated i n .01-ft i n t e r v a l s

and w a s r e a d t o . 0 0 1 f t with a v e r n i e r s c a l e . The length of the channel

w a s m e a s u r e d with a s t e e l tape with graduations of 1/16 in. Thus the

a c c u r a c y of the slope w a s controlled b y the a c c u r a c y of the m e a s u r e -

m e n t s of the v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e s . With the v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e s a c c u r a t e

to . O O 1 f t , the channel s l o p e s for the 120 f t channel (. 050 11 and .O8429)

w e r e a c c u r a t e to .00001 (. 001/120), and f o r the 80 f t channel the slope

(. 1192) w a s a c c u r a t e to .00002. Once one s i d e of the channel a t a

 N e g a t i v e No. 7838

F i g . 12. View of i n l e t b o x a n d c h a n n e l n e a r inlet

with flow

N e g a t i v e No. 7839

F i g . 13. Closeup view of r o u g h channel

p a r t i c u l a r b r a c k e t w a s at the c o r r e c t elevation, a hand l e v e l w a s placed

on the channel and t h e l a t e r a l a d j u s t m e n t w a s made. Longitudinal align-

ment w a s accomplished by placing the channel a fixed l a t e r a l d i s t a n c e

f r o m a 0.010 in. w i r e t h a t w a s s t r u n g the length of t h e channel.

M e a s u r e m e n t s (e. g. m a x i m u m depths, p e r i o d s , etc. ) w e r e t a k e n

only a t the p r e s s u r e hole stations. I n v e r t r e a d i n g s a t five locations

a c r o s s the channel w e r e taken with a point gage a t e a c h of the p r e s s u r e

hole s t a t i o n s . I t w a s found t h a t t h e channel bottom w a s a n a v e r a g e of

about , 0 1 0 in. lower a t the c e n t e r than it w a s n e a r the s i d e - w a l l s f o r

stations not n e a r one of the supporting b r a c k e t s . At p r e s s u r e hole

stations n e a r one of t h e supporting b r a c k e t s t h e channel bottom w a s

flat b e c a u s e of the clamping action of the J - b o l t s . At e a c h s t a t i o n

a weighted a v e r a g e of the five i n v e r t readings was used to convert

w a t e r - s u r f a c e r e a d i n g s to depths.

Two s u r f a c e f i n i s h e s w e r e used f o r the channel. F o r t h e smooth

boundary a n epoxy e n a m e l w a s s p r a y e d on t h e aluminum channel. A

rough s u r f a c e w a s obtained by applying a uniform sand t o t h e b o t t o m

and walls of the channel immediately a f t e r they had been b r u s h painted

with a n enamel. The application of the sand consisted of covering t h e

bottom with sand and throwing i t a g a i n s t t h e s i d e - w a l l s until no m o r e

sand would stick. T h r e e days l a t e r the w a t e r w a s turned on and the

e x c e s s sand w a s washed off, leaving a uniform roughness about one

g r a i n d i a m e t e r thick. F i g u r e 1 3 shows t h i s rough channel. The geo-

m e t r i c m e a n s i z e of the sand g r a i n s , D and g e o m e t r i c s t a n d a r d

g'
deviation, o w e r e . 5 9 5 m m and 1. 11 respectively. Table 1 contains
g
the r e s u l t s of the s i e v e a n a l y s i s of t h e sand.
 Table I

Sieve Analysis of Sand i n Rough Channel

Mesh p e r in (Tyler) Sieve Opening mrn TOF i n e r by Weight

G e o m e t r i c m e a n s i z e = 0. 595 m m
G e o m e t r i c s t a n d a r d deviation = 1. 11
2. M e a s u r i n g and Recording Equipment

a. P r e s s u r e Transducer

Much of the data taken c o n s i s t e d of r e c o r d s of the floor

p r e s s u r e a s a function of t i m e a t the s t a t i o n s with p r e s s u r e holes.

T h e s e p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s w e r e converted to depth r e c o r d s , except f o r

the p o r t i o n of t h e wave n e a r the m a x i m u m depth, by the use of a c a l i b r a -

tion. The method by which t h i s c a l i b r a t i o n w a s obtained i s explained

below i n t h i s section. T h e s e p r e s s u r e s w e r e m e a s u r e d with a m o d e l

P 7 D p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r manufactured b y the P a c e Engineering

Company. In t h i s t r a n s d u c e r deflections of a 0.004 in. s t a i n l e s s s t e e l

d i a p h r a g m w e r e m e a s u r e d b y changes i n magnetic reluctance of two

magnetic c o r e s , and t h e r e s u l t i n g voltage changes w e r e r e c o r d e d by

a Sanborn s e r i e s 150 r e c o r d i n g o s c i l l o g r a p h s y s t e m , The t r a n s d u c e r

i s shown a t the left end of the angle i r o n in f i g u r e 9. It was connected

to the p r e s s u r e hole with a s h o r t p i e c e of 3 1 16-in. p l a s t i c tubing, via

a t h r e e - w a y valve used f o r bleeding and c a l i b r a t i o n p u r p o s e s . The

t r a n s d u c e r and valve w e r e mounted on a piece of angle i r o n s o t h a t t h e

whole a s s e m b l y could be placed a t any p r e s s u r e hole station. F i g u r e 14

shows a t y p i c a l p r e s s u r e r e c o r d of shock-type r o l l waves.

b. W i r e Gage and Point Gage

A p a r t i c u l a r l y s i m p l e device w a s used t o obtain the frequency

distributions of m a x i m u m depths,to c a l i b r a t e the p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r ,

and to m e a s u r e n o r m a l depths. The i n s t r u m e n t will be r e f e r r e d t o a s

a w i r e gage. The w i r e gage, shswn in f i g u r e 15, consisted of a s t a i n -

l e s s s t e e l m i c r o m e t e r head(reading to 0.00 1 in. ) mounted v e r t i c a l l y

in a b a s e of a l u m i n u m stock which r e s t e d on top of t h e channel walls.

 Negative No. 7840

F i g . 15. View of w i r e g a g e and p r e s s u r e

t r a n s d u c e r with w a v e s a p p r o a c h -
i ng
On the lower end of the m i c r o m e t e r head was attached a s h o r t p i e c e of

0. 020 in. d i a m e t e r s t a i n l e s s s t e e l wire. The aluminum b a s e was

wired to the Sanborn r e c o r d i n g system.

T h e oscillograph r e c o r d f r o m a w i r e gage i s shown i n f i g u r e 14.

A s c a n be seen, the w i r e gage reading changed f r o m i t s reading i n a i r

only when the w i r e was in contact with the water. I n f i g u r e 14 t h e w i r e

gage was d i r e c t l y o v e r the p r e s s u r e hole and high enough s o that i t

w a s in contact only with the wave peaks. The elevation of the w i r e was

changed by rotating the m i c r o m e t e r . It was found t h a t the w i r e w a s

s m a l l enough (. 020 in. d i a m e t e r ) s o t h a t no w a t e r was o b s e r v e d t o

hang below the lower end of it which would be undesirable.

The change i n the w i r e gage reading on the oscillograph c h a r t when the

w i r e was i n contact with the flowing w a t e r indicates t h a t t h e w i r e t i p of the

w i r e gage was a t a different e l e c t r i c potential when i m m e r s e d i n t h e water

than when in the a i r . The difference i n the potential was o n t h e o r d e r of 0.1

volt. Although the m e c h a n i s m r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the e x i s t e n c e of a n e l e c t r i c

potential was not investigated, the r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the w i r e gage

w e r e excellent f o r the m e a s u r e m e n t s f o r which it was used.

A point gage was used to m e a s u r e the elevation of the channel

bottom, and occasionally t o obtain e s t i m a t e s of the a v e r a g e m a x i m u m

depth of s m a l l amplitude waves. T h i s point gage was identical t o the

w i r e gage except that instead of a s m a l l w i r e , a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l point

w a s attached to the lower end of the m i c r o m e t e r head. These values

of a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth w e r e obtained by setting the point at a given

level and estimating what proportion of the wave c r e s t s that p a s s e d by

w e r e hitting the point. The a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth was taken a s that

depth c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the elevation of the point a t which about one-

half of t h e wave c r e s t s h i t the point. By this p r o c e d u r e , r e p e a t a b l e

values of a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth could be obtained f o r the s m a l l

amplitude r o l l waves.

c. Recording Equipment

The Sanborn recording oscillograph s y s t e m , s e r i e s 150, was

used f o r r e c o r d i n g s i g n a l s f r o m the p r e s s u r e and w i r e g a g e s . A

c a r r i e r p r e a m p l i f i e r m o d e l 150-1100 AS was used with the p r e s s u r e

t r a n s d u c e r , and a DC p r e a m p l i f i e r m o d e l 150-1000 with the w i r e gage.

F i g u r e 16 shows the four channel Sanborn unit which w a s used to

r e c o r d two p r e s s u r e t r a c e s and two w i r e gage r e c o r d s simultaneously.

d. C a l i b r a t i o n of P r e s s u r e T r a n s d u c e r S y s t e m

F o r conversion of a p r e s s u r e r e c o r d , such a s in f i g u r e 14,

t o a depth r e c o r d , a calibration w a s r e q u i r e d . F r o m the resulting

depth r e c o r d , only the m i n i m u m depths w e r e taken. The m a x i m u m

depths w e r e obtained f r o m the w i r e gage r e c o r d by a p r o c e d u r e

explained l a t e r . The m a x i m u m depths w e r e not taken f r o m the

p r e s s u r e r e c o r d for two r e a s o n s . F i r s t , the frequency r e s p o n s e of

the s y s t e m a s d e s c r i b e d above was probably not adequate t o r e c o r d

the v e r y f a s t r i s e i n p r e s s u r e s encountered n e a r the s t e e p wave f r o n t s .

Second, the p r e s s u r e s d i r e c t l y under the c r e s t s of the shock-waves

w e r e p r o b a b l y not h y d r o s t a t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d , s o that even i f the floor

p r e s s u r e w e r e c o r r e c t l y r e c o r d e d , the c o r r e c t depth of flow could not

b e found f r o m t h e m .
 Negative No. 7841

F i g . 16. View of 4-channel o s c i l l o g r a p h

r e c o r d e r w i t h w i r e gage and
pressure transducer
 A calibration consisted of a r e l a t i o n between the depth of flow a t

the c e n t e r line of the p r e s s u r e station in question, and the reading on

the r e c o r d e r c h a r t . An i n s i t u calibration w a s obtained before each

run. When a p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r was moved t o another station, it

was c a l i b r a t e d again.

Both s t a t i c and dynamic calibrations w e r e obtained. A static

calibration w a s obtained by varying the l e v e l of w a t e r i n the plastic

cylinder connected to the p r e s s u r e t r a n s d u c e r shown at the right s i d e

of figure 9. This changed the p r e s s u r e on the t r a n s d u c e r and thus

the reading on the r e c o r d e r c h a r t . By m e a s u r i n g t h i s w a t e r l e v e l i n

the cylinder with the point gage and noting the corresponding c h a r t

reading, a s t a t i c calibration was developed. This calibration was

always l i n e a r .

A dynamic calibration was obtained by using a w i r e gage located

d i r e c t l y over t h e p r e s s u r e hole. As i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 14, when the

water l e v e l dropped below the l e v e l of the w i r e , a change i n the w i r e

gage reading o c c u r r e d . Thus a t t h a t exact t i m e , the p r e s s u r e r e c o r d

m u s t have corresponded t o the elevation of the w i r e . By changing the

setting of the w i r e gage a complete dynamic calibration curve was

constructed. This calibration was l i n e a r also. F i g u r e 17 shows a

typical calibration of the p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g system.

In m o s t c a s e s the s l o p e s of the s t a t i c and dynamic calibrations

w e r e the s a m e . This indicated that the p r e s s u r e being r e c o r d e d was

i n fact only the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , b e c a u s e the velocity, and thus the

velocity head, v a r i e d along the wave length. If p a r t of t h i s velocity

head w e r e being r e c o r d e d because of s o m e i m p e r f e c t i o n s around the

 CHART READING -- mm

Fig. 17. Typical c a l i b r a t i o n of the p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g

system
p r e s s u r e hole, the s l o p e s of t h e s e two calibrations would be different.

However the two c a l i b r a t i o n s w e r e not n e c e s s a r i l y coincident because

of different r e f e r e n c e l e v e l s f r o m which the elevations w e r e m e a s u r e d .

In a l l c a s e s t h e dynamic calibration was used t o get the values of

m i n i m u m depth. The s t a t i c calibration was used mainly a s a n aid i n

determining the slope of the dynamic calibration, and a s a check on

the d r i f t i n the c a l i b r a t i o n , i f any, during the run.

IV-D EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1. Design of E x p e r i m e n t s

Data w e r e obtained on both naturally developed and periodic r o l l

waves f o r t h r e e different channel slopes. Two o r t h r e e different d i s -

c h a r g e s w e r e used on e a c h slope. F o r the l a r g e s t slope a rough

channel w a s a l s o used. N o r m a l depths w e r e m e a s u r e d f o r all slopes

and d i s c h a r g e s . Table 2 s u m m a r i z e s these channel conditions and

s t a t e s what type of m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e made.

The m e a s u r e m e n t s d e s i r e d on n a t u r a l waves f o r a fixed slope and

d i s c h a r g e could not a l l be taken i n one continuous run. Therefore i t

w a s n e c e s s a r y t o be able to duplicate a p a r t i c u l a r d i s c h a r g e quite

accurately. I t w a s found t h a t a m a n o m e t e r r e a d i n g could be s e t within

112 p e r c e n t of a given v a l u e , and thus the d i s c h a r g e w a s a c c u r a t e to

114 p e r c e n t . During a r u n the d i s c h a r g e was adjusted if n e c e s s a r y

to s t a y within t h i s limit. The d i s c h a r g e s i n table 2 c o r r e s p o n d to the

desired manometer readings.

 Table 2

Types of M e a s u r e m e n t s Obtained
f o r E a c h Slope and D i s c h a r g e

Type of M e a s u r e m e n t s Obtained

Channel Normal Periodic Natural

Surface Depth Wave s Waves

Smooth

Smooth

Smooth

Smooth

Smooth

Smooth

Smooth

Smooth

Rough

Rough

R ough
2. N o r m a l Depth

N o r m a l depths w e r e m e a s u r e d i n the r e a c h of uniform flow up-

s t r e a m of the region i n which developing r o l l waves w e r e f i r s t detected.

The depth of flow w a s m e a s u r e d a t five locations a c r o s s t h e channel a t

e a c h station, and a t a m i n i m u m of four stations t h a t w e r e 2 to 4 f t a p a r t .

The w a t e r - s u r f a c e l e v e l w a s v e r y unsteady, which is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

of high velocity flows. T h i s made i t v e r y difficult to m e a s u r e the

n o r m a l depth with a point gage. However the r e s p o n s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of the w i r e gage w e r e p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l suited f o r m e a s u r i n g t h e n o r m a l

depth. F i g u r e 18 shows a t y p i c a l oscillograph w i r e gage r e c o r d when

it w a s s e t c l o s e to the n o r m a l depth.

In figure 14 i t was s e e n that the w i r e gage oscillograph r e c o r d

showed one reading when t h e lower end of the w i r e w a s i n contact with

the flowing w a t e r , and another r e a d i n g when the w i r e w a s out of the

water. When the w i r e w a s s e t n e a r the m r m a l depth i n a uniform flow,

t h e reading on the oscillograph c h a r t fluctuated rapidly between the

"in w a t e r " reading and the "out of w a t e r " reading, a s s e e n in f i g u r e 18.

It w a s found that by varying t h e elevation of the w i r e , the r e c o r d e r

stylus made a d a r k e r i m p r e s s i o n e i t h e r on the "in w a t e r " o r the "out

of w a t e r " side of the r e c o r d . In f i g u r e 18 the .280-in. r e c o r d shows

a d a r k e r i m p r e s s i o n on the "in w a t e r " side, w h e r e a s when the w i r e

w a s r a i s e d . 0 l 0 in. to .290 i n . , the "out of w a t e r " side of the r e c o r d

shows a d a r k e r i m p r e s s i o n . I t w a s a s s u m e d that the n o r m a l depth

corresponded t o the c a s e i n which the r e c o r d e r stylus made equivalent

i m p r e s s i o n s on the "in w a t e r " and "out of w a t e r " s i d e s of the r e c o r d .

F i g . 18. T y p i c a l w i r e gage r e c o r d used to m e a s u r e
n o r m a l depths
Thus f o r t h e c a s e shown in f i g u r e 18, the n o r m a l depth w a s taken t o

c o r r e s p o n d to the .286 in. w i r e gage reading with a n a c c u r a c y of about

.002 in. In s o m e c a s e s with higher velocities this a c c u r a c y was

about .004 in.

3. Wave P r o p e r t i e s M e a s u r e d

a. Naturallv D e v e l o ~ e dRoll Waves

Four properties were measured:

(1.) Minimum depths (hmin) w e r e obtained a t stations

along the channel by using t h e p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s (e. g. figure 14) and

dynamic c a l i b r a t i o n s . At e a c h station values of m i n i m u m depth w e r e

obtained f o r about 200 waves f r o m which the a v e r a g e value and the

s t a n d a r d deviation w e r e calculated. In s o m e c a s e s a frequency d i s t r i -

bution w a s c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m t h e s e 200 values. T h i s s a m p l e of about

200 m e a s u r e m e n t s w a s found t o b e l a r g e enough to obtain consistent

results. A m i n i m u m depth m e a s u r e m e n t t h a t was g r e a t e r t h a n the

a v e r a g e depth (i. e. a v e r a g e depth over many waves a s e s t i m a t e d b y

eye f r o m the p r e s s u r e r e c o r d ) w a s not considered in t h e s e calculations.

T h i s eliminated those m i n i m u m depths between two waves t h a t w e r e

about t o combine. As a n e x a m p l e the m i n i m u m depth between the

wave c r e s t s 5 and 6 a t station 72 on f i g u r e 47c would not be used i n the

calculations.

(2.) P e r i o d s ( T ) a t s t a t i o n s along the channel w e r e obtained

f r o m the p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s . The period i s s i m p l y the t i m e period

between s u c c e s s i v e wave c r e s t s . Thus the period of a wave is i t s

length on t h e r e c o r d e r c h a r t .divided by the c h a r t speed. When two

waves w e r e about t o combine, they w e r e considered t o be two waves

a s long as the peak of each wave w a s c l e a r l y delineated on t h e

pressure record. F o r obtaining s t a n d a r d deviations and f r e q u e n c y

distributions about 200 values of p e r i o d w e r e used. The a v e r a g e

period of the shock waves a t a s t a t i o n w a s u s u a l l y calculated f r o m

about 1500-2000 waves t o obtain consistent r e s u l t s .

(3.) Wave velocities ( c ) w e r e obtained a t s t a t i o n s along

the channel. This r e q u i r e d using p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s f r o m two s t a t i o n s

taken concurrently. T h e s e s t a t i o n s w e r e usually 6 f t a p a r t but s o m e -

t i m e s up to 18 f t a p a r t . A p a r t i c u l a r wave was identified i n e a c h

r e c o r d and then i t s t r a v e l t i m e between the two s t a t i o n s d e t e r m i n e d .

F o r e a c h p a i r of stations the a v e r a g e value, s t a n d a r d deviation, and

frequency distribution of wave velocity was based on about 200 o b s e r -

vations. If two waves combined between the p a i r of s t a t i o n s being

u s e d , t h e i r velocities w e r e not computed because the wave velocity

changes a p p r e c i a b l y during t h i s overtaking p r o c e s s . The a v e r a g e

wave velocity was a s s u m e d to apply to a station midway between the

p a i r of stations.

(4.) Maximum depths (h ) w e r e obtained on t h e c e n t e r

max
line of the channel a t stations along the channel. F o r the s m a l l a m p l i -

tude w a v e s , a p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s i m i l a r to f i g u r e 4 1 w a s used t o obtain

the m a x i m u m depths. F o r r e a s o n s explained i n Section IV-C, the

m a x i m u m depths of the l a r g e .amplitude shock-t ype waves w e r e not

obtained f r o m the p r e s s u r e r e c o r d , but f r o m simultaneous w i r e gage

and p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s . The method w a s f i r s t to c o n s t r u c t a frequency

distribution of the m a x i m u m depths a t a given station, and then to

d e r i v e the a v e r a g e value and standard deviation f r o m it. The frequency

distribution w a s d e t e r m i n e d by placing t h e w i r e at a known l e v e l and

obtaining a r e c o r d of a t l e a s t 200 waves. The w i r e gage l e v e l was

then changed and again 200 waves w e r e r e c o r d e d . F o r each l e v e l of

the w i r e , t h e p e r c e n t of the waves t h a t hit the w i r e could be found

using the p r e s s u r e r e c o r d to count 200 waves and the w i r e gage r e c o r d

t o count the number of hits. The w i r e was v a r i e d f r o m a l e v e l w h e r e

a l l the waves h i t up to a level where none of the waves hit. The w i r e

was moved through a t l e a s t ten i n t e r v a l s of , 0 2 5 in. at m o s t , and l e s s

when t h e s t a n d a r d deviation of the m a x i m u m depths was small.

The s t a n d a r d deviation of the wave heights was found by plotting

t h e cumulative frequency distribution (value of h vs. p e r c e n t

max
g r e a t e r than o r equal to) on a r i t h m e t i c probability graph p a p e r . This

paper i s designed s o that a Gaussian distribution plots a s a s t r a i g h t

line. F i g u r e 3 7 shows s o m e typical r e s u l t s . In a l l c a s e s the plotted

values could be w e l l r e p r e s e n t e d by a s t r a i g h t line. Thus the s t a n d a r d

deviation was found graphically a s t h e difference between the 50

p e r c e n t value and the 84.1 p e r c e n t value. T h e s e values come f r o m

the w e l l known p r o p e r t i e s of a Gaussian distribution.

The a v e r a g e value of the m a x i m u m depths was calculated by

multiplying the p e r c e n t of waves between two s u c c e s s i v e w i r e l e v e l s

by the a v e r a g e w i r e l e v e l (wire level at lower end point plus 112 of

i n t e r v a l ) , and summing a l l these products. This method gives a good

e s t i m a t e of the t r u e a v e r a g e for any frequency distribution as long as

the i n t e r v a l s a r e sufficiently s m a l l . Because the frequency distribution

is Gaussian i n t h i s c a s e , the a v e r a g e value, computed a s above,

a g r e e d with the m e a n value on the probability g r a p h within about

.002 in.

A digital computer was used to compute the s t a t i s t i c a l quaa-

t i t i e s f o r the four wave p r o p e r t i e s .

b. P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t Roll Waves

P e r i o d s , wave v e l o c i t i e s , and m a x i m u m depths w e r e

m e a s u r e d i n the s a m e way a s explained above f o r n a t u r a l waves. How-

e v e r f o r periodic wFves -there w a s only one value for e a c h of t h e s e ,

quantities a t a given station b e c a u s e a l l waves w e r e the s a m e . I n

addition, a f t e r the waves have r e a c h e d a . p e r m a n e n t f o r m the wave

p r o p e r t i e s do not change with station.

Wave shape, including m i n i m u m depth, w a s d e t e r m i n e d for m o s t

of the periodic wave r u n s . The w i r e gage and bottom p r e s s u r e

r e c o r d s w e r e used to d e t e r m i n e the profile of the waves including the

steep fronts. The sensitivity of m e a s u r e m e n t of the t i m e i n t e r v a l

w a s i n c r e a s e d b y i n c r e a s i n g the r e c o r d e r p a p e r speed. The d i s t a n c e

f r o m the toe of the wave front to the point w h e r e the w i r e of the w i r e

gage i n t e r s e c t e d the w a t e r s u r f a c e w a s obtained a s the product of the

t i m e i n t e r v a l and the wave velocity.

4. G e n e r a l P r o c e d u r e f o r N a t u r a l and P e r i o d i c Roll Wave Runs

F o r r u n s with n a t u r a l r o l l waves p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s and w i r e gage

r e c o r d s w e r e t a k e n a t two stations c o n c u r r e n t l y . T h e s e stations w e r e

g e n e r a l l y 6 f t a p a r t but s o m e t i m e s they w e r e up to 18 f t a p a r t . After

obtaining s t a t i c and dynamic c a l i b r a t i o n s , a r e c o r d of about 200 waves

w a s taken a t c h a r t s p e e d s of 25 o r 50 m m / s e c . Then m a x i m u m depths

w e r e m e a s u r e d a t both s t a t i o n s with the w i r e gages a t a c h a r t speed

of about 5 m m / s e c f o r s e v e r a l w i r e elevations. Sometimes the i n s t r u -

m e n t s w e r e left a t a p a r t i c u l a r p a i r of stations and data w e r e t a k e n a t

two o r t h r e e d i s c h a r g e s before they w e r e moved t o another p a i r of

stations. More c o n s i s t e n t r e s u l t s w e r e obtained when m e a s u r e m e n t s

a t a l l stations w e r e taken before changing the d i s c h a r g e . In t h i s way

the data for one d i s c h a r g e could be obtained i n about one week.

F o r r u n s with p e r i o d i c waves the paddle i n the inlet box (figure 11)

w a s oscillated a t t h e d e s i r e d period. The amplitude of the paddle

motion could be v a r i e d by adjusting the s t r o k e of t h e connecting a r m

f r o m the motor. By suitable adjustment of the paddle amplitude a

p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave could be produced. However it took a c e r t a i n

length of channel before the periodic waves a s s u m e d a p e r m a n e n t f o r m .

T h i s length of channel d e c r e a s e d for the l a r g e r paddle amplitudes. By

m e a s u r i n g the m a x i m u m depth over a considerable r e a c h of the

channel, the region of p e r m a n e n t waves was found. The m a x i m u m

depths r e p o r t e d f o r the periodic p e r m a n e n t waves a r e a v e r a g e s of

m e a s u r e m e n t s a t four s t a t i o n s which g e n e r a l l y c o v e r e d about 30 to 4 0 f t

of channel. The velocity and profile of the periodic p e r m a n e n t waves

were also measured. I n s o m e c a s e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r s h o r t wave

p e r i o d s and thus s h o r t wave lengths, a p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t r a i n

would show s i g n s of becoming nonperiodic n e a r the d o w n s t r e a m end of

the channel.
 CHAPTER V

PRESENTATION O F EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

V-A INLET CONDITION

1. Smooth and Rough Inlet

a. O b s e r v a t i o n s of Flow Near Inlet

The i n l e t condition w a s found to have a significant influence on

the d i s t a n c e f r o m the inlet w h e r e r o l l waves could f i r s t b e s e e n o r

measured. If the channel bottom n e a r the i n l e t w a s left smooth, just

as the r e s t of t h e channel, t h e n a t u r a l r o l l waves developed f u r t h e r

u p s t r e a m than t h e y did when a s m a l l length of t h e channel bottom n e a r

the inlet w a s a r t i f i c i a l l y roughened.

By using continuous dye injection i n the inlet box w h e r e t h e

velocities w e r e low, t h e behavior of the flow i n the channel n e a r the

inlet could b e observed. Observations of t h i s kind w e r e m a d e f o r a l l

r u n s a t s l o p e s of .O5O 1 1 and .1192. The g e n e r a l flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

were similar for a l l runs. F o r a smooth channel bottom, i m m e d i a t e l y

d o w n s t r e a m of the r e s e r v o i r the w a t e r s u r f a c e w a s g l a s s y smooth and

a dye s t r e a m just below the w a t e r s u r f a c e r e m a i n e d intact. However

a f t e r a sufficient d i s t a n c e t h e dye s t r e a m began t o m i x with the w a t e r

until it w a s completely mixed. This point w h e r e mixing began was not

fixed f o r a given r u n , but oscillated up and down the channel i n a n

intermittent manner. The smooth w a t e r s u r f a c e b e c a m e roughened a t

about the s a m e s t a t i o n as the mixing began, and t h i s station of s u r f a c e

roughening o s c i l l a t e d also. A dye s t r e a m n e a r the channel bottom had

a s i m i l a r appearance and did not mix with the w a t e r until it was n e a r

the station where the s u r f a c e dye mixed.

The channel bottom n e a r the inlet was made rough by placing a

6-in. length of fine m e s h s c r e e n on the bottom of the inlet box, s o that

the downstream end of the s c r e e n was about 0.30 f t u p s t r e a m of

station 0.0. The widths. of the s c r e e n and the channel w e r e the same.

F o r t h i s condition the behavior of the dye n e a r the w a t e r s u r f a c e was

s i m i l a r to that in the smooth channel c a s e , except that the mixing

o c c u r r e d f u r t h e r u p s t r e a m and the initial mixing point f o r a given

d i s c h a r g e was stationary. However the dye s t r e a m n e a r the channel

bottom was completely mixed a t the downstream end of the s c r e e n .

Dye s t r e a m s a t intermediate elevations began t o m i x a t stations

between the end of the s c r e e n and the station w h e r e the s u r f a c e dye

began t o mix.

T h e s e observations can be adequately explained in t e r m s of

boundary l a y e r s . F o r a smooth inlet a l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r was

developed initially which eventually became turbulent i n a n i n t e r -

mittent fashion. F o r a rough inlet a turbulent boundary l a y e r was

initiated b y the s c r e e n , and t h i s boundary l a y e r eventually r e a c h e d

the water surface. Because no t r a n s i t i o n f r o m l a m i n a r t o turbulent

flow was required, no unsteadiness was introduced. M o r e will be

said about t h i s boundary layer notion in Section VI-C.

The g e n e r a l flow p a t t e r n described above f o r a smooth channel

bottom was m o s t c l e a r l y displayed a t the lowest d i s c h a r g e s c o r r e s -

ponding t o a n o r m a l depth (h ) of about . 2 in. F o r this value of h

n n
the dye s t r e a m stayed intact f u r t h e r downstream and the disturbances
a s s o c i a t e d with the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m l a m i n a r t o turbulent flow w e r e

sufficiently s t r o n g t o c r e a t e shock-type r o l l waves a l m o s t immediately.

However at n o r m a l depths of . 3 and . 4 in. the s u r f a c e d i s t u r b a n c e s

n e a r t h e zone of dye mixing w e r e not a s pronounced, although at t i m e s

t h e s e d i s t u r b a n c e s could be s e e n to eventually develop into r o l l waves.

F i g u r e 19 shows water-surface profiles for a typical condition n e a r

a smooth inlet a t a n o r m a l depth of .2 in. Three surface profiles a r e

plotted; the depth during p e r i o d s when t h e s u r f a c e was smooth, the

a v e r a g e depth during p e r i o d s when the s u r f a c e was rough, and the

m a x i m u m depth during periods when the s u r f a c e was rough. These

depths w e r e m e a s u r e d using a w i r e gage and point gage a t the channel

c e n t e r line. F r o m the t r e n d of the maximum depth v a l u e s , it i s s e e n

that a p p r e c i a b l e disturbances w e r e developed, even a t station 5.0 ft.

It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o observe that the depth of the smooth w a t e r s u r f a c e

f e l l below the n o r m a l depth. F o r a rough inlet a t the s a m e slope and

h n as shown on figure 19, comparable disturbances did not become

a p p r e c i a b l e until about station 30.

F o r n o r m a l depths of . 3 and . 4 in. , and a smooth inlet, t h e depth

did not jump discontinuously f r o m a low depth (smooth w a t e r s u r f a c e )

to a higher depth (rough w a t e r s u r f a c e ) a s shown i n figure 19. Instead

t h e r e w a s a m o r e g r a d u a l t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a smooth t o a rough w a t e r

s u r f a c e , although the point of roughening was oscillating somewhat.

F o r n o r m a l depths of . 3 and . 4 in. with a rough inlet, t h e r e was a l s o

a g r a d u a l depth t r a n s i t i o n f r o m a smooth water s u r f a c e t o a rough

water surface. Rowever t h i s s u r f a c e roughness, and the a s s o c i a t e d

i n t e r s e c t i o n of the turbulent boundary l a y e r with the w a t e r s u r f a c e ,

 II AVERAGE DEPTH DURING PERIODS WHEN SURFACE ROUGH I
1 MAXIMUM DEPTH DURING PERIODS WHEN SURFACE ROUGH I
I6 DEPTH DURING PERIODS WHEN SURFACE SMOOTH I

SURFACE BECOMES INTER-

--
SMOOTH INLET

3 4
STATION-
--
FEET
Fig. 19. G r a p h of typical water - s u r f a c e profiles n e a r a smooth inlet f o r a n o r m a l depth of . 2 in.
o c c u r r e d f a r t h e r u p s t r e a m and in a m o r e n e a r l y steady m a n n e r than

the flow with a smooth inlet. This observation is consistent with t h e

fact that a turbulent boundary l a y e r develops f a s t e r than a l a m i n a r one.

F o r the rough channel the conditions a t the inlet w e r e s i m i l a r t o those

i n a smooth channel with a rough inlet b e c a u s e the sand g r a i n s caused

the initiation of a turbulent boundary l a y e r a s the s c r e e n did i n t h e

smooth channel.

b. Adjustment t o Rough-Inlet Condition

F r o m the experiments it w a s found that with a smooth inlet,

a given value of a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth (hm a x ) o c c u r r e d at a s m a l l e r

value of (G = distance f r o m station 0.0) than with a rough inlet. This

fact i s consistent with the observations on the flow conditions n e a r t h e

inlet p r e s e n t e d above. I t was found that with a smooth inlet t h e r e

w e r e s u r f a c e d i s t u r b a n c e s which r e s u l t e d f r o m the i n t e r m i t t e n t m a n n e r

i n which t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e became rough. Presumably this inter -

mittency r e s u l t e d f r o m the l a m i n a r boundary layer becoming turbulent.

With a rough inlet the location of water-surface roughening w a s

stationary i n t i m e , a t l e a s t much m o r e so than with a smooth inlet,

and s u r f a c e d i s t u r b a n c e s resulting f r o m t h i s s u r f a c e roughening w e r e

not observed. T h e r e f o r e f o r a smooth inlet e x c e s s d i s t u r b a n c e s

(other than those p r e s e n t f o r a rough inlet) w e r e provided t o initiate

the development of r o l l waves.

One p u r p o s e of t h i s study is to d e s c r i b e s o m e g e o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s

of n a t u r a l r o l l waves as a function of distance f r o m the beginning of the

channel (i.e. G). F r o m the above d i s c u s s i o n it is c l e a r t h a t even f o r

a fixed d i s c h a r g e , slope, e t c . , t h e value of a given p r o p e r t y , s a y

-
h at a given value of 4, depends on the inlet condition. F o r the
max'
data to be p r e s e n t e d , this dependence on the inlet condition was

eliminated by adjusting the smooth-inlet r e s u l t s to a rough inlet.

F o r each smooth-inlet r u n this w a s done by adding a c o r r e c t i o n length

to the v a l u e s of G s o t h a t t h e adjusted development relations (e. g.

i;m a x vs. 4 ) w e r e t h e s a m e a s those that would have been obtained

with a rough inlet. F o r r u n s in which a rough inlet was used, and for

the r u n s in t h e rough channel, no c o r r e c t i o n was n e c e s s a r y .

To obtain a c o r r e c t i o n length for a smooth-inlet r u n , s o m e data

a r e a l s o r e q u i r e d f o r the s a m e hydraulic conditions with a rough

inlet. F o r e a c h r u n two c o r r e c t i o n lengths w e r e determined; one

f r o m the hm a x vs. G r e l a t i o n s for a smooth and rough inlet, and one

f r o m the Tav vs. G r e l a t i o n s for a smooth and rough inlet. T is
av
the a v e r a g e wave period. F o r each of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s the p r o c e d u r e

w a s to slide the two g r a p h i c a l relations (smooth inlet and rough inlet)

along the G a x i s until the data points f o r both the smooth and rough

inlet r e l a t i o n s showed a unique relation. The amount of displacement

along the G a x i s w a s the c o r r e c t i o n length. F o r e a c h r u n the two

c o r r e c t i o n lengths using the and T relations were practically

max av
the s a m e .

In t h e r u n s with n o r m a l depths of . 3 and .4 in. , the data points

f o r the smooth and rough inlet could be made t o define a unique relation

between Kmax and G o r T

av
and 8 , over the r a n g e of Km a x o r Tav that

was r e p r e s e n t e d b y the data. In other w o r d s the effect of the smooth

inlet w a s to t r a n s l a t e the development r e l a t i o n s u p s t r e a m without any

change of t h e i r shape with r e s p e c t to the r e l a t i o n s for a rough inlet.

However f o r the r u n s with a n o r m a l depth of . 2 i n . , the i n i t i a l p a r t

of the smooth-inlet development r e l a t i o n had a different shape than

the corresponding rough-inlet relation. T h i s smooth-inlet effect on

the shape of t h e development c u r v e i s shown i n f i g u r e 20 f o r the Emax

development relation. A s w a s mentioned i n t h e last section, i n the

smooth-inlet r u n s with a n o r m a l depth of . 2 i n . , shock waves w e r e

established quite c l o s e t o t h e inlet as a r e s u l t of the i n t e r m i t t e n t

behavior a s s o c i a t e d with the w a t e r s u r f a c e becoming rough. With a

rough inlet, shock waves w e r e f o r m e d f r o m s m a l l amplitude waves

which developed f r o m a uniform flow. T h e s e two different methods

by which shock waves w e r e f o r m e d h e l p explain the differences in the

development r e l a t i o n s a s shown f o r in f i g u r e 20. The develop-

max
m e n t r e l a t i o n s t o b e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s chapter apply t o r o l l waves t h a t

develop f r o m a u n i f o r m flow. T h e r e f o r e , f o r the smooth-inlet r u n s

a t a n o r m a l depth of . 2 i n . , the data points t h a t showed t h e smooth-

inlet effect on the shape of t h e development r e l a t i o n s (e. g. the seven

smooth inlet points for I

; l e s s than about 1.6 i n figure 20) w e r e
m a x/ hn
not included on the development r e l a t i o n s applicable to rough inlets.

The c o r r e c t i o n length f o r each r u n i n which a smooth inlet was

used i s shown i n table 3 . It is s e e n that the c o r r e c t i o n length

d e c r e a s e d a s the n o r m a l depth i n c r e a s e d , and d e c r e a s e d a s the

channel slope w a s i n c r e a s e d .
2.0 -
UNADJUSTED SMOOTH

1.8 - -
SMOOTH INLET RELATION
ADJUSTED TO MATCH
GH lNLET RELATlON-

BYM INLET h,-in. F Sb

4
N
0 SMOOTH .206 3.45 -05011
' ROUGH .206 3.45 .05011
C I

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000

- - - L/hn
Fig. 20. Typical smooth-inlet and rough-inlet development c u r v e s f o r average maximum depth,
fimax' at normal depth of . 2 in.
 Table 3

C o r r e c t i o n Lengths Added t o Smooth-Inlet Development Relations

. 2 inch . 3 inch . 4 inch

.05011 51 ft 25 16

.08429 30 12.5 0

. 1192 24 - -

2. Drawdown C u r v e s N e a r Inlet

F r o m the w a t e r l e v e l i n the inlet box the depth of flow d e c r e a s e d

t o t h e n o r m a l depth i n a s h o r t distance. These drawdown c u r v e s

w e r e m e a s u r e d f o r m o s t r u n s and s e v e r a l a r e shown i n f i g u r e 21.

Some depths w e r e m e a s u r e d with a w i r e gage using the s a m e technique

t o obtain the a v e r a g e depth a s w a s used to obtain the n o r m a l depths.

Other depths w e r e m e a s u r e d with a point gage and w e r e subject t o the

l a r g e r e r r o r s of t h i s method. In both c a s e s only c e n t e r - l i n e depths

were measured. The m a i n p u r p o s e of t h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s w a s t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e conditions n e a r t h e inlet.

F o r n o r m a l depths of . 3 and . 4 in. i t w a s found t h a t t h e drawdown

c u r v e s w e r e the s a m e f o r a smooth o r rough inlet. However f o r a

n o r m a l depth of . 2 in. , t h e smooth-inlet condition w a s v e r y unsteady

a s shown in figure 19. Thus the drawdown c u r v e s f o r a n o r m a l depth

of . 2 in. i n figure 21 a r e f o r a rough inlet. Station 0. 1 f t w a s the

s t a r t i n g point of the drawdown m e a s u r e m e n t s , w h e r e a s the r e s e r v o i r

 .I192 375 POINT GAGE ROUGH

SYM So h,-in INSTRUMENT CHANNEL

, 0 .05011 .314 WIREGAGE SMOOTH
,08429 .314 POINT GAGE SMOOTH

SYM So h, -in INSTRUMENT CHANNEL

0 .05011 , 2 0 6 POINT GAGE SMOOTH
0 ,1192 ,210 WIREGAGE SMOOTH
g o .I192 ,199 POINT GAGE ROUGH

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
STATION-
-- FEET -
Fig. 2 1. Graphs of water-surface profiles near inlet of channel
i s about 9 in. u p s t r e a m of t h i s station. M e a s u r e m e n t s u p s t r e a m of

station 0. 1 f t could not b e obtained conveniently because the higher

w a l l s i n t e r f e r e d witE the supporting m e c h a n i s m f o r the depth gages.

V-B HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS O F LABORATORY CHANNEL

F r o m the m e a s u r e d n o r m a l depths t h e friction f a c t o r s , F r o u d e

n u m b e r s , and Reynolds n u m b e r s w e r e calculated. These a r e p r e -

sented i n t a b l e 4. The r e l a t i o n of Darcy-Weisbach f r i c t i o n f a c t o r , f ,

against Reynolds n u m b e r , R , for the smooth channel is shown in

figure 23, on which is plotted the r e l a t i o n obtained e x p e r i m e n t a l l y

b y T r a c y and L e s t e r (22) f o r a smooth, wide, r e c t a n g u l a r channel.

The e x p e r i m e n t a l points obtained i n the p r e s e n t study follow t h i s

r e l a t i o n quite well, with a n a v e r a g e deviation of only 2.2 p e r c e n t .

The F r o u d e n u m b e r s for the data i n figure 23 v a r y f r o m 3.45 to 5.98,

which provides m o r e evidence that the f r i c t i o n factor i n unstable flow

is not a function of the F r o u d e number a s proposed by Rouse (17).

F o r a rough boundary the f r i c t i o n factor c a n be e x p r e s s e d i n the

form,

Jrj?=2.03 l o g l O ( r / k ) t constant (5.1)

which can be d e r i v e d f r o m the t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k s of P r a n d t l and

von K a r m a n as Keulegan h a s shown (23). F e r e k is t h e s i z e of the

roughness e l e m e n t s which i n this c a s e w a s the g e o m e t r i c m e a n s i z e

(. 595 m m ) of t h e v e r y w e l l s o r t e d sand. F i g u r e 22 shows t h a t two of

the data points follow the above r e l a t i o n w h e r e the constant is 2. 17.

 Table 4

Hydraulic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of L a b o r a t o r y Channel

Slope Channel Width Water Discharge N o r m a l N o r m a l Froude Friction Reynolds

Surface b T Z ~ P Q Depth Velocity No. Factor No. R
in C cfs h u F f 4runlv
n n
in fps
.0501 1 Smooth ( 4.625 1 23.7 1 ,01700
( ,05011 1 Smooth 1 4.625 1 23. 1 1 .03433
C
1 . 0501 1 1 Smooth

Smooth
1 4.625 1 22.7 1 . 05142
Smooth
Smooth

Smooth
Smooth

Rough 4.55 23. 2 .007523

Rough 4.55 22. 6 . 0 17 17
Rough 4.55 23.7 .04798
Fig. 2 2 . Graph of the rough channel relation m-
2. 03 log iO(r/k)
a s a function of k/6, using m e a s u r e d friction f a c t o r s , f ,
in rough channel
- - - -

lo4 2 4 6 8 105
R = 4ru,/v
- - -

Fig. 23. Graph of f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s , f , m e a s u r e d in

smooth channel a s a function of Reynolds
number, R
I n f i g u r e 22 6 is the thickness of the l a m i n a r sublayer and taken to be

11.6 v /J-.0 F r o m N i k u r a d s e ' s e x p e r i m e n t s on rough p i p e s with a

uniform sand r o u g h n e s s , t h e equation f o r t h e velocity distribution is

(23),

u / u , = 8.5
P
+ 5.75 log ( y l k )

where u is the velocity at a distance y f r o m the rough wall, and u,

P
is the s h e a r velocity. By applying t h i s e x p r e s s i o n t o a wide r e c t a n g u l a r

channel, the constant i n equation 5.1 is found t o be 2. 12, which a g r e e s

quite w e l l with the e x p e r i m e n t a l value of 2.17.

One d a t a point in figure 22 is not consistent with t h e o t h e r two.

T h i s is a p p a r a n t l y b e c a u s e t h e flow w a s in the t r a n s i t i o n region

between a rough boundary and a smooth boundary. This transition was

found i n N i k u r a d s e ' s data, ( s e e f o r example Rouse (24) pg. 206) w h e r e

the deviation f r o m the rough-wall r e l a t i o n began a t a k / 6 value of

about four. Thus the point of d e p a r t u r e f r o m the rough wall r e l a t i o n

f o r a channel is consistent with the rough-pipe r e s u l t s . Nikuradse's

d a t a showed t h a t a s the value of k / 6 w a s f u r t h e r d e c r e a s e d the data

points approached the smooth-boundary relation. The dashed line i n

f i g u r e 22 indicates the g e n e r a l t r e n d expected i f m o r e data w e r e

available.
V-c NATURAL R O L L WAVES

1. G e n e r a l Description

R o l l waves developed f r o m u n i f o r m flow i n the l a b o r a t o r y channel.

The waves w e r e f i r s t c l e a r l y visible i n a r e a c h of channel downstream

of t h e uniform flow w h e r e t h e waves acquired a s t e e p front (shock wave)

which extended a c r o s s the channel. This point where the waves f o r m e d

shocks was not fixed f o r a given r u n , but v a r i e d with each s u c c e s s i v e

wave which indicated that t h e s e n a t u r a l waves w e r e not periodic. In

f a c t , t h e m o s t s t r i k i n g f e a t u r e of t h e s e n a t u r a l r o l l waves w a s the non-

periodicity a t a l l s t a g e s of t h e i r development.

I t w a s found that t h e r e was a station downstream of which no m o r e

r o l l waves w e r e f o r m e d , and the waves that had formed propagated i n

a nonperiodic manner. In fact t h e velocities of the shock waves w e r e

such t h a t s o m e waves would overtake and combine with the wave i m m e d i -

a t e l y downstream. In s o m e c a s e s t h i s p r o c e s s w a s repeated two o r t h r e e

t i m e s by the s a m e wave before r e a c h i n g the end of the channel.

The g e n e r a l appearance of a typical r o l l wave t r a i n in the l a b o r a -

t o r y channel is shown i n figure 24. The nonperiodic nature of the shock

waves is evident in t h i s photograph. F i g u r e 25 shows a closeup view of

one complete wave. The depth v a r i a t i o n along the wave can be s e e n by

noting the distance f r o m the w a t e r s u r f a c e to the top of t h e s i d e wall.

By c o m p a r i s o n with figure 1, the s i m i l a r i t y of the laboratory and field

r o l l waves is s e e n . One noticeable difference is the absence of "white

w a t e r " n e a r the shock front of the l a b o r a t o r y waves. This is caused by

entrained a i r which o c c u r s a t high wave velocities unattainable i n t h e

laboratory.
 N e g a t i v e No. 7842

F i g . 24. G e n e r a l v i e w of channel with

n a t u r a l r o l l w a v e s , S o = .1192,
.
h = 210 i n .
n

N e g a t i v e No. 7843

F i g . 25. S i d e v i e w of r o l l w a v e , S = . 08429, h =
o n
. 208 i n . ,
s t a t i o n 94 - 98
2. Tabulated B a s i c Data

Because of the nonperiodic nature of n a t u r a l r o l l waves, it is

n e c e s s a r y t o m e a s u r e the frequency distribution of the wave p r o p e r t y

desired. T h i s was done for the four p r o p e r t i e s m a x i m u m depth h

max a
minimum depth h
min
, period T, and wave velocity c. The method

of obtaining t h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s was explained in Section IV-D. The

r e s u l t s i n t e r m s of a v e r a g e values and standard deviations f o r all r u n s

a r e contained i n table 5. In some c a s e s values w e r e e s t i m a t e d

max
by eye with a point gage. Point gage m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e usually only

used to aid i n finding the c o r r e c t i o n lengths for the smooth-inlet data.

F o r s m a l l amplitude waves ( p r i o r t o forming shock waves) the

rnax
values obtained f r o m p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s a r e m o r e a c c u r a t e than e s t i -

m a t e s with the point gage. In table 5 the values which w e r e u s e d on

the g r a p h s a r e indicated. Note that for the rough channel (table 5i) d y a

m i n i m u m amount of data w e r e obtained. Thus the data on the g r a p h s

a r e f o r smooth channels unless they a r e noted to be rough.

3. Dimensionless Development Relations

One m a i n p u r p o s e of t h i s study is t o d e s c r i b e c e r t a i n g e o m e t r i c

p r o p e r t i e s of n a t u r a l r o l l waves. To make this description applicable

t o any channel, t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s m u s t be e x p r e s s e d i n meaningful

dimensionless t e r m s . To d e s c r i b e the development of the four

p r o p e r t i e s considered i n t h i s study, the r e l a t i o n s /h, w. */hn ,

max
-
hm i n / h n vs. -t/hn, So T a v an VS. L/h n , and c a v /& n vs. L/hn
w e r e used. T h e s e dimensionless e x p r e s s i o n s for the period and wave

velocity c a m e f r o m the periodic p e r m a n e n t wave t h e o r y i n Chapter 111.

 Table 5a Basic Data f o r Natural Roll Waves

So = .05011 h = .206 inch

Rough Inlet Smooth Inlet (Correction to match rough inlet = 51 ft)

- -
Station
ft
'max 'hrnax ~b,v (hmax'max L a x hrnax ~Cav a~ 'min Ohmin
inch inch sec inch inch -
inch -
sec -
sec inch inch
-
.217a .015 .457
.217~ .021 .558 .0 2 i d
.22 la .035 .676
. 2 ~ 5 ~ .033 .776 .362 . 02 1
.234a .040 . 8 16
. 239a .043 .891 .441 .019
.24aa .046 i. 030
. 259a .049 1. i19
.042 1.214
.290f .045 1.290 .611 . 0 17

.042 1. 487
. 3 ~ 4 ~ .044 1.549 .704 .015
.044 1.653
.044 1.695 . 7 19 .018
. 350f ,048 1.777
.046 1.848 .851 .0 15
.045 1. 900
. 375f .045 1.973 .928 .013
-
Notes: a. Point gage measurement d. Based on 50 values
b. Based on 500 t o 700 peaks e. Based on 30 values
c. Based on 1200 to 2000 peaks f. Based on 100 peaks p e r elevation

Unless noted otherwise, average values and standard deviations w e r e computed f r o m

about 200 values.

Smooth inlet data f o r stations 6 to 42 show the effect of a smooth inlet and were not
used on graphs on which wave properties were plotted a s a function of d l h n .

The i n t e g e r s following the (hmax)max values indicate the number of peaks out of 200
peaks that w e r e higher than the value of (hmaJmax indicated.
 83

T a b l e 5b B a s i c Data f o r N a t u r a l R o l l Waves

S o = .05011 hn = . 3 1 4 inch

Rough I n l e t Smooth Inlet ( C o r r e c t i o n t o m a t c h rough i n l e t = 25 ft)

-
-
Station
hmax Ohmax 'max' m a x 'max Ohm a x av lmin Ohmin
ft
inch inch sec inch inch inch sec inch
inch
- - --
6
12 . 3 ~ 4 ~
18 . 334d
24 . 337d
30 . 349d .744
36 .35ad .744
42 . 37zd .729
48 .737
54 .481-2 .40 1 .034 . 733e 24af . 020f
60 .499-3 .414 .040 .75ae
66 .539- 1 .434 .042 .815~
72 .557- 1 .446 .044 . 860e 232 .027
78 . 528-4 .446 .04 1 . 897e
84 . 564-2 .454 .042 . 9 3 te 22 1 .027
90 .632- 1 .478 .055 1.044~
96 .608-3 .492 .056 1.084~ 2 18 .032
102 .587-2 .481 .046 1.098~
108 .612-4 .498 .053 1. 1 5 6 ~ 2 14 .028
114 .659-2 . 5 14 .060 1. 24se
120 .659-2 .5 18 .0595 1. 3 0 4 ~ 204 .027

Notes: a. Point gage m e a s u r e m e n t e. B a s e d on 1600 to 3000 peaks

b. B a s e d o n 100 peaks p e r elevation f . B a s e d on 50 v a l u e s
c. B a s e d on 600 peaks g. B a s e d on 25 v a l u e s
d. M e a s u r e d f r o m p r e s s u r e r e c o r d (50 v a l u e s )

U n l e s s noted o t h e r w i s e , a v e r a g e v a l u e s and s t a n d a r d deviations w e r e computed f r o m

about 200 v a l u e s .

Rough i n l e t d a t a o n Emax f o r s t a t i o n s 12 t o 60 w e r e not u s e d on t h e g r a p h s b e c a u s e the

s m o o t h i n l e t d a t a f o r this i n i t i a l growth a r e m o r e a c c u r a t e .

The i n t e g e r s following t h e (hmax)max v a l u e s indicate the n u m b e r of p e a k s out of 200

p e a k s t h a t w e r e h i g h e r than the value of (hmax)max indicated.
 Table 5c Basic Data for Natural Roll Waves

So = .05011 hn = '404 inch

Rough Inlet Smooth Inlet (Correction to match rough inlet = 16 ft)

-- -
Station av
'max Ohmax 'max'max 'max Ohmax OT 'min Ohmin
ft inch inch sec inch inch inch
- - sec -
- inch inch

. 4 16d
. 421d
. 4 tad
.413~ .42 i d
.42zd
.410a .434d
.416a .440d
.453d
. 4 ~ 9 ~ .459d
.480d
. 441a ,568-2 .487 .034
.564-8 .495 .038 .286
.463a .627- 1 .511 .044
.608-11 .528 .052 .325
. 5 0 9 ~ .036 . 84ac .637-3 .528 .050
.687- 1 .542 .054 .402 ,296
.684-2 .560 .055
. 546b .046 . 9 16' .684-4 .570 .058 .454 .293
- - --
Notes: a. Point gage measurement c. Based on 500 peaks
b. Based on iOO peaks per elevation d. Measured from p r e s s u r e record (50 values

Unless noted otherwise, average values and standard deviations were computed from
about 200 values.

Rough inlet data on Emax for stations 30 to 90 were not used on the graphs because
the smooth inlet data for this initial growth a r e more accurate.

The integers following the (hmax)max values indicate the number of peaks out of 200
peaks that were higher than the value of (hmax)max indicated.
 Table 5d Basic Data for Natural Roll Waves

So = - 0 8 4 2 9 hn = .208 inch

Rough Inlet Smooth Inlet (Correction to match rough inlet = 30 ftl

-
Station
x
a:' V
T
: (hmax)max 'max Ohm ax ~dav 'min Ohmin
ft
inch sec inch inch - inch -
sec -inch inch
.229'
.253=
. 2 86 .030 .457
. 3 14 .035 .50 1
.251 .344 .042 . 577
.282 .369 . 048 .63 1
.314 .49 .40 1 .056 .743
.320 .51 .415 .057 .808
.351 .426 .056 .85 1
.378 .61 .439 .061 . 905 119 .020
.386
.383 -72 . 4 52 ,060 .996 124 . 0 18
.405 .467 . 058 1.063
.433 .84 .478 .056 1. 128 111 . 0 14
.44 1
.432 .95 . 50 1 .062 1.269 097 . 02 1
.472 ,511 ,069 1. 304
.474 1. 15 . 5 17 ,067 1.344 120 .019
.458 1. 13
.485 1.21 .53 1 .068 1.396 1t8 .0 19

Notes: a. Point gage measurement d. Based on 600 to 2200 peaks

b. Measured with stop watch e. Based on 50 values
c. Measured from p r e s s u r e record (50 values)

Unless noted otherwise, average values and standard deviations were computed from
about 200 values.

Rough inlet data were used only to find the correction length (30 ft); they were not used
on the graphs.

Smooth inlet data for stations 6 to 30 show the effect of a smooth inlet and were not
used on graphs on which wave properties were plotted a s a function of .Llhn.

The integers following the (hmax)max values indicate the number of peaks out of 200
peaks that were higher than the value of (hmax)max indicated.
 T a b l e 5e B a s i c Data f o r N a t u r a l R o l l Waves

So = . 0 8 4 2 9 hn = . 3 14 inch

1 Rough I n l e t Smooth Inlet ( C o r r e c t i o n to m a t c h rough i n l e t = 12. 5 ft)

Station Ohmin
~b,v (hmax)max 'max Ohmax Tav T
' 'min OC
inch sec inch -
inch inch sec sec inch inch fps
.329'
.327'
.325'
. 335C
. 343C
. 3 7 lC
.406 .520 .197
. 16
.426 . 520
.432 .505 .211
.20
.452 .537
. 6 13 .21
.501 .649 .266
.539 .695
.558 .755

.25
.584 .829d .323
.600 .9 0 9 ~
. 612 .943d
.26
,646 1 . 0 2 7 ~ .411
-
Notes: a. Point gage m e a s u r e m e n t c. M e a s u r e d f r o m p r e s s u r e r e c o r d (50 values)
b. M e a s u r e d with stop watch d. B a s e d on 2000 p e a k s

U n l e s s noted o t h e r w i s e , a v e r a g e v a l u e s and s t a n d a r d deviations w e r e computed f r o m

about 200 values.

Rough i n l e t d a t a w e r e u s e d only t o find the c o r r e c t i o n length (12.5 ft); they w e r e not u s e d

on the g r a p h s .

T h e i n t e g e r s following the (hmax)max v a l u e s indicate the n u m b e r of p e a k s o u t of 200

peaks t h a t w e r e h i g h e r t h a n t h e value of (hmax)max indicated.
 T a b l e 5f B a s i c D a t a f o r N a t u r a l R o l l Waves

So = - 0 8 4 2 9 hn = ' 4 0 4 inch

Smooth I n l e t (No c o r r e c t i o n t o m a t c h r o u g h inlet)

( h m a x1m a x uT
Station
'max Ohmax av 'min Dhmin
ft
inch inch inch sec sec inch inch
18 . 4 ~ 7 ~
24
30
36 . 436a
42 .440a
48
54 . 461a
60 .476"
66
72 . 5 14
78 .554
84 . 578 . 2 15
90
96 . 590 .236
102 .621
108 .646 .285
114
120 .670 .320 .251 .050

Notes: a. M e a s u r e d f r o m p r e s s u r e r e c o r d (50 v a l u e s )

U n l e s s noted o t h e r w i s e , a v e r a g e v a l u e s and s t a n d a r d deviations w e r e

computed f r o m about 200 v a l u e s .

, e c t i o n length ( z e r o ) w a s found f r o m rough i n l e t d a t a (using point g a g e

and s t o p watch) and s m o o t h i n l e t d a t a (using point g a g e and s t o p
watch) which a r e not shown in table.

T h e i n t e g e r s following t h e (h v a l u e s i n d i c a t e t h e n u m b e r of p e a k s
m a x) m a x
o u t of 200 p e a k s t h a t w e r e higher t h a n the v a l u e of
) indicated.
(hmax m a x
 Table 5g Basic Data for Natural Roll Waves

So = 0. 1192 hn = '210 inch

I
Rough Inlet
- I Smooth Inlet (Correction to match rough inlet = 24 ft)
- -- - -
C C
hmax)max ' m a hmax =T hmin lhmin av (hmax)max 'ma,
"c '=T limin hmin av
inch --
inch inch -- -
sec inch inch fps Ips inch inch -
sec - - inch inch fps
. 2 18'
-223'
.227'
. 5 id
.244'
.264' .097 . 154' .027' . 67d
-385-1 .311 .032 . 107 .585-1 .410 .22' .ill .026
-445-1 -339 .038 . 126 . 122 .023 5. 9ae
. 79e . 19e .634-1 .45i .27, . 105 .023
-521-I -385 .051 . 191 . 117 .019
.660-2 .493 .31
-622-1 .437 .057 .233 . i 15 .O23
6.33'
07e
-627-3 -472 .066 .270 . 118 .0 18 .538 .42, .099' .024'
-- - ----
Notes: a. Measured from p r e s s u r e record (50 values) d. Based on 20 values
b. Based on 2000 to 2200 peaks e. Based on 100 values
c. Based on 50 values f. Based on 1800 to 2400 peaks

Unless noted otherwise, average values and standard deviations were computed from about 200 values.

The integers following the (hmax)max values indicate the number of peaks out of 200 peaks that were
higher than the value of (hmax)max indicated.
 Table 5h B a s i c Data f o r N a t u r a l R o l l Waves

So = 0. 1192 hm = - 4 0 9 inch

Rough Inlet

-
(hmax1m a x
Station Oh
hmax max av =T
ft
inch inch inch sec sec

Notes: a. M e a s u r e d f r o m p r e s s u r e r e c o r d (50 v a l u e s )
b. B a s e d on 20 v a l u e s

U n l e s s noted o t h e r w i s e , a v e r a g e v a l u e s and s t a n d a r d deviations

w e r e computed f r o m about 200 v a l u e s .

T h e i n t e g e r s following the (h ) v a l u e s indicate the n u m b e r

max max
of p e a k s out of 200 p e a k s that w e r e higher than the
value of (hmax)max indicated.
 90
Table 5 i B a s i c Data f o r Natural Roll Waves

So = 0. 1192 Rough Channel

hn = '375 inch

b
(hmax)max L a x
Oh
m ax av
li=
max
inch inch inch sec inch

Notes: a. P o i n t gage m e a s u r e m e n t
b. Based on 600 t o 800 peaks

Unless noted otherwise, a v e r a g e values w e r e computed f r o m

about 200 values.

T h e i n t e g e r s following the (hmax)max values indicate the number

of peaks out of 200 peaks that w e r e higher than the
value of (h ) indicated.
max max
To e x p r e s s distance along the channel and m t e r depths in t e r m s of

the n o r m a l depth is suggested by the s m a l l amplitude t h e o r y (equation

3.20). Both of t h e s e t h e o r i e s indicate that the F r o u d e number is a n

important p a r a m e t e r . T h e r e f o r e the generality of t h e s e dimensionless

t e r m s f o r d e s c r i b i n g the development of n a t u r a l r o l l waves c a n be

tested by changing hn with F held fixed. F o r each channel slope i n

the e x p e r i m e n t s , the value of hn was changed by a factor of two while

the value of F changed slightly. T h e r e f o r e i f the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s

give unique r e l a t i o n s for each slope, it is r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e that

t h e s e unique r e l a t i o n s would apply a t any h

n
for t h e s a m e F and S
o
.
The effect of changing So with F held fixed will b e considered i n

Chapters VI and VII.

The r e s u l t s for Zmax/hn VS. 4, / h n a r e shown i n figures 26-29. On

each f i g u r e the slope is fixed, and F is approximately constant. Be -

cause e a c h graph tends t o show a unique relation (except possibly

figure 28) f o r a two-fold change in n o r m a l depth, the use of h to

n
d e s c r i b e the development of Laxi s justified. I t is s e e n that t h e

g e n e r a l shape of the r e l a t i o n s is t h e s a m e i n that t h e initial p a r t of

the c u r v e is concave upwards followed by a concave downward p a r t .

In no c a s e did I
; r e a c h a limiting value.
max
The d i m e n s i o n l e s s development r e l a t i o n s f o r the average period

i n the smooth channel a r e shown in f i g u r e s 30-32. In the rough

channel only a few p e r i o d s w e r e m e a s u r e d and a r e not shown. The

period is s e e n to change v e r y little f o r s m a l l 4, and then it i n c r e a s e s

a l m o s t l i n e a r l y to the end of the channel. This quasi-linear i n c r e a s e

i n period is a r e s u l t of wave overtaking.

Fig. 28. Development curve for average maximum depth, h max*
.
in channel with slope of 1192

SYM h,-in. F
0 ,199 3.74

O 1000 2000 3000 4000

Rfh,
A .

Fig. 29. Development

- curve f o r average maximum
depth, hmax, in rough channel with slope of
.1192
F i g . 31. Development c u r v e f o r a v e r a g e p e r i o d , F i g . 32. Development c u r v e f o r a v e r a g e
T , i n channel with slope of . 0 8 4 2 9 period, a v a in channel with
av
slope of . 1192
 In f i g u r e s 33 and 34 t h e development relations f o r and c
min av '
r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e shown. The value of Fmin reached a m i n i m u m value

in the longer channel (S = .05011 and .08429, figure 33a and b). The
0

wave velocity is s e e n to have i n c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y although t h e r e i s a

definite F r o u d e number dependence even for the s m a l l v a r i a t i o n s of

F on each slope. The dependence of c /

av
mnon F is predictable
f r o m the periodic p e r m a n e n t theory. F o r example, f i g u r e 6 shows that

c / s = 1 + F for the limiting c a s e of vanishing wave length.

In f i g u r e 35 the development c u r v e s for the s t a n d a r d deviation of

h
max
a r e shown. In c o n t r a s t to Kmax,
attained p r a c t i c a l l y
0
h
max
a constant value n e a r the end of t h e channel. On the other hand t h e

standard deviation of the period, shown in figure 36, i n c r e a s e d a l m o s t

l i n e a r l y a s the a v e r a g e period a l s o did.

4. Frequency Distributions and Wave Shape

Typical frequency distributions of the four m e a s u r e d p r o p e r t i e s

hmax, T s hmin and c a r e shown i n f i g u r e s 37-40 for various stations

i n one run. T h e s e a r e plotted on arithmetic-probability paper which

i s designed such that a frequency distribution with a n o r m a l (Gaussian)

distribution plots as a s t r a i g h t line. The p r o p e r t i e s h and c a r e

max
well r e p r e s e n t e d by a n o r m a l distribution, while the period approxi-

m a t e l y follows a n o r m a l distribution. The minimum depth shows a

definite d e p a r t u r e f r o m the G a u s s i a n law a t the low values.

F i g u r e 41 is a t y p i c a l p r e s s u r e r e c o r d i n a region w h e r e the waves

w e r e small. The v a r i e t y of wave shapes and lengths is seen. In fig-

u r e 14 the shape of shock waves is seen.

 I I I I

- SYM hn - in.
-
- ,404
-
- 0
So = .08429
0 q
.
- a
0
0
-
b, I I I I I I
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10,000

F i g . 33. Development curves for average minimum depth,

1;min' for channel slopes of .05011, .08429, 1192 .
Fig. 34. Development curves for average wave velocity,
c
av'
.
for channel slopes o f . 05011, ,08429, 1129
 0

.
0
-
-
Q .@a e~~
Q
o SYM hn- in.

a m
C

- 0 .404
= .05011
.
I

4 I I I I
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 l0,OOO

I 1 I I I
.40 - -
.30 -
SYM h n - i n .
.20 - .2 10
.409
-
.I0 -
0

So = . I 192
-
0 c1 I I 1 I I J

Fig. 35. Development c u r v e s f o r the standard deviation

of the maximum depth, a
h , for channel
max
slopes of .05011, , 0 8 4 2 9 , 1192 .
Fig. 3 6 . Development curves for the standard
deviation of the wave period, oT, f o r
channel slopes of . 0 5 0 1 1 , .08429, . 1192
 PERCENT GREATER

Fig. 37. Typical cumulative frequency distributions of maximum depth, hm a x

0.5 1 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 98 99.5
PERCENT GREATER

F i g . 38. T y p i c a l c u m u l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n of wave p e r i o d , T
0.5 1 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 95 99 99.8
PERCENT GREATER

Fig. 39. T y p i c a l c u m u l a t i v e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n of m i n i m u m depth, h

min
0.5 1 2 5 10 20 40 60 80 90 98 99.5 99.9
PERCENT GREATER

Fig. 40. Typical cumulative frequency distributions of wave velocity, c

V-D PERIODIC PERMANENT ROLL WAVES

1. 130 f t Channel

As mentioned i n Section IV-B t h e r e w a s one periodic permanent

wave run i n the 130-ft channel. The conditions f o r this r u n w e r e :

T = 3.00 s e c , So = .01942, hn = .780 in., and c = 5.70 fps. The

m e a s u r e d wave profile and velocity a r e shown i n figure 43 along with

the t h e o r e t i c a l solution for the profile for F = 2.65 ,and a dimensionless

period (TI) of 1.30. The wave profile a g r e e s v e r y closely with the

t h e o r e t i c a l solution, and the m e a s u r e d velocity is slightly higher than

given by the theory. F i g u r e 42 shows a definition sketch f o r wave

profiles. The length of the shock front (1 - (xl)max) was not m e a s u r e d

in the r u n in the 130-ft channel, and was a s s u m e d t o be negligible a s

shown in figure 43.

2. Steep Channel

Wave shapes and velocities for periodic permanent waves i n the

s t e e p channel w e r e m e a s u r e d by methods explained i n Chapter IV.

Table 6 contains the F and T ' values for each run, and the r e s u l t s

f o r hmax2 h m i n 3 and c i n dimensionless form. Because t h e s e t h r e e

p r o p e r t i e s a r e of p r i m e i n t e r e s t , they a r e plotted i n figure 4 4 along

with the t h e o r e t i c a l relations. In plotting the experimental points on

figure 44, the s a m e symbol was used f o r a l l data obtained f o r a given,

slope. Yowever f o r a l l ~ l o p e s ,except .O5Oll, t h e r e was one r u n a t a

higher n o r m a l depth, and thus a higher F, than the other r u n s a t the

s a m e slope. In m o s t c a s e s data for this a n e r u n a r e m t consistentwith t h t of

other r u n s , which can be attributed t o the slightly higher value of F.

 Fig. 42. Definition sketch for coordinates of water-
surface profiles for periodic permanent
roll waves

- ' - Experiment c / - =~3.94

Theory = 3.70

F i g . 43. Graph of measured and theoretical water-

surface profile for periodic permanent roll
waves in 130-ft channel, F=2.65, T 1 = l .30,
So=.0194
 Table 6

Basic Data for Periodic Permanent Roll Waves

&
Channel h F T' I' I
n hmax/hmin
I inch I - -
I I I
Smooth .314 1 3.71 11.08 1 5.18 1 1.72
Smooth
Smooth
Smooth
Smooth
Smooth
Smooth
Smooth .208 4.63
Smooth . 2 10 5.60
Smooth . 2 10 5.60
Smooth . 308* 5. 90::
Smooth . 2 10 5. 60
Rough . 199 3.74
Rough / . 199 1 3.74, 1
Rough .375 4.04 4.19 6. 1 4 2. 0 5
Rough . 199 3.74 5. 64 5. 95 2. 7 2

::Normal depth and Froude Number interpolated f r o m measured values at this slope.
 -
Fig. 44. -
Graph of experimental values and theoretical solutions for
hmax' hmin' and c as functions of dimensionless wave period
T' and Froude number F , for periodic permanent roll waves
T h i s slight d i s c r e p a n c y should b e c o n s i d e r e d when examining figure 44.

The values of F used f o r the t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d t o the F

f o r the m a j o r i t y of the d a t a points a t a given slope a s c a n be s e e n f r o m

t a b l e 6. Note t h a t the rough channel (So = .1192, h

n
= .199 in.) and

t h e smooth channel (So = , 0 5 0 1 1 , hn = .314 i n . ) had a n F of about 3.7.

I t is s e e n t h a t f o r a l l t h r e e p r o p e r t i e s t h e r e is a consistent e x p e r i -

m e n t a l r e l a t i o n for each F which is s i m i l a r to the t h e o r e t i c a l relation.

F o r hmin and c the e x p e r i m e n t a l points a r e slightly above the theo-

r e t i c a l curve. F o r hmax t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e considerably lower

t h a n the t h e o r e t i c a l v a l u e s and f o r a smooth channel t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y

i n c r e a s e s a s the F r o u d e number i n c r e a s e s . The rough channel

r e l a t i o n is even lower than the smooth channel r e l a t i o n f o r the s a m e F.

In table 7 a l l of the d a t a obtained on wave shape a r e p r e s e n t e d .

On figure 45 a few of t h e s e d a t a a r e plotted which s e r v e t o show the

significant t r e n d s . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i s the length of the shock

f r o n t which was a s s u m e d t o b e negligible i n t h e periodic p e r m a n e n t

wave t h e o r y .

V-E OBSERVATIONS ON INDIVIDUAL WAVES

A l l of the d a t a on n a t u r a l r o l l waves p r e s e n t e d above have been

obtained by m e a s u r i n g p r o p e r t i e s a t one station, then repeating the

m e a s u r e m e n t s a t o t h e r s t a t i o n s at a l a t e r time. These m e a s u r e m e n t s

w e r e combined t o give the behavior of a p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t y as a func-

tion of d i s t a n c e along the channel. To get s o m e information on how the

p r o p e r t i e s of a n individual wave changed with distance along the f l u m e ,

p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s t a k e n a t four stations simultaneously w e r e examined.

 Table 7

Observed Wave Shape for Periodic Permanent Roll Waves

I:;
1.
1.00

.990
. 970
.955
1.005

1.245
1.486
1.726
1.966
2.207
 Table 7 (continued)

Observed Wave Shape for Periodic Permanent Roll Waves

Sn=.1192 T':
 Table 7 (continued)

O b s e r v e d Wave Shape f o r P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t Roll Waves

R ough Rough
So=. 1192 S =. 1192
C hanne 1 o C hanne 1
Fig. 45. Graphs of m e a s u r e d w a t e r - s u r f a c e profiles for periodic
permanent r o l l waves
 In f i g u r e 46 p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s f o r stations 42, 54, 66, and 78 a r e

shown. At s t a t i o n 42 twelve waves a r e numbered and t h e s e s a m e waves

a r e identified a t e a c h station. F r o m a dynamic c a l i b r a t i o n and t h i s

p r e s s u r e r e c o r d , t h e v a l u e s of hmax/hn for t h e s e twelve waves w e r e

found and a r e l i s t e d i n t a b l e 8. The important r o l e of t h e overtaking

p r o c e s s is c l e a r f r o m t h i s table and figure 46.

In o r d e r t o examine the behavior of the wave v e l o c i t i e s when waves

overtake e a c h o t h e r , t h e simultaneous p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s f o r stations

60, 66, 72, and 78 p r e s e n t e d i n f i g u r e 47 w e r e examined. F r o m these

r e c o r d s one c a n s e e t h r e e c a s e s i n which one wave overtook another.

The c a l i b r a t i o n f o r t h i s p r e s s u r e r e c o r d was not obtained and is indeed

not r e q u i r e d t o m e a s u r e wave velocities. In table 9 the m e a s u r e d

velocities f o r t h e p e a k s delineated i n figure 47 a r e tabulated.

V-F ADDITIONAL DATA - LABORATORY AND FIELD

1. Ghambarian L a b o r a t o r y Data

G h a m b a r i a n ' s (13) e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y i n Section

11-C. We p r e s e n t e d h i s r e s u l t s for o n a g r a p h of /h vs.

max max cr
So4/hcr w h e r e h c r is the c r i t i c a l depth which for a r e c t a n g u l a r

channel is

w h e r e q is t h e d i s c h a r g e p e r unit width. Ghambarian found that the

value of Kmax/h a t t a i n e d a constant value a f t e r a sufficient distance.

cr
B e c a u s e t h e value of S is not indicated on h i s g r a p h
o
(Em a x / h c r vs.
So4/hcr), t h i s d i s t a n c e cannot be determined. F r o m h i s g r a p h it w a s
 118

Table 8

Values of hmax/hn F o r Twelve Consecutive Natural Waves

Peak No. Station 42 Station 54 Station 66 Station 78

 possible t o r e a d off t h r e e of t h e s e m a x i m u m values of maxlhcr TO

convert t h e s e to values of / h n the relation,

max

w a s used. This follows f r o m the definition of h c r and continuity

(q = u h ). T h e s e t h r e e values a r e shown in table 10. The maximum

n n
F of 11.58 c a n probably be a s s u m e d to correspond t o the m a x i m u m

channel slope of .86 (channel length of 10 m e t e r s ) , but t h e slopes for

t h e other two values a r e not known.

Table 10

Maximum Average Wave Depths After Ghambarian

Maximum Maximum
value of value of
F~ hm a x /hc r F /h
hcr/hn max n

14.6 9 .75 3.82 2.44 1.83

50. 1 .74 7.08 3.69 2.73

134.0 .65 11.58 5.12 3.33

J

All t h e data points w e r e r e a d f r o m a graph of f; /h vs. .L/hcr

rnax c r
i n the p a p e r by Ghambarian and Mayilian (14) where the r e s u l t s f o r

S = 0.10 w e r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e s e values of /h and .L/h were

o max cr cr
converted to values of m a x l h n and 4,/h n by using equation 5.4. For

t h i s slope the channel was 60 m e t e r s long and the channel roughness

w a s r e p o r t e d i n t e r m s Manning "n" values. F o r a n of .011 the F was

3.96, and f o r a n of .Ol5 the F w a s 3.30. These values of F a r e about

the s a m e a s for the smooth channel used i n t h i s investigation for a

slope of .05011. Thus i t c a n be deduced t h a t the channel G h a m b a r i a n

used f o r the r u n s at a slope of 0.10 w a s rough.

The v a l u e s of Hm a x / h n a r e shown i n figure 48 along with the e x p e r i -

m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s obtained i n t h i s study f o r v a l u e s of F c o m p a r a b l e to

t h o s e u s e d by Ghambarian. Although s o m e of t h e points tend t o show

the s a m e t r e n d a s the p r e s e n t study, t h e r e i s considerable s c a t t e r .

Some of the d a t a points f a l l below the n o r m a l depth which is physically

i m p o s s i b l e f o r a r e s e r v o i r type of inlet a s used by Ghambarian (and i n

t h e p r e s e n t study).

Ghambarian r e p o r t e d t h a t he m e a s u r e d the frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n s

of m a x i m u m depth, p e r i o d , wave velocity, and wave length, and t h a t

t h e y obeyed the n o r m a l distribution law.

2. F i e l d Data

On A p r i l 16, 1965 m e a s u r e m e n t s on r o l l waves w e r e obtained by

the Los Angeles County Flood Control D i s t r i c t (LACFCD) i n the

Santa Anita Wash flood-control channel. The w a t e r e n t e r e d the channel

over a 160-ft wide spillway shown in figure 49. The d i s c h a r g e w a s

d e t e r m i n e d f r o m m e a s u r e d velocities on the spillway c r e s t during the

test. At about 5000 ft d o w n s t r e a m of the spillway, o b s e r v a t i o n s on

m a x i m u m depths w e r e obtained b y using gages painted on the s i d e of

the channel ( s e e figure 1) t o visually e s t i m a t e v a l u e s of hmax. Wave

p e r i o d s w e r e a l s o d e t e r m i n e d by m e a s u r i n g the t i m e f o r waves t o t r a v e l

a known distance with stop watches. The d a t a f o r h m a x and T w e r e

obtained f o r groups of about five consecutive r o l l waves. Therefore

the v a l u e s of and Tav i n table 11 a r e a v e r a g e s f o r five waves.

max
 SYM ( EXPERIMENTS I CHANNEL I F I S, 1
GHAMBARIAN
GHAMBARIAN

F i g . 48. Graph of Ghambarian's results for average maximum depth 6 a s a function of d i s -

.
tance from beginning of channel 4 , for channel slope = 10 max
 N e g a t i v e N o . 7805

F i g . 49. V i e w of i n l e t t o S a n t a A n i t a
Wash, Arcadia, California,
d i s c h a r g e a b o u t 210 c f s
 Table 1 1

S u m m a r y of Santa Anita Data

Weighted values

Discharge
T av
cf s sec

h
max
values a r e m e a s u r e d to within about . 05 f t .
In table 12 the channel s l o p e s and widths f r o m the d o w n s t r e a m end of

the spillway t o the m e a s u r i n g station a r e listed. The channel h a s one

bend, station 1588 f t t o 2007 ft, which i s visible i n figure 1. The d a t a

f r o m t h i s study a r e contained i n a LACFCD.file r e p o r t which was

kindly m a d e available.

The n o r m a l depths f o r each d i s c h a r g e w e r e calculated using a

Manning r o u g h ~ scoefficient (n) of .010. T h i s value w a s derived f r o m

float v e l o c i t i e s and w a t e r depths obtained f r o m motion p i c t u r e s taken

during the t e s t . T h e s e s u r f a c e velocities w e r e c o r r e c t e d to m e a n

velocities by a s s u m i n g a logarithmic velocity distribution. Roughness

coefficients w e r e d e t e r m i n e d i n t h i s m a n n e r only when the w a t e r depth

w a s p r a c t i c a l l y constant, s o that the flow w a s e s s e n t i a l l y uniform.

The a v e r a g e n value of .010 w a s based on 4 1 s e t s of observations.

The slope of t h e channel, and thus the n o r m a l depth and F r o u d e

number f o r a given d i s c h a r g e , v a r i e d f r o m the spillway to the m e a s u r -

ing station. E a c h value of & / h n listed i n table 11 w a s obtained by

summing the v a l u e s of 4 / h n computed f o r each r e a c h of constant slope

between t h e i n l e t and the m e a s u r i n g station. However because the

h v a l u e s w e r e o b s e r v e d only a t the m e a s u r i n g station, the value

max
of hn in Kmax/hn w a s calculated using S = .O25 1. The d i m e n s i o n l e s s
0

period w a s calculated using the values of S and h a t the m e a s u r i n g

o n
station also. Table 11 includes a F r o u d e number f o r each d i s c h a r g e

that w a s computed a s a weighted a v e r a g e of the values of F f o r e a c h

r e a c h of constant slope. The weighting f a c t o r s w e r e taken a s p r o -

portional t o the length of the r e a c h e s of constant slope.

 Table 12

Slopes and Widths for Santa Anita Channel

Station Length Width Slope

ft ft

.0242

.0415

.0415

.0354
 I n f i g u r e 50 the data f o r the Santa Anita Channel a r e shown a s a

g r a p h of Emax/hn against &/h, along with the l a b o r a t o r y r e s u l t s f o r

a c o m p a r a b l e F. Although the points do not f a l l on the l a b o r a t o r y

c u r v e , the growth r a t e is roughly the s a m e . F o r periodic permanent

w a v e s , i t was shown t h a t h is a function of T ' f o r a given F.

m a x / hn
It w i l l b e shown in the next chapter that t h i s s a m e concept c a n be

c a r r i e d over to n a t u r a l waves if h is r e p l a c e d by and T by

max max
Thus i n figure 51 the field data a r e plotted on a graph of
*av*
-
h vs. T' along with the t h e o r e t i c a l and l a b o r a t o r y r e l a t i o n s
m a x /h n
f o r c o m p a r a b l e values of F. Although this plot i n d i c a t e s the s a m e

t r e n d a s the l a b o r a t o r y r e s u l t s and theory, the field data give slightly

h i g h e r values of L a x / h n .
 Fig. 50

/ 1I SANTA ANITA WASH

F=3.4 to 3.8
LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS
Fz3.45, SMOOTH CHANNEL 1
2.5 - I I 1 I ' Q
0 0
Fig. 5 1

0 SANTA ANITA WASH

F.3.4 to3.8. Sg.02514
I L I 1 I L

Fig. 50. Graph of average maximum depth 'fi: a s a function of distance

max
from beginning of channel 4 , for Santa Anita Wash
Fig. 5 1. Graph of average maximum depth Emax a s a function of dimen-
sionless wave period T', for Santa Anita Wash
 CHAPTER VI

DISCUSSION O F RESULTS

VI-A DEVELOPMEKT O F NATURAL ROLL WAVES IN TERMS O F

DISTANCE ALONG CHANNEL

1. Average Maximum Depth and Average P e r i o d

The development c u r v e s f o r shown i n f i g u r e s 26-29, indicate

rnax
that a unique relation e x i s t s between /h and & / h f o r each F r o u d e
max n n
number. The effect of the F r o u d e number on t h e s e development c u r v e s

i s s e e n in figure 5 2 w h e r e a l l the %rnax development c u r v e s for the

smooth channel a r e shown. F o r v a l u e s of /h above about 1.2,
rnax n
the growth r a t e (slope of t h e c u r v e ) a t a fixed a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth

i n c r e a s e d a s the F r o u d e number i n c r e a s e d . Also a given value of

/h o c c u r r e d a t a s m a l l e r value of &/h a s F i n c r e a s e d . In other

max n n
w o r d s , a s the F r o u d e number i n c r e a s e d r o l l waves developed c l o s e r

to the inlet and grew at a f a s t e r r a t e i n t e r m s of distance along the

channe 1.

The c u r v a t u r e of the development c u r v e is initially concave

nl a x

upwards and finally concave downwards. On the concave upward por -

t i o n , the r o l l waves have s m a l l amplitudes and have not yet a c q u i r e d

the s t e e p wave front. R e c o r d e r t r a c e s of waves of this type c a n be

s e e n i n figure 41. Eventually a l l the waves w i l l "break1' and i t w a s

d e t e r m i n e d f r o m p r e s s u r e r e c o r d s t h a t in t h e smooth channel t h i s

o c c u r r e d a t v a l u e s of h /h of about 1.18 a t the .O5O 11 s l o p e , 1.30

rnax n
a t the ,08429 s l o p e , and 1.34 at t h e . 1192 slope. T h e s e values a r e
F i g . 52. D e v e l o p m e n t c u r v e s f o r a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth 5m a x for channel
. .
s l o p e s of 05011, 08429, and .I192
i n the vicinity of the points of inflection of the development c u r v e s i n

figure 52. Thus the p a r t of the c u r v e t h a t i s concave upward p e r t a i n s

to s m a l l amplitude waves with a continuous w a t e r s u r f a c e , and the

p a r t that i s concave downward p e r t a i n s to waves with a discontinuous

w a t e r s u r f a c e (shock waves).

The development c u r v e s for the a v e r a g e p e r i o d s (figures 30-32)

show a constant period portion followed by a t r a n s i t i o n to a p r a c t i c a l l y

linear p e r i o d i n c r e a s e with length. The point on t h e s e c u r v e s w h e r e

the p e r i o d s t a r t s to i n c r e a s e f r o m the initial value is where the wave

overtaking begins. By examining the development c u r v e s , i t is

max
s e e n that t h i s overtaking begins a f t e r shock waves have formed and a n

a p p r e c i a b l e amount of growth h a s taken place. F o r example a t a slope

of .O5O 11 overtaking begins a t about d l h = 3000 which c o r r e s p o n d s

n
/h = 1.25, w h e r e a s shock waves f o r m e d a t Ih = 1.18
L a x n max n
approximately. T h i s growth without overtaking w i l l b e called n a t u r a l

growth, and the p h a s e of the development in which the average period

does not change w i l l be r e f e r r e d to as the initial development p h a s e .

Downstream of the initial development phase the observed a v e r a g e

period w a s p r a c t i c a l l y a l i n e a r function of distance. To understand

why t h i s should b e , one would have to investigate t h e details of t h e

movement of t r a i n s of shock waves t h a t have a n o r m a l distribution of

p e r i o d s and velocities. To complicate the p r o b l e m f u r t h e r , the

velocities change a p p r e c i a b l y during and immediately after a n o v e r t a k e .

An investigation of t h i s type h a s not been made. One consequence of

the o b s e r v e d l i n e a r function f o r the a v e r a g e p e r i o d , i s that th.e a v e r a g e

frequency of o v e r t a k e s ( n u m b e r p e r unit t i m e ) , w 0
i n a r e a c h of

channel A& can be e x p r e s s e d a s ;

w h e r e a i s the slope of the Tav vs. & r e l a t i o n (Tav = a & + b ) , and

s u b s c r i p t s u and d r e f e r r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o the u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m

end of the r e a c h A& i n question. T h i s r e l a t i o n follows d i r e c t l y f r o m

the continuity of wave peaks w h e r e the overtaking p r o c e s s a c t s a s a

s i n k f o r wave peaks. If & is now m e a s u r e d f r o m the point of the l i n e a r

i n c r e a s e (i. e . b r O), and A& is s m a l l c o m p a r e d to &, equation 6. 1

can be w r i t t e n ,

o r the frequency of overtaking v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y as the s q u a r e of the

distance f r o m the point w h e r e overtaking begins.

I t h a s been shown t h a t m o s t of the experimentally d e t e r m i n e d

development c u r v e s f o r I;m a x and T f d e s c r i b e d a unique r e l a t i o n f o r

e a c h value of F and So. It is r e a s o n a b l e to expect that t h e s e r e l a t i o n s

w i l l be valid f o r any wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel with equivalent inlet

conditions and the s a m e value of F and S a s w a s used in t h i s study.

0

However f o r channels with t h e s a m e value of F but on a different slope,

the r e l a t i o n s found in the l a b o r a t o r y m a y not apply. The effect of

channel slope on the I;m a x / h n vs. & / h r e l a t i o n i s s e e n by comparing

n
t h e r e s u l t s f o r the smooth channel a t a .O5Oll slope (figure 26), and

the rough channel a t a . 1192 slope (figure 29) since t h e s e two s e t s of

d a t a a r e f o r t h e s a m e r a n g e of F r o u d e n u m b e r s . One obvious
difference between t h e s e two r e l a t i o n s i s t h a t in the rough channel

r o l l waves developed to a given value of I

; a t a s m a l l e r value
maxlhn
of L/hn than i n the smooth channel. Another difference i s that f o r a

/ h , the growth r a t e of the shack waves (K

m a x /hn > 1.4
given
max n
approximately) w a s l a r g e r in the smooth channel than in the rough

channel. The effect of channel slope on the development of s m a l l

amplitude waves ( f r o m which shock waves a r e f o r m e d ) w i l l be con-

s i d e r e d i n P a r t 3 of this section. The effect of channel slope on the

growth r a t e of shock waves will be considered f u r t h e r i n Chapter VII.

2. S m a l l Amplitude Roll Waves and the L i n e a r T h e o r y

The l i n e a r t h e o r y i n Chapter 111 considered the motion of a s m a l l

amplitude sinusoidal p e r t u r b a t i o n on a n otherwise undisturbed uniform

flow of depth hn. The growth r a t e of the p e r t u r b a t i o n w a s shown t o b e ,

a v m a x l a (.L/hn) = qm a x (ZIT ci/ cr Y) (So / F a )

w h e r e the amplification f a c t o r (27rC./C Y ) i s a function of F and Y
1 r
(figure 2), and q
rnax is t h e amplitude which i n c r e a s e s exponentially
with d i s t a n c e (equation 3.39). If this theory i s valid a s a simplified

m o d e l f o r t h e motion of s m a l l amplitude n a t u r a l r o l l w a v e s , it is

expected that the o b s e r v e d a v e r a g e wave lengths would c o r r e s p o n d to

values of Y indicating a m a x i m u m amplification f a c t o r (F fixed) on

f i g u r e 2. F u r t h e r m o r e i t i s expected that the o b s e r v e d growth r a t e s

would i n c r e a s e with the F r o u d e n u m b e r , and t h u s , i f t h e i n i t i a l d i s -

t u r b a n c e s a r e of the s a m e s i z e , r o l l waves a r e expected to o c c u r a t

i n c r e a s i n g l y s m a l l e r d i s t a n c e s f r o m t h e beginning of the channel a s

the F r o u d e number is i n c r e a s e d . This interpretation of the t h e o r y

was given i n Section 111-A, and follows d i r e c t l y f r o m equation 3.38

and f i g u r e 2.

F i g u r e 53 shows portions of a l l the development c u r v e s f o r

max
f o r which a p r e s s u r e r e c o r d was used to obtain the values of i-; of
max
the s m a l l amplitude waves. The t e r m s m a l l amplitude will be used

for waves t h a t have not developed into shock waves. Therefore s m a l l

amplitude waves c o r r e s p o n d t o the p a r t s of the development c u r v e s f o r

-
h that a r e concave upward ( s e e P a r t 1 of t h i s section). Since o v e r -
max
taking did not s t a r t until a f t e r shock waves w e r e f o r m e d , s m a l l ampli-

tude waves a r e only p a r t of the i n i t i a l development phase. Values of Y

w e r e calculated f o r each of the s i x r u n s shown on figure 53 using the

a v e r a g e wave length for the values of 1. This a v e r a g e wave length w a s

computed a s the product of the a v e r a g e period, which did not v a r y

during the i n i t i a l development phase and the wave velocity. These

computed v a l u e s of Y a r e shown i n table 13. The observed a v e r a g e

wave lengths w e r e i n the range of maximum growth r a t e a s can be

s e e n f r o m f i g u r e 2. F u r t h e r m o r e , a s F was i n c r e a s e d the observed

Y d e c r e a s e d which follows the t r e n d indicated on f i g u r e 2. However

t h i s qualitative a g r e e m e n t is not a good c r i t e r i o n for judging the appli-

cability of t h e s m a l l amplitude t h e o r y to n a t u r a l r o l l waves because of

the r e l a t i v e l y wide r a n g e of values of Y n e a r the maximum growth r a t e

a s s e e n on f i g u r e 2.
F i g . 53. Development curves for small values of average maximum depth max for
channel slopes of . 05011, . 08429, and . 1192
 Table 13

Observed Dimensionless Wave Lengths of

S m a l l Amplitude N a t u r a l Roll Waves

The s m a l l amplitude t h e o r y p r e d i c t s that the amplification f a c t o r

should i n c r e a s e a s the F r o u d e number i s i n c r e a s e d . In f a c t , f o r the

r a n g e of v a l u e s of F and Y i n table 13, the amplification f a c t o r should

have v a r i e d b y a f a c t o r of about 2.5. This f a c t o r c a n be e s t i m a t e d

f r o m figure 2. The o b s e r v e d amplification f a c t o r s f o r e a c h r u n w e r e

-
found by plotting log (hmax / h n ) VS. & / h n , fitting a s t r a i g h t line t o

the plotted data points, and calculating the amplification f a c t o r s f r o m

the slope of the s t r a i g h t line and the known values of S and F. The
0

d a t a points indicated exponential growth f o r values of /h between

max n
about 1.05 and 1.20. E x c e p t f o r the r u n with F = 4.96, the amplifica-

tion f a c t o r s w e r e a l l about the s a m e ( r a t i o of m a x i m u m to m i n i m u m

value w a s about 1.2), and did not show any dependence on t h e F r o u d e

number. I n addition, the m e a s u r e d amplification f a c t o r s w e r e a l l l e s s

than the predicted values f r o m the theory. This of c o u r s e means that

the growth r a t e s , for a given value of 5m a x Ih,, w e r e about the s a m e

for a l l the r u n s except one. However i t was found that roll waves did

occur a t increasingly s m a l l e r distances f r o m the inlet a s the F r o u d e

number was i n c r e a s e d (e. g. with Zmax/hn = 1.1 in figure 53). Coupl-

ing t h i s fact with the observed t r e n d of the growth r a t e s (for fimax/hn 2

1. 05) l e a d s to the conclusion that r o l l waves did not begin to develop a t

the beginning of the channel, but began to develop a t increasingly s m a l -

l e r d i s t a n c e s f r o m the beginning of the channel a s the Froude number

was increased. It m u s t be noted that values of Emax/h below about

n
1.05 m a y not be v e r y indicative of the actual magnitudes of the r o l l

waves, if t h e r e w e r e any, because of the distrubances on the flow which

exist even f o r a uniform flow. Thus to delineate a point a t which roll

waves began t o develop i s difficult, but for purposes of discussion the

location corresponding to 5m a x / h n = 1.1 can be taken a s the one where

roll waves of "significant size" appeared.

As noted above the s m a l l amplitude theory does not predict the

observed t r e n d s i n the growth r a t e s . However the theory did predict

that waves of a given s i z e would occur a t increasingly s h o r t e r d i s -

tances f r o m the beginning of the channel a s the F r o u d e number was

i n c r e a s e d providing the initial distrubances were of the same size.

Thus by considering only the location of r o l l waves of significant s i z e ,

the theory p r e d i c t s the observed t r e n d a s F was varied.

3. Effect of Channel Slope on S m a l l Amplitude N a t u r a l Roll Waves

In S e c t i o n V I - A . 1 . i t was concluded t h a t t h e functional

relationships between r;m a x / h n and & / h d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e e x p e r i -

n
m e n t s in the l a b o r a t o r y channel should be valid f o r a n y wide r e c t a n g u -

l a r channel with t h e s a m e values of F and S0 t h a t w e r e obtained i n the

laboratory. The effect of changing S with F held fixed w i l l be

0

c o n s i d e r e d now.

The s m a l l amplitude l i n e a r t h e o r y p r e d i c t s t h a t the growth r a t e

i n c r e a s e s a s S i n c r e a s e s with F fixed. T h i s i s s e e n f r o m equation

0

3.38. The l i n e a r t h e o r y a l s o p r e d i c t s that the growth r a t e i n c r e a s e s

.
a s the F r o u d e number i n c r e a s e s ( s e e S e c t i o n V I - A . 2 ), but t h i s

w a s not o b s e r v e d f o r the n a t u r a l r o l l waves. T h e r e f o r e on t h e b a s i s

of t h e l i n e a r t h e o r y alone, it is not justified to a s s u m e that t h e r e w i l l

be a n effect of channel slope on the growth r a t e s of s m a l l amplitude

n a t u r a l r o l l waves.

Unfortunately t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence concerning the slope

effect is inconclusive. F o r t h e smooth channel a t S = .O5Oll, and

0

t h e rough channel a t S
0
= .1192, the values of F (for hn of about . 3 in.
and . 4 in. ) ranged f r o m about 3.7 t o 4.0, s o t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e

/h vs. & / h r e l a t i o n s cannot b e due to a F r o u d e number effect.

max n n
In f i g u r e s 26 and 29 the development c u r v e s f o r /h a r e shown,
max n
and on figure 48 both of the c u r v e s a r e shown. In the rough channel

the values of 5rnax / h n w e r e never l e s s than about 1.1, even v e r y close

t o the i n l e t , which can be s e e n in f i g u r e 29. However f o r t h e smooth

channel the m i n i m u m values of 5m a x / h n w e r e l e s s t h a n 1.05 (figure 26).

T h e r e f o r e i t c a n be s a i d that the initial d i s t u r b a n c e s w e r e l a r g e r i n

the rough channel than i n the smooth channel, with the r e s u l t that r o l l

waves a p p e a r e d a t s m a l l e r values of & / h in the rough channel than in

n
the smooth channel (figure 48). F o r a rough c o m p a r i s o n of the growth

r a t e s of the s m a l l amplitude waves figure 48 c a n be used. It appears

that the growth r a t e s w e r e not g r e a t l y affected by the channel slope,

however the r a n g e i n Km a x / hn for s m a l l amplitude waves (i. e. 1 . 1 t o

1.2 a p p r o x i m a t e l y ) i n t h e rough channel w a s not l a r g e enough to r e a c h

a n y definite conclusions. It i s i m p o r t a n t t o note that f o r Km a x /hn> 1.2

the growth r a t e s a r e c l e a r l y l e s s on the l a r g e r slope. This slope

effect on shock waves will be considered i n Chapter VII. In s u m m a r y ,

r o l l waves developed a t s m a l l e r values of & / h i n t h e rough channel

n
than i n the smooth one, but t h i s w a s p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e the initial

d i s t u r b a n c e s w e r e l a r g e r t h a n in the smooth channel. The effect of

channel slope on the growth r a t e s of s m a l l amplitude waves could not

b e a s c e r t a i n e d f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s because of the differences

i n the i n i t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e s .

N e a r the inlet of the rough channel the value of Emax/h was about
n
1. 1, w h e r e a s i n the smooth channel, f o r a l l s l o p e s , the initial values

'max /hn w e r e l e s s than 1.05 a t the locations w h e r e growth began.

T h i s c a n be s e e n in f i g u r e s 26 to 29. Table 4 shows that the d i s c h a r g e

i n the rough channel a t F = 4.04 w a s about the s a m e a s i n the smooth

channel a t F = 3. 81. It is r e a s o n a b l e to a s s u m e that the flow p a t t e r n

i n t h e inlet box w a s about t h e s a m e for about the s a m e d i s c h a r g e . The

p r i m a r y difference between the rough and smooth channel a t F = 3 . 7

to 4.0, b e s i d e s the slope, w a s the t e x t u r e of the channel bottom and

sides. In th.e smooth channel a 6-in. length of s c r e e n was placed on

the bottom ( s e e Section V-A) s o t h a t t h e d o w n s t r e a m end w a s . 3 0 f t

u p s t r e a m of station 0. 0. Th.e p u r p o s e of t h i s s c r e e n w a s t o eliminate

tEe l a m i n a r . boundary l a y e r . In t h e rough channel the sand g r a i n s

w e r e fixed to the bottom and s i d e s of the channel o v e r the t o t a l length

of the channel, and a l s o to the s i d e s and bottom of the inlet f o r the

portion extending 8 inches u p s t r e a m of station 0.0 ( s e e f i g u r e 11).

It i s r e a s o n a b l e t o s u s p e c t t h a t t h e l a r g e r i n i t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e s in

the rough channel w e r e due to the influence of the sand g r a i n s on the

s t r u c t u r e of the t u r b u l e n t flow n e a r the inlet. T h e s e sand g r a i n s w e r e

m o r e than four t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n the t h i c k n e s s of the l a m i n a r s u b l a y e r

(figure 22), s o that eddies generated b y the sand g r a i n s h a d a n influence

on the flow a s evidenced by the i n c r e a s e d f r i c t i o n f a c t o r s in the rough

channel. It s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e t h a t the influence of t h e s e eddies could

have extended to t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e , r e s u l t i n g i n d i s t u r b a n c e s to the

water surface. T h e s e d i s t u r b a n c e s would have r e s u l t e d i n l a r g e r

v a l u e s of
max
/hn than g e n e r a t e d i n the smooth channel.
F o r the e x p e r i m e n t s i n the rough channel with h = .375 i n . , the
n
value of h n / k was only about 16, w h e r e k i s the g e o m e t r i c m e a n s i z e

of the sand (. 595 m m ) . As t h e value of h / k i s i n c r e a s e d , it i s

n
r e a s o n a b l e to believe t h a t t h e influence of the eddies (generated b y the

sand g r a i n s ) on the w a t e r s u r f a c e w i l l b e l e s s . T h e r e f o r e i n a rough

channel with h / k m u c h l a r g e r than 16, but o t h e r w i s e equivalent to the

n
l a b o r a t o r y rough channel (i. e . F of about 4. 0, So of about .12), r o l l
waves would probably not develop a s c l o s e to the inlet (in t e r m s of

4, / h ) a s they did i n the rough channel in the l a b o r a t o r y .

n

4. F r e q u e n c y Distributions

The development c u r v e s for t h e s t a n d a r d deviation of h an(

max
shown i n f i g u r e s 35 and 36, indicate that a unique r e l a t i o n e x i s t s

between oh. and C/hn and between o T and C/hn f o r e a c h F r o u d e

rnax
n u m b e r . Although i n c r e a s e d over the e n t i r e length of the channel,
rnax
i t s s t a n d a r d deviation tended to r e a c h a constant value a t about

G = 8,000 h n . The s t a n d a r d deviation of the period i n c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y

to the end of the channel.

The frequency distributions for. h m a x w e r e found t o be a p p r o x i -

m a t e d by a n o r m a l distribution (figure 37). Rowever, t h e s e d i s t r i b u -

t i o n s w e r e m e a s u r e d only a f t e r shock waves had f o r m e d and only

average values, Hm a x a w e r e obtained for t h e s m a l l amplitude waves

before shock waves appeared. To m e a s u r e h f o r shock w a v e s ,

rnax
200 wave c r e s t s w e r e observed a t e a c h setting of the w i r e gage and

the number of c r e s t s t h a t s t r u c k the w i r e w a s r e c o r d e d . This w a s

continued until the w i r e w a s high enough s o that no c r e s t s (out of 200)

s t r u c k the w i r e . Thus the m a x i m u m r e c o r d e d value of h would

rnax
a p p e a r a t 0.5 p e r c e n t on the cumulative frequency s c a l e if only one

c r e s t out of 200 s t r u c k the wire. T h i s maximum value c a n a l s o be

expressed as,

-
) = h -!- 2 . 5 8 oh
'hmax rnax max
rnax
by using the p r o p e r t i e s of a n o r m a l distribution. I t is c l e a r that if a

l a r g e r number of c r e s t s had been used a t each w i r e gage setting, the

m a x i m u m r e c o r d e d h. m a y have been higher, but i t is not c o r r e c t

max
to a s s u m e that t h e s e higher values (with. frequencies l e s s than 0.5 p e r -

cent) would a l s o follow the n o r m a l distribution. F o r t h i s r e a s o n one

i s not justified i n m e r e l y extending the r e l a t i o n s i n figure 37, for ex-

a m p l e , t o obtain values of h with lower frequencies than 0.5 p e r -

max
cent. F o r a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , the value f r o m equation 6 . 3 r e p r e -

s e n t s t h e m a x i m u m value of h a t a given station.

max
The f r e q u e n c y distributions f o r T (figure 38) show s o m e deviation

f r o m the n o r m a l law a t the s m a l l values of T. In figure 38 the mini-

m u m T w a s the s a m e a t a l l t h r e e stations. This m e r e l y m e a n s t h a t

the m i n i m u m value of T corresponded to the s m a l l e s t distance between

two peaks that could be recognized on t h e p r e s s u r e r e c o r d . If the

c r e s t s had b e e n c l o s e r together, they could not have been distinguished

a s two s e p a r a t e c r e s t s . The l a r g e s t value of h in figure 39 is about

min
the s a m e f o r a l l t h r e e stations. This is because hmin was defined to be

l e s s than the a v e r a g e depth ( a s e s t i m a t e d by eye f r o m the p r e s s u r e

r e c o r d , s e e Section IV-D) which i s about equal to the n o r m a l depth.

Thus the m a x i m u m values of h for a l l t h r e e stations shown in fig-

min
u r e 39 w e r e slightly l e s s than the n o r m a l depth. The c u r v e s i n figure

39 show t h a t at e a c h station the s m a l l values of h deviate f r o m the

min
n o r m a l distribution indicated by the l a r g e values. At t h e low values of
a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e percentage of the values w e r e i n a given i n t e r v a l
hmin
a s c o m p a r e d t o the high values. As a r e s u l t the frequency distribution
f o r hmin w a s skewed t o w a r d s the s m a l l values and the m e a n was l e s s

than the median.

VI-B DEVELOPMENT O F NATURAL ROLL WAVES IN TERMS O F
WAVE PERIOD

In figure 44 the r e s u l t s of e x p e r i m e n t s on the periodic permanent

r o l l waves w e r e presented. It was shown that t h e r e was a consistent

relation between the dimensionless m e a s u r e d p r o p e r t i e s (hm a x 9 h m i n 7

and c ) and the dimensionless period f o r a given F r o u d e number and

channel slope. Comparison of the e x p e r i m e n t a l and t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s

shows the m e a s u r e d wave velocity and m i n i m u m depth to be slightly

higher, and the m a x i m u m m e a s u r e d depth to be considerably lower

than given by the theory. The deviation of the m a x i m u m depth f r o m

the t h e o r y i n c r e a s e s with the F r o u d e number. In the 130-ft channel

the t h e o r y and e x p e r i m e n t s w e r e i n v e r y c l o s e a g r e e m e n t (figure 43).

In the next chapter a modification t o the p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t t h e o r y will

be m a d e which w i l l g r e a t l y reduce the d i s c r e p a n c y for the m a x i m u m

depth.

Thus far, n a t u r a l r o l l waves and periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves

have been t r e a t e d independently. However, it w a s found t h a t the

a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth of a developing n a t u r a l r o l l wave t r a i n c a n be

d e s c r i b e d i n the s a m e manner a s a periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave t r a i n .

This is shown in f i g u r e s 54-57 w h e r e for both n a t u r a l and

max
periodic waves is plotted a s a function of TI. In t h i s m a n n e r of p r e -

sentation no c o r r e c t i o n for inlet condition is r e q u i r e d , a s it was for

the development c u r v e s e x p r e s s e d a s functions of & / h

n
. The n a t u r a l -

wave data f o r hn = .2 in. that indicated a smooth-inlet effect ( s e e

Section V-A) a r e included. The line drawn through the d a t a points i s

based p r i m a r i l y on the periodic p e r m a n e n t wave data, e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e

low values of T'.

F i g . 54. G r a p h of r e l a t i o n s between a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth Kma and d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave period
T ' for: p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t h e o r y with F r o u d e n u m s e r of 3 . 5 , p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t
.
wave e x p e r i m e n t s i n channel with slope of 050 11, and n a t u r a l wave e x p e r i m e n t s i n channel
.
with slope of 050 11
F i g . 55. G r a p h of r e l a t i o n s between a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth Kma and d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave p e r i o d
T' f o r : p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t h e o r y with F r o u d e num%er of 4 . 6 , p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t
wave e x p e r i m e n t s in channel with slope of .08429, and n a t u r a l wave e x p e r i m e n t s i n channel
with slope of 08429.
F i g . 56. G r a p h of relations between average maximum depth m a and dimensionless wave period
T ' for: p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t wave t h e o r y with F r o u d e num%er of 5 . 6 , p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t
wave experiments in channel with slope of . 1192, and natural wave experiments in channel
with slope of . 1192
 c
22
k a, m
a, c -
ard ,$
a, E c
 The data for the n a t u r a l waves indicate t h a t for s m a l l T ' and

Tim a x t h e depth Emax i n c r e a s e s without a change i n T ' . This indicates

that growth o c c u r s without overtaking. As a l r e a d y noted above t h i s

kind of growth h a s been t e r m e d n a t u r a l growth, and the development

without overtaking h a s b e e n t e r m e d the initial development phase.

During t h i s initial development phase the s m a l l amplitude waves f o r m

shock waves. Following this initial development phase, the n a t u r a l -

wave data show a gradual t r a n s i t i o n t o the c u r v e defined by the periodic-

wave data. In t h i s t r a n s i t i o n phase the shock waves w e r e overtaking

and the period was increasing. In the final development phase the

periodic and n a t u r a l waves follow the s a m e relation. The values of

-
h a t the end of the transition phase w e r e about 1.4 for
m a x /hn
S = .05011, 1.7 for S = .08429, and 1 . 8 for So = .1192. F i g u r e 57
0 0

shows that d a t a for n a t u r a l waves i n the rough channel were not obtained

in the t r a n s i t i o n p h a s e , but the minimum value of /hn that was i n

max
the final development phase was about 1.4.

In the final development phase the average maximum depth is a

well-defined function of the period. F o r periodic waves the period and

m a x i m u m depth w e r e fixed f o r a given run, and the maximum depth

could only be i n c r e a s e d by increasing the period. F o r n a t u r a l waves

the a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth i n c r e a s e d along the channel for a given

r u n , and t h i s i n c r e a s e was found t o be related to the average period by

the s a m e relation found f o r periodic waves. T h i s implies that t h e dornin-

ant m e c h a n i s m by which 'natural waves grow i n this final phase is over -

taking, which i s the p r o c e s s by which the a v e r a g e period i n c r e a s e s along

the channel. In the t r a n s i t i o n phase, the a v e r a g e maximum depth i s a

relatively "weak" function of t h e a v e r a g e period, i n t h a t a l a r g e chang.e i n

a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth c a n o c c u r with on1.y a s m a l l change i n a v e r a g e

period. Thus it c a n be expected that both n a t u r a l growth and growth by

overtaking a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s t r a n s i t i o n phase.

VI-C E F F E C T O F INLET ON DEVELOPMENT O F NATURAL ROLL

WAVES

In Section V-A the effect of the i n l e t condition on the development

of n a t u r a l r o l l waves w a s considered. With a smooth inlet the w a t e r

s u r f a c e a s h o r t d i s t a n c e f r o m the i n l e t w a s o b s e r v e d to a l t e r n a t e

between g l a s s y smooth and roughened i n a n i n t e r m i t t e n t fashion. This

u n s t e a d i n e s s w a s o b s e r v e d to contribute d i r e c t l y t o the development of

r o l l waves, e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e lowest n o r m a l depth of . 2 in. Rowever,

if the f l o o r n e a r the inlet w a s made rough, the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m the

smooth w a t e r s u r f a c e t o t h e roughened w a t e r s u r f a c e w a s steady, and

occurred f a r t h e r upstream. The o b s e r v a t i o n s of the w a t e r - s u r f a c e

t e x t u r e w e r e c o r r e l a t e d with observations of dye s t r e a m s introduced i n

the flow. T h e s e showed t h a t water-surface roughening c o r r e s p o n d e d to

mixing of t h e dye s t r e a m n e a r the w a t e r surface. Furthermore, for a

rough inlet t h i s point of dye mixing moved u p s t r e a m a s the dye s t r e a m

w a s moved t o w a r d s t h e channel floor. F o r a smooth inlet the station

a t which the dye mixed with the flow did not change appreciably a s the

location of t h e dye s t r e a m above the floor w a s v a r i e d . These observa-

t i o n s w e r e a l s o c o r r e l a t e d with m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e h v s . 4,
max
relation. T h i s showed t h a t with a smooth inlet r o l l waves developed

f u r t h e r u p s t r e a m t h a n with a rough inlet. Thus the unsteadiness i n

the region of s u r f a c e roughening with a smooth inlet provided a

sufficient amount of disturbance to h a s t e n r o l l wave development.

The observations and m e a s u r e m e n t s can all be explained in t e r m s

of boundary l a y e r development. In a smooth inlet a l a m i n a r boundary

l a y e r s t a r t e d t o develop on the channel floor. The thickness of t h i s

l a y e r i n c r e a s e d with distance until the Reynolds number w a s high

enough for t r a n s i t i o n t o turbulent flow to occur. The r e s u l t i n g

turbulent boundary l a y e r then quickly expanded t o i n t e r s e c t the w a t e r

s u r f a c e and caused the o b s e r v e d s u r f a c e roughening. Fowever, this

t r a n s i t i o n f r o m l a m i n a r t o turbulent flow w a s not a steady one, but

r a t h e r of a n intermittent n a t u r e s i m i l a r to t h a t observed i n pipes ( 2 5 ) .

It i s unlikely that the l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r g r e w to the full w a t e r

depth before becoming turbulent, because then the Reynolds number

would r e m a i n constant and the flow would r e m a i n l a m i n a r .

F o r the s a k e of a b e t t e r defined and r e p e a t a b l e boundary condition

a t the channel e n t r a n c e , a l l the r e s u l t s for n a t u r a l waves w e r e

c o r r e c t e d to a rough inlet i n the manner d e s c r i b e d i n Section V-A.

The important consideration h e r e is that t h i s c o r r e c t i o n w a s made for

each r u n e n t i r e l y independently of t h e other r u n s , and yet a l l the r u n s

f o r a fixed F r o u d e number collapsed to e s s e n t i a l l y the s a m e dimension

-
l e s s development c u r v e s for T and aT.
, h
max' av m i n ' Oh
max'
By observing the motion of dye injected into th.e inlet box, i t

a p p e a r e d t h a t some d i s t u r b a n c e s initiated i n the inlet did lead to r o l l

waves. T h i s was m o r e often observed a t t h e higher d i s c h a r g e s when

the unsteady component of motion i n the inlet box was much e a s i e r t o

detect than a t t h e low discharge.

 At t h e low d i s c h a r g e s it w a s possible to i n j e c t dye n e a r the t o p of

the l a s t baffle (figure 11) and o b s e r v e a continuous dye s t r e a m t o a t

l e a s t t h e beginning of the channel, which indicates t h a t the flow w a s not

turbulent i n the inlet box. However t h i s dye s t r e a m slowly moved f r o m

side t o s i d e indicating that the flow w a s unsteady. At the higher d i s -

c h a r g e s it w a s v e r y difficult t o get a continuous dye s t r e a m established

i n t h e i n l e t box b e c a u s e the d i r e c t i o n of flow w a s changing much m o r e

rapidly t h a n a t the lower d i s c h a r g e s . However the dye s t r e a m did not

spontaneously m i x with the flow, but r a t h e r it w a s broken up into

s e g m e n t s , a s a r e s u l t of the changing flow direction, and c a r r i e d into

the channel with t h e dye still visible. Occasionally a t the higher d i s -

c h a r g e s a v o r t e x tube could be o b s e r v e d curling out of the inlet box

into t h e channel.

F r o m t h e above observations it c a n be concluded t h a t d i s t u r b a n c e s

w e r e being g e n e r a t e d both i n the inlet box, and i n the channel n e a r the

inlet. In p a r t i c u l a r the flow i n t h e inlet box was m o r e unsteady a t the

h i g h e r d i s c h a r g e s than the lower d i s c h a r g e s , and with a smooth inlet

t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m l a m i n a r to t u r b u l e n t flow i n the channel w a s un-

steady. F o r low d i s c h a r g e s with a rough inlet, d i s t u r b a n c e s m a y have

originated i n the developing turbulent boundary l a y e r . In spite of the

a p p a r e n t l y d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s of d i s t u r b a n c e s a t different d i s c h a r g e s ,

the f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t m o s t of the d a t a f o r a given F r o u d e number (and

thus d i f f e r e n t d i s c h a r g e s ) collapsed to a unique dimensionless develop-

m e n t c u r v e a f t e r c o r r e c t i o n t o a rough inlet was made.

VI-D MOTION O F INDIVIDUAL NATURAL R O L L WAVES

F r o m f i g u r e s 46 and 47 and t a b l e s 8 and 9 s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g

o b s e r v a t i o n s on the motion of individual waves can be derived. At

station 42 (figure 46) t h e flow is i n the t r a n s i t i o n p h a s e of wave develop-

ment and a t stations 54, 66, and 7 8 it i s i n the final p h a s e (growth by

overtaking dominant).

F r o m t a b l e 8 i t c a n be s e e n that when one wave o v e r t a k e s a n o t h e r ,

the r e s u l t i n g h
rnax is g r e a t e r than t h a t of e i t h e r wave before overtaking.
However, t h i s r e s u l t i n g h
m a x value c a n d e c r e a s e as the wave m o v e s
d o w n s t r e a m a s o c c u r r e d i n wave 6 , 7, 8, between s t a t i o n s 54 and 78.

of wave 1, 2 d e c r e a s e d between stations 66 and 78, but this

The h m a x
m a y be b e c a u s e it w a s s t a r t i n g t o o v e r t a k e the next wave. Growth b y

overtaking w a s the dominant growth m e c h a n i s m f o r the waves i n fig-

u r e 46, yet wave 9 g r e w a p p r e c i a b l y without overtaking. This shows

t h a t n a t u r a l growth t a k e s p l a c e i n the final development phase. Wave 5

did not o v e r t a k e and its h was about constant between stations 54

max
and 78.

B e c a u s e r o l l waves a r e shallow w a t e r w a v e s , it is r e a s o n a b l e to

expect that t h e waves w i t h l a r g e r h h a v e h i g h e r wave velocity and

max
thus w i l l o v e r t a k e s m a l l e r , s l o w e r waves. T h i s is the c a s e f o r wave 8,

and the o v e r t a k e shown i n f i g u r e 47a. However, waves a r e s e e n t o

o v e r t a k e waves with l a r g e r h also. T h i s i s s e e n f o r wave 4 and

rnax
the o v e r t a k e i n figure 47 c. T h i s s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y situation

can be explained by u s e of the shock condition,

+g - ~ ~ m2+ahmin
c = um i n JEmax
min
x I
which was p r e s e n t e d i n Chapter 111. B e c a u s e u is the a v e r a g e
min
velocity i n a region w h e r e the w a t e r s u r f a c e is p r a c t i c a l l y p a r a l l e l

to t h e channel bottom, it c a n be approximated b y the e x p r e s s i o n f o r

n o r m a l velocity,

umin = F JG; Y

which shows t h a t umin i s about proportional to h Now c o n s i d e r

min '
two waves with the s a m e value of h and equation 3.44 shows t h a t
min '
the wave with t h e g r e a t e s t value of hmax t r a v e l s f a s t e r . On the o t h e r

hand i f two waves h a v e the s a m e h the wave with t h e l a r g e s t value

max'
m a y h a v e a l a r g e r value of c if the difference i n the values of
hmin
is sufficiently l a r g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a wave m a y overtake a wave
hmin
with a l a r g e value of h if the hmin value of the overtaking wave is
max'
sufficiently l a r g e r than t h a t of the overtaken wave. Wave 4 , the o v e r -

take i n f i g u r e 47c, and a l l other c a s e s observed, showed that when a

s m a l l wave overtook a l a r g e wave, the value of hmin of the s m a l l wave

w a s g r e a t e r than t h a t of the l a r g e wave.

F r o m r e c o r d s s i m i l a r to f i g u r e 46, the changes i n t h e v a l u e s of

during the overtaking p r o c e s s , but b e f o r e the two w a v e s a c t u a l l y

hmax
combined, w e r e examined. Almost e v e r y conceivable combination of

i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e of t h e h value of t h e following o r leading wave

max
w a s found. F o r example: h f o r both waves w e r e the s a m e ; h
max max
f o r the leading wave i n c r e a s e d and that of the following wave did not

change; h of t h e leading wave i n c r e a s e d m o r e than t h a t of the

max
following wave; and the m a x i m u m depth for t h e leading wave d e c r e a s e d
while t h a t of the following wave was constant. In figure 46 between

station 66 and 78, wave 1, 2 (following wave) d e c r e a s e d i n height while

t h e leading wave i n c r e a s e d f r o m h /h of 2. 19 to 2.42. A correla-

max n
tion between the r e l a t i o n of the m a x i m u m depths during overtaking and

the m a x i m u m depths before overtaking began could not b e detected.

I-Towever, a s d i s c u s s e d above, the m a x i m u m depth of the combined wave

w a s g r e a t e r than e i t h e r of the m a x i m u m depths during o r before o v e r -

taking.

The wave velocities during the overtaking showed a c o n s i s t e n t

p a t t e r n which can be d e r i v e d f r o m f i g u r e 47 and table 9. F r o m the

t h r e e o v e r t a k e s a t different s t a t i o n s shown i n t h i s figure, i t i s s e e n

t h a t the following wave a c c e l e r a t e s a s it o v e r t a k e s , and the velocity of

the combined wave is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of the leading wave during o v e r -

taking. T h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n r e s u l t s p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e the following wave

is propagating i n w a t e r t h a t i s continually getting d e e p e r and thus t h e

value of u i n equation 3.44 i n c r e a s e s . I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r the c o m -

min
bination, the value of u d e c r e a s e s a p p r e c i a b l y (since h of the
min min
combined wave is considerably l e s s than t h a t of the overtaking wave

just before t h e combination) and the combined wave velocity is l e s s t h a n

that of the following wave just before t h e combination. Experienced

o b s e r v e r s w e r e able to v i s u a l l y d e t e c t t h i s a c c e l e r a t i o n p r o c e s s in the

l a b o r a t o r y channel.
VI-E GHAMBARIAN AND LACFCD DATA

1. Ghambarian L a b o r a t o r y Data

Ghambarian found that the value of Km a x r e a c h e d a constant m a x i -

m u m value (table 10) although h e does not give the corresponding values

of L/hn. In the p r e s e n t study a constant m a x i m u m value of Emax was

not attained, but the t r e n d indicated that t h i s might have o c c u r r e d had

the channel been somewhat Longer. F o r a n F of 3.82, the computed

constant m a x i m u m value of /h f r o m table 10 is 1.83. F o r the

rnax n
smooth channel a t a n F of 3.45 (figure 26), the m a x i m u m value of

max
/hn obtained in the p r e s e n t study w a s 2.06 and i n c r e a s i n g . Thus

at about the s a m e value of F the /h value f r o m the p r e s e n t study

rnax n
is l a r g e r than Ghambarian's r e s u l t . If Ghambarian' s channel w a s

rough t h e slope would have been much g r e a t e r t h a n .050 11, i n which

c a s e t h i s d i s c r e p a n c y m a y be due to the slope e f f e c t to be d i s c u s s e d in

Chapter VII.

In f i g u r e 48 the d a t a f o r Kmax/h
. n
with a channel slope of . 1 0 show
a r a t h e r l a r g e amount of s c a t t e r . The f a c t that s o m e of the values of

I
; /hn (which w e r e calculated f r o m r e p o r t e d v a l u e s of Kmax/h.cr and
max
computed v a l u e s of h c r / h u s i n g equation 5.4) a r e less than 1.0,
n
indicates that the r e p o r t e d v a l u e s of F w e r e not a c c u r a t e enough. In

the p r e s e n t study it h a s been shown t h a t considerable c a r e m u s t b e

taken t o m e a s u r e n o r m a l depths, f r o m which the value of F i s calcu-

lated. I t is unfortunate that m o r e information could not b e e x t r a c t e d

f r o m Ghambarian 's publications.

2. LACFCD F i e l d Data

The field data f r o m Santa Anita Wash (figures 50 and 51) show that

reasonably consistent r e l a t i o n s for the development of L a x / h n in

t e r m s of -L/hn and T ' can be found by taking data f o r s e v e r a l d i s c h a r g e s

at only one station.

In figure 50 the l a b o r a t o r y c u r v e does not extend far enough t o

c o m p a r e with the highest values of hm a x / h n obtained f r o m t h e Santa

Anita Wash, but t h e lowest values a r e about 18 p e r c e n t l e s s than t h e

l a b o r a t o r y values. Two important differences between the l a b o r a t o r y

channel and Santa Anita Wash w e r e the inlet condition and the v a r i a b l e

slope. In the field (figure 49) t h e r e w a s a spillway followed by a

t r a n s i t i o n section of v a r i a b l e width which was considerably different

than the r e s e r v o i r inlet u s e d in t h e laboratory. F o r each d i s c h a r g e ,

t h e values of &/h w e r e computed b y summing t h e values of & / h n f o r

n
each r e a c h of constant slope. However, t h e c o r r e c t method of t r e a t i n g

t h i s v a r i a b l e slope (which i s not known) m a y be considerably a t v a r i a n c e

with t h i s p r o c e d u r e .

In figure 51 the field data for Kmax/hn a r e about 10 p e r c e n t higher

than the theory. After a change i n channel slope, i t t a k e s a c e r t a i n

distance before the flow can adjust t o the new slope. Thus t h e r e i s a

possibility that the slope change 875 ft u p s t r e a m of the m e a s u r i n g

station had s o m e effect on the r e s u l t s . At a d i s c h a r g e of 272 c f s , the

F on the s t e e p e r slope (S = .0332) w a s about 4.32 compared to 3.81

0

at the m e a s u r i n g station. This m e a n s that if the 875 f t was i n fact not

long enough for the flow to adjust to the s m a l l e r slope, t h e values of

-
h at the m e a s u r i n g station would tend t o be high.
m a x / hn
 T h e r e a r e two other considerations that affect the observed values

in the field. One i s that only five consecutive values of h

'max max
w e r e used to find the a v e r a g e values. This could account f o r s o m e of

the s c a t t e r i n the plotted data. Finally, the method of obtaining the

h max values was subject t o s o m e e r r o r . This was done by two

o b s e r v e r s reading a s c a l e painted on the channel wall with the s m a l l e s t

division of 0. 2 f t , and values w e r e usually r e a d t o 0.1 ft. Thus i t is

m o s t optimistic to e s t i m a t e that the a c c u r a c y was 0.05 ft which could

lead to e r r o r s in h a s high a s about 7 percent. In light of this and

max
a l l the other uncertainties mentioned above, the a c c u r a c y of t h e field

r e s u l t s a r e within acceptable limits.

 CHAPTER VII

MODIFIED PERIODIC PERMANENT R O L L WAVE THEORY

-
Observed m e a n m a x i m u m depths, h , for the periodic
max
p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves w e r e s e e n to be in s u b s t a n t i a l d i s a g r e e m e n t with

t h e theory. In t h i s chapter the p r i n c i p a l s o u r c e of difficulty w i l l be

shown to be in the shock condition, which w i l l be modified and the d i s -

crepancy between the modified theory and the d a t a will be g r e a t l y

reduced. The consequences of this modification with r e s p e c t to n a t u r a l

r o l l waves w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . Before considering the shock condition,

s o m e of the other a s s u m p t i o n s used i n the t h e o r y and the effects of a

v a r i a b l e f r i c t i o n factor and the s i d e -walls will be d i s c u s s e d .

VII-A ASSUMPTIONS IN PERIODIC PERMANENT ROLL WAVE

THEORY

The momentum equation f r o m which the t h e o r y for periodic

p e r m a n e n t waves w a s derived i n Section 111-B i s ,

u tauu
t X
+ ( l - a ) Ku A t tgh
X = gSo
1
- F r y (2.2)

which w a s given in Section 11-A. I n addition the continuity condition,

equation 2. 1, was u s e d , but because it i s a n exact equation for flow of

a n i n c o m p r e s sible fluid no comments r e g a r d i n g i t s a s s u m p t i o n s a r e

necessary.

In deriving equation 2 . 2 f r o m the Navier-Stokes equations (4)

n u m e r o u s a s s u m p t i o n s concerning the o r d e r of magnitude of t e r m s

w e r e made. T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e p r i m a r i l y b a s e d on the f a c t t h a t

t h e dominant motion w a s in the x - d i r e c t i o n , and thus it i s not s u r p r i s i n g

that equation 2. 2 i m p l i e s a h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e law. A wave t h e o r y

based on a h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e law is g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s a f i r s t -

o r d e r shallow- water theory. If the v e r t i c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s a r e not negligi-

ble, Keulegan(4) h a s found the additional t e r m s that a r e needed i n equa-

tion 2. 2. The addition of t h e s e t e r m s r e s u l t s in a s e c o n d - o r d e r theory.

F o r the a n a l y s i s of periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves the f i r s t - o r d e r

t h e o r y was used on the p a r t of the wave profile t h a t i s concave upward.

F r o m the wave p r o f i l e s i n f i g u r e 45, the m a x i m u m w a t e r s u r f a c e

slope o c c u r r e d n e a r the shock. Yet the m a x i m u m value of d h / d ~

for

the r u n a t a n F of 5.60 and T ' of 5 . 1 9 was found to be about 0.03. With

a m a x i m u m w a t e r s u r f a c e slope of t h i s magnitude i t c a n usually be

a s s u m e d that the motion w a s p r i m a r i l y in the x - d i r e c t i o n , the p r e s s u r e

w a s h y d r o s t a t i c , and thus the f i r s t - o r d e r t h e o r y is sufficient. I n this

c a s e t h e r e is the additional difficulty of the influence of t h e shock. As

the w a t e r p a r t i c l e s p a s s through this shock, f r o m the wave trough

(where h = h ) t o t h e wave c r e s t (where h = h

min m a x ), they a r e
a c c e l e r a t e d upward n o r m a l t o the channel floor. T h i s motion n o r m a l

t o the channel floor is usually confined to the region within the length

of t h e shock, a t l e a s t f o r s t a t i o n a r y shocks in steady flows (hydraulic

jumps). If this w a s the c a s e f o r the r o l l wave shocks, the p r e s s u r e

would have been h y d r o s t a t i c a t h and the u s e of the f i r s t - o r d e r

max
t h e o r y would be justified. M e a s u r e m e n t s relating t o the detailed

motion in the shock w e r e not taken. However, s i n c e the m e a s u r e d

shock lengths w e r e c o m p a r a b l e to the lengths of hydraulic jumps (to

be d i s c u s s e d in VII-C) w h e r e the u s e of a h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e

a s s u m p t i o n h a s been s u c c e s s f u l in predicting the r e l a t i o n between

h and hmin, it can be conjectured that the v e r t i c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n s

max
i n the section of m a x i m u m depth w e r e negligible.

In applying equation 2.2 to periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves the

a v e r a g e s h e a r s t r e s s on the solid boundary w a s evaluated by,

as d i s c u s s e d in Section 11-A. T h i s e x p r e s s i o n is valid for uniform,

steady flow with a fully developed turbulent boundary l a y e r . The u s e

of this e x p r e s s i o n f o r unsteady, nonuniform flow (periodic r o l l waves)

c a n certainly be questioned. An a t t e m p t to justify this assumption will

not be m a d e h e r e except to mention that t h i s s a m e a s s u m p t i o n i s m a d e

i n p r a c t i c a l l y a l l investigations of nonuniform (gradually v a r i e d ) open

channel turbulent flow, both steady (e. g. backwater c u r v e s ) and

unsteady (e. g. flood w a v e s ) . P e r h a p s the s t r o n g e s t a r g u m e n t f o r the

u s e of equation 7. 1 is t h a t no other a l t e r n a t i v e is available.

The f r i c t i o n f a c t o r i s evaluated f r o m r e l a t i o n s f o r uniform flow.

T h i s i m p l i e s that t h e boundary l a y e r i s fully developed, which w a s

probably t r u e o v e r m o s t of the r o l l wave profile except possibly n e a r

the wave c r e s t . I n this region the effect of the rapidly expanding flow

i n the shock m a y not have died out, o r in o t h e r w o r d s the velocity

profile had not r e a c h e d i t s fully developed state. Thus the s h e a r

stress, n e a r the wave c r e s t m a y have been substantially different

a
than a s s u m e d . The need f o r detailed m e a s u r e m e n t s of the velocity

profile n e a r the shock i s apparent.

The value of a in equation 2. 2 w a s a s s u m e d to be 1.0. Iwasa (8)

h a s shown t h a t for a fully developed logarithmic velocity distribution,

F r o m t h e m e a s u r e d v a l u e s of f a t n o r m a l depth i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y

channel, this equation gives m a x i m u m values of a sf about 1 - 0 2 f o r the

smooth channel and 1.05 f o r the rough channel. However, the value

of a n e a r the wave c r e s t m a y have been l a r g e r if a fully developed

velocity distribution w a s not established.

VII-B E F F E C T O F SIDE-WALLS AND VARIABLE FRICTION FACTOR

1. P r o b l e m and Method of Solution

In the periodic p e r m a n e n t t h e o r y i t w a s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n

f a c t o r did not v a r y along the wave length and the r e c t a n g u l a r channel

w a s wide enough s u c h t h a t the s i d e - w a l l s had negligible influence.

T h e s e simplifications r e s u l t e d i n a f o r m of t h e differential equation

that could b e integrated (equation 3 . 52). However, when the f r i c t i o n

f a c t o r i s p e r m i t t e d to v a r y (in t h e s a m e manner a s it v a r i e s i n uniform

steady flow), a n d / o r t h e hydraulic r a d i u s concept i s u s e d t o account

f o r s i d e - w a l l f r i c t i o n , n u m e r i c a l integration m u s t be u s e d to find

solutions. T h i s w a s done for one s e t of v a l u e s of F and Soh/hn (5.60

and 27. 3 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) f o r the purpose of finding the qualitative effects.

The f r i c t i o n f a c t o r was a s s u m e d t o v a r y according to the r e l a t i o n found

f o r uniform flow in the smooth channel (figure 22), which was

approximated by,

T h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l r e l a t i o n i s convenient b e c a u s e t h e a p p r o x i m a t e

values of quantities s u c h a s h and h a r e known f r o m the e x p e r i m e n t s

c n
on the . 1192 slope (F-5.6). T h e r e f o r e , the slope w a s fixed a t . 1192,
and t h e width of the channel w a s taken a s 4-518 in. , the s a m e a s the

l a b o r a t o r y flume.

Two different conditions w e r e c o n s i d e r e d ; a v a r i a b l e f r i c t i o n

f a c t o r with no s i d e - w a l l effect, and a v a r i a b l e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r with a

s i d e - w a l l effect. The methods of finding the solutions (wave shape

and velocity) f o r the given values of F and S ~ / hw e r e b a s i c a l l y the

o n
s a m e f o r both conditions. T h e r e f o r e , the method used when the s i d e -

wall effect was included w i l l be outlined, and the method f o r t h e other

condition follows by letting the hydraulic r a d i u s equal the depth.

The differential equation for a p e r m a n e n t wave profile i s ,

which c o r r e s p o n d s to equation 3.41. The r e q u i r e m e n t that the slope

of the w a t e r s u r f a c e ( d h / d ~ r)e m a i n finite a t h = h leads to,

C
T h i s r e s u l t s f r o m setting the n u m e r a t o r of equation 7 . 4 equal to z e r o

a t h = h c , and using the e x p r e s s i o n s ,

and h3 =K2/g,
C

which w e r e given i n Chapter 111.

In equation 7 . 5 t h e quantity f
C
denotes f a t t h e section h = h
C
.
Equation 7 . 5 r e d u c e s to t h e e x p r e s s i o n for c in Chapter 111 (equation

3.51) for a wide channel (r = hc) with a n unvarying f over the wave
C

length (fc = f,).

Before explaining the details the g e n e r a l procedure i s given.

Fir s t a value of hc was a s s u m e d , and then the r e l a t i o n between h and

X was obtained. Then a p a i r of values of h w e r e obtained

m i n and hmax
that gave the d e s i r e d value of So1/hn. However, the resulting F w a s ,

i n g e n e r a l , not the one d e s i r e d . Thus the p r o c e d u r e w a s repeated

with a different value of h until the d e s i r e d F resulted. By i n c r e a s i n g

C

the value of h c , the resulting F w a s i n c r e a s e d .

With the a s s u m e d value of h c , the value of K was calculated f r o m

equation 7. 7. The value of r was obtained f r o m the g e n e r a l formula

C

for r ,

r = bhl(bt2h)

w h e r e b was .3854 ft.

 165

T o evaluate u and f in equation 7 . 4 t h e e x p r e s s i o n s

u = (ch - K)/h, (7. 9)

R =4 r ~ / ~ , (7.10)

and equation 7.3 w e r e used. T h i s r e q u i r e d the value of c which w a s

calculated f r o m the e x p r e s s i o n s ,

i n addition to equation 7.5. T h e s e four equations in four unknowns

( f c , C , u C , R c ) w e r e solved by a t r i a l and e r r o r method.

The r e l a t i o n between h and X w a s obtained using equation 7.4.

F o r values of h g r e a t e r than h the slope (i. e. dh/dX) a t a p a r t i c u l a r

c'
value of h (i. e . hi) w a s extended to the next l a r g e r value of h (i. e .

h i t l ) w h e r e the i n t e r v a l in h(i. e . - h. = Ah > 0 ) w a s suFficiently

hitl 1

s m a l l s u c h that the change i n the slope f r o m h. to h was a s m a l l

1 it1
f r a c t i o n of the slope a t h.. Using the slope evaluated at h. (i.e.
1 1

(dh/dX)i), the d i s t a n c e between h. and h w a s calculated by

1 it1

and the a r e a between h. and h w a s calculated by

1 it1
F o r values of h l e s s than h the slope a t h. was extended t o the next
c' 1

s m a l l e r value of h (i. e. h i- 1 where h.1 - 1 < h.)

1
s o that the distance

between h and h.1 w a s given by

i- 1

and the a r e a between h and h. was given by

i- 1 1

AA. = A. - A = (h. - n h / Z ) ~ h .
I 1 i-1 1

In this way the distances and the a r e a s between a l l the s u c c e s s i v e

values of h w e r e calculated. Note that the slope can not be evaluated

at h = h f r o m equation 7.4 because both the n u m e r a t o r and denominator

C

a r e then z e r o . However, the slopes a t h

C
+Ah and hc - Ah w e r e

practically the s a m e , and t h i s value was used a t h

C
.
The next step was to a s s u m e a value of h and to calculate the
min
corresponding value of h f r o m equation 3.46. The value of hi
max
c l o s e s t t o this value of h was found and the wave length was found
max
by summing a l l AXi between h and hmin. Similarly the a v e r a g e
max
depth was calculated by summing a l l AA. and dividing by the wave
1

length. The a v e r a g e discharge was obtained f r o m ,

The next s t e p was to calculate u and h from,

n n
w h e r e t h e unknowns w e r e r With t h i s value of
n ' hn, un, fn, and R n .
t h e value of S ~ / hw a s calculated. If t h i s was not equal to 27.3,
hn' o n
another value of h w a s a s s u m e d , t h e calculation w a s r'epeated and
min
the corresponding value of S h / h found. A f t e r the value of Soh/hn
o n
w a s reasonably c l o s e to 27.3, the F was computed f r o m ,

and i f i t did not a g r e e closely with 5.60, another value of h w a s

C

a s s u m e d and the e n t i r e p r o c e d u r e r e p e a t e d . A s a check on the

a c c u r a c y of the n u m e r i c a l integration p r o c e d u r e , a c a s e with a

constant f and wide channel w a s done by the above method. The dif-

f e r e n c e between t h e s e r e s u l t s and the exact r e s u l t s (by the method i n

Chapter 111) w a s negligible.

2. Discussion of R e s u l t s

The r e s u l t s of the wave-profile calculations a r e shown i n f i g u r e 58,

Qualitatively it i s s e e n that a v a r i a b l e f i n c r e a s e d h
max
, and the effect

of the s i d e - w a l l s d e c r e a s e d h Both of t h e s e t r e n d s can be deduced

max '
by examining equation 7.4. A s the depth along the wave profile

i n c r e a s e s the Reynolds number i n c r e a s e s , and thus for a s m o o t h

channel the value of f d e c r e a s e s . S i m i l a r l y a s t h e depth d e c r e a s e s ,

f increases. Thus f o r a given h sufficiently l a r g e (i.e. s o t h a t f < f n ) ,

t h e slope of t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e i s g r e a t e r than the slope computed with

f = f
n
. Also for a given h sufficiently s m a l l (i. e. s o t h a t f > f n ) ,

dh/dX is l e s s than t h a t computed with f = fn. 'Iherefore, for a given normal

depth ( o r approximately a given a v e r a g e depth) the t r e n d shown in

figure 58 (e. g. l a r g e r h /h with v a r i a b l e f theory a s c o m p a r e d to

max n
constant f t h e o r y ) i s consistent with t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e s l o p e s

a s s t a t e d above. T h e s a m e t r e n d shown i n f i g u r e 58 f o r a smooth

channel can a l s o be expected f o r a rough channel. T h i s is because f

depends on the depth in the s a m e way a s f o r a smooth channel; a s the

depth i n c r e a s e s , and thus the r e l a t i v e roughness d e c r e a s e s , the f

decreases.

The effect of the s i d e - w a l l s can a l s o be predicted f r o m equation

7 . 4 by observing that the value of r is always l e s s than the value of h.

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h i s difference is g r e a t e r a s the value of h i n c r e a s e s .

Thus for a given h the w a t e r - s u r f a c e slope is l e s s i n a n a r r o w channel

than in a wide channel, p a r t i c u l a r l y at the higher depths. Therefore,

the r e l a t i o n between the wave p r o f i l e s in a wide channel and a finite-

width channel m u s t be a s shown i n f i g u r e 58 f o r the v a r i a b l e f t h e o r i e s ,

and s i m i l a r r e s u l t s can b e expected f o r a constant f theory. In

f i g u r e 6 i t was shown t h a t a s F d e c r e a s e d the value of h decreased

max
and the value of hmin i n c r e a s e d . T h i s is the s a m e effect that the s i d e -

w a l l s have. F is simply the q , u a n t i t y q n for a wide channel, s o

t h a t a d e c r e a s e in F c a n be considered a s a n i n c r e a s e in t h e f r i c t i o n a l

resistance. S i m i l a r l y the effect of the s i d e - w a l l s can be considered

as adding m o r e f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e .
 In f i g u r e 58 it i s seen that t h e value of h was increased
max
appreciably when t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r w a s a s s u m e d to v a r y , and that the

value of h w a s d e c r e a s e d by a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l e r amount when t h e

max
s i d e - w a l l effect w a s considered. However, t h e magnitude of t h e s e two

changes w i l l depend not only on the values of F and S o ~ / h n .but a l s o on

the r e l a t i v e width of the channel ( r e l a t i v e width = b / h ), and the r e l a t i o n

n
between t h e f r i c t i o n factor and the Reynolds number (smooth channel)

o r r e l a t i v e roughness (rough channel). F o r a relatively narrow

channel the s i d e - w a l l effect is obviously g r e a t e r . I n a smooth channel

a t l a r g e values of R the value of f is a weak function of R . T h i s is s e e n

f r o m the equation shown on figure 23. T h e r e f o r e a t l a r g e Reynolds

n u m b e r s the effect of a v a r i a b l e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r on the p r e d i c t e d values

m a y be negligible. F r o m t h e above it is c l e a r t h a t a complete

of hmax
d e s c r i p t i o n of the magnitude of the two effects considered in t h i s

section depends on many p a r a m e t e r s . In t h i s section only the qualitative

effects w e r e d i s c u s s e d .

VII- C MODIFIED SHOCK CONDITION

1. G e n e r a l Shock Condition

I n the derivation of the shock condition (equation 3.46) i t w a s

a s s u m e d (as did D r e s s l e r (15)) that the shock thickness in the longi-

tudinal direction w a s s m a l l . The r e s u l t s of s o m e m e a s u r e d wave

p r o f i l e s (figure 45) show that t h i s w a s not the c a s e . The effect of t h i s

finite shock length, a s w e l l a s s o m e other f a c t o r s which w e r e not

included in equation 3.46, on the shock condition will now be considered.

 F i g u r e 59 shows a s k e t c h of a shock front d r a w n approximately to

scale. I t should be noted that t h e p a r t of the shock f r o n t d r a w n v e r t i c a l

on f i g u r e 59 c o r r e s p o n d s t o the s h a r p l y r i s i n g p o r t i o n of t h e shock

easily o b s e r v e d i n f i g u r e s 1 and 24. The velocity distributions a t

the wave c r e s t and trough have been drawn t o be typical of a fully

developed turbulent boundary l a y e r . The shock wave can be analyzed

a s a c a s e of steady flow by imposing a constant velocity of - c on the

system. The m o m e n t u m t h e o r e m can then be applied to a c o n t r o l

volume consisting of the fluid between the wave c r e s t and trough. For

t h i s steady flow the m o m e n t u m t h e o r e m s t a t e s t h a t the net difference i n

flux of momentum through t h e s u r f a c e s of the c o n t r o l volume is equal

t o the s u m of a l l t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s acting on t h e c o n t r o l volume. At

t h e wave c r e s t o r t r o u g h t h e m o m e n t u m flux in the x - d i r e c t i o n for the

steady flow i s ,

w h e r e u i s t h e a v e r a g e velocity,

and a is defined a s ,

The continuity equation f o r t h i s steady flow i s ,

( u - c ) h = constant = -K
Fig. 59. Drawing of typical shape of shock front, based on
.
periodic permanent wave run with F = 5. 60, So = 1192,
T' = 4.25
s o that the momentum flux can be w r i t t e n ,

and the net d i f f e r e n c e in m o m e n t u m flux through t h e s u r f a c e s of t h e

control volume b e c o m e s ,

[Puh(au-c)] -[puh(au-c)]
h = h h = h
min max

The e x t e r n a l f o r c e s in the x - d i r e c t i o n acting on t h e c o n t r o l volume

a r e the p r e s s u r e f o r c e s a t the c r e s t and trough, the x-component of

the weight of the w a t e r in t h e c o n t r o l volume, and the s h e a r f o r c e a t

the solid boundary. Using a h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e distribution the

momentum t h e o r e m applied along the x - a x i s t a k e s the f o r m ,

ws0 - ?0 LL U
1 1 2 g co s 8 @Lax
-ha
,in
) +
min h min(&in u m i n - c )

-U h (a u
m a x m a x m a x m a x- c)

w h e r e W i s the weight of w a t e r i n the control volume p e r unit width,

-
T
0
is the s h e a r s t r e s s a t t h e solid boundaries a v e r a g e d over the length

of the shock, L.. The value of cos 8 will be taken a s 1 . 0 which is

3
within one p e r c e n t of its t r u e value up to a slope ( s i n 8) of 0. 14.

The effect of a nonuniform velocity distribution c a n b e s e e n by

substituting equation 7. 24 on the r i g h t s i d e of equation 7 . 27 to obtain,

 -
WS -7 L.
g ( h L a x -h2
min ) f O P O J = K(um a x -u min) + (amin-

2 h (7. 28)
- (~ m a -x')Urnax m a x

F o r a uniform velocity distribution (i. e. u = 0 ) the value of a i s unity,

Y
and i t s value is g r e a t e r than unity f o r any other distribution. Thus the

effect of a nonuniform velocity profile a t the trough i s t o i n c r e a s e the

right s i d e of equation 7.28 which c a n be shown t o r e s u l t in a n i n c r e a s e

in h r (i.e . h
r
=h
max
/h
min
. S i m i l a r l y a nonuniform velocity d i s t r i -

bution a t the c r e s t would r e d u c e the value of h

r
. If amax 2 amin, the

right s i d e of equation 7.28 would be d e c r e a s e d f r o m i t s value with

amax
-
amin
= 1 , which c a n be shown to r e s u l t in a d e c r e a s e i n h r .
In t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the shock condition, the r e s u l t s of m e a s u r e -

m e n t s pertaining to t h e hydraulic jump w i l l b e r e f e r r e d to. The

hydraulic jump i s a s t a t i o n a r y shock wave w h e r e the fluid p a s s e s

through the shock f r o m the low depth (high velocity) to the high depth

(low velocity). The wave velocity of the moving shock wave is g r e a t e r

t h a n the fluid velocity s o that the fluid in f r o n t of the shock p a s s e s

through the shock f r o m the low depth (low velocity) t o t h e high depth

(high velocity). Thus the hydraulic jump and the moving shock a r e

basically the s a m e phenomenon. By setting the wave velocity e q u a l t o

z e r o , and changing t h e s i g n of the s h e a r s t r e s s because t h e flow

direction with r e s p e c t t o t h e solid boundary changes, equation 7.28 f o r

a h o r i z o n t a l channel b e c o m e s ,
g / m i n )tyo L j. / p = q ( um i n - u m a x ) +(amin- 1h u m i n - (amax- l)qumax
(hamax-h2

F o r this c a s e the a v e r a g e velocity a t t h e m i n i m u m depth (urnin)

i s g r e a t e r than u T h e r e f o r e the right

m a x a s r e q u i r e d by continuity.
s i d e of equation 7. 29 i s m o r e sensitive to changes in a than to
min
changes in a F u r t h e r m o r e i t can b e shown that f o r amin' amax
max'
the value of h r i s l a r g e r than f o r the condition a - = 1.
rnax amin
I t is r e a s o n a b l e to expect that in m o s t c a s e s the value of a is
max
g r e a t e r than a p a r t i c u l a r l y when the hydraulic jump i s located a
min'
s h o r t distance f r o m a sluice gate s o that a would b e p r a c t i c a l l y
min
unity. T h e r e f o r e i t i s difficult to m a k e any g e n e r a l r e m a r k concerning

t h e effect of nonuniform velocity distribution on the value of h for a

r
hydraulic jump. F r o m the last two equations it, can be shown that the

e f f e c t of the s h e a r s t r e s s would be t o i n c r e a s e the value of h r f o r a

moving shock wave, and to d e c r e a s e the value of h r f o r a hydraulic

jump.

M e a s u r e m e n t s of p r e s s u r e and velocity distributions at the wave

c r e s t and trough, and s h e a r s t r e s s e s on t h e solid boundary f o r

hydraulic jumps will not be d i s c u s s e d h e r e , and indeed a r e r e l a t i v e l y

scarce. P e r h a p s it is sufficient t o note t h a t equation 7. 29, with

a = 1 . 0 , and 70 neglected, h a s been substantially verified by many

i n v e s t i g a t o r s (27). Thus i t is tempting to a s s u m e that the combined

effects of nonhydrostatic p r e s s u r e distribution, nonuniform velocity

distribution, and s h e a r s t r e s s f o r a moving shock (equation 7. 28) a r e

minor. However, i t w a s stated above t h a t t h e shock condition for a

hydraulic jump i s m o r e s e n s i t i v e to changes in a than changes in

min

amax
, w h e r e a s f o r the moving shock wave, the shock condition i s

m o r e s e n s i t i v e to a
max
. T h e r e f o r e if a
max
for a moving shock wave

i s much different than a f o r a hydraulic jump, the r e l a t i v e effect

min
of a nonuniform velocity distribution f o r a moving shock wave w i l l be

different than it is f o r a hydraulic jump.

F o r hydraulic jumps on sloping channels the weight t e r m h a s been

found t o b e important. Bakhmeteff and Matzke (28) found f r o m t h e i r

e x p e r i m e n t s that neglecting t h e weight t e r m led to s u b s t a n t i a l d i s -

c r e p a n c i e s f o r values of h
r
. However a f t e r evaluating the weight t e r m

by using t h e i r m e a s u r e d jump p r o f i l e s , but s t i l l neglecting the solid

boundary s h e a r f o r c e and a s s u m i n g a = 1,they found good a g r e e m e n t

between t h e o r e t i c a l and m e a s u r e d values of hr. F r o m this experience

with hydraulic jumps, it i s r e a s o n a b l e to expect t h a t the weight t e r m f o r

a moving shock will be important. Equation 7.28 shows that inclusion

of the weight will d e c r e a s e the value of h and this effect w i l l i n c r e a s e

ry
with the slope. F i g u r e 44 shows that t h i s is the t r e n d r e q u i r e d t o

d e c r e a s e t h e d i s c r e p a n c y between the predicted and m e a s u r e d values of

h
max
Ih
n
.
2. T h e o r y B a s e d on Modified Shock Condition

The shock condition with the weight t e r m w i l l now be put i n a con-

venient f o r m f o r u s e in the theory. The theory with t h i s modified

shock condition w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o a s the modified t h e o r y . Neglecting

the effects of nonuniform velocity distribution and s h e a r s t r e s s ,

equation 7.28 c a n b e w r i t t e n a s ,

a f t e r using equation 7.24. The l a s t t e r m h a s the f o r m of a F r o u d e

number. T h i s w i l l be designated a s ,

.r.

I?
min
=(c-u
min
d i n

The value of W m u s t b e evaluated f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s of the shape of

t h e shock front. Once again it is convenient t o r e f e r to the hydraulic

jump w h e r e i t h a s been found t h a t t h e length of the jump c a n be

e x p r e s s e d a s a function of the F r o u d e number a t the m i n i m u m depth

(I?rnin
=u
min
. The length of the jump is usually e x p r e s s e d

i n t e r m s of the value of h
max
. T h e r e f o r e the weight t e r m in equation

7.30 i s e x p r e s s e d a s ,

w h e r e he is the a v e r a g e depth over the length L s o t h a t ,

j'

Now equation 7.30 can b e w r i t t e n ,

where,
 The wave s h a p e s of the periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves included

s o m e information on the g e o m e t r y of the shock front. The method of

obtaining this shock data was given i n I V - D - 3 -b, and the r e s u l t s a r e

i n table 7. When t h e s e data w e r e taken t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e shock

f r o n t w a s not r e a l i z e d , and consequently the oscillograph c h a r t s p e e d s

w e r e slower than would be d e s i r a b l e . This required measuring dis-

t a n c e s on the oscillograph c h a r t s of the o r d e r of 0.5 m m t o define the

shock geometry. T h e r e f o r e the shock g e o m e t r y to be p r e s e n t e d

should be c o n s i d e r e d p r e l i m i n a r y in n a t u r e .

The lengths of hydraulic jumps are usually e x p r e s s e d a s a function

of the value of F T h i s s u g g e s t s that for a moving shock wave

mine
.Ir

the g e o m e t r y could be e x p r e s s e d a s a function of F * ~ I n this study

min'
d.

velocities w e r e not m e a s u r e d s o that the value of F - ~ f o r e a c h

min
periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave r u n i s not known. F r o m equation 7.34 it
.Ir

can be shown that h i n c r e a s e s a s F'* increases. Thus i t i s expected

r min
t h a t he / hmax and L. / hmax c a n a l s o be e x p r e s s e d a s a function of h
J r
.
T h i s expectation w a s a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y r e a l i z e d a s f i g u r e 60 shows.

T h e s e d a t a points r e p r e s e n t a l l t h e p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave r u n s

l i s t e d in table 7 except two f o r which a shock profile w a s not w e l l

defined by the m e a s u r e m e n t s .

Having the r e l a t i o n s in f i g u r e 60 i t would b e d e s i r a b l e to u s e t h e m

i n equation 7.34 and compute the values of h r f o r e a c h p e r i o d i c

p e r m a n e n t wave r u n and c o m p a r e t h e s e with t h e o b s e r v e d values of h r .

.b

However this r e q u i r e s the v a l u e s of I?." f o r each r u n which a r e not

min
obtainable. T h e r e f o r e a n i n d i r e c t check on the modified shock condi-

tion w a s m a d e by using equation 7.34 and the r e l a t i o n f o r h L . / h 2

e J max
 ~SYM so I
0 .05011

.
.08429
0 .I 192

0
- .I 192 (ROUGH CHANNEL)
0

f 2 3 4 5 6 7
hmox'hmin . -

Fig. 60. Graph of measured geometric properties for shock

front: average depth df shock front he, length of shock
front L.1 and volume of shock front per unit width
h L., dl expressed a s a function of ratio between depth
ag c & e s t and depth a t trough h
rnaJhmin
f r o m f i g u r e 60 i n t h e periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave theory. F r o m this

modified theory t h e r e r e s u l t s a r e l a t i o n between the values of hr and

T ' f o r each value of F and slope. I t i s to be noted that the slope a s

w e l l a s F m u s t be specified (equation 7. 35). T h i s r e l a t i o n between h

r
and T ' w i l l be c o m p a r e d with the m e a s u r e d values. In addition the

quantities h /h,, and c / & , computed f r o m the modified

m a x Ihn. hmin n
t h e o r y , w i l l be c o m p a r e d to the m e a s u r e d values. Before p r e s e n t i n g

t h e s e r e s u l t s , the p r o c e d u r e f o r incorporating the modified shock

condition into the t h e o r y will be briefly explained.

Equations 3.42 and 3.43 c a n be combined t o give,

Thus the value of h is a function of h /h and G. When the value of

r min c
G is s e t equal to z e r o , equation 7.34 b e c o m e s

and the nontrivial solution for h is given by equation 3.46. However

r
for a nonzero value of G , the shock condition r e m a i n s a cubic equation

and w a s solved by a n u m e r i c a l p r o c e d u r e . The method used t o find the

solutions f o r h
r'
h
max
/hn, e t c . , w a s b a s i c a l l y the s a m e a s f o r t h e
.I-

original theory. With a given value of F and So a value of h"- w a s

min
a
.
chosen (h-..' hh+ h 1). Then in o r d e r to find h f r o m equation 7. 34
a min r
a value of G w a s a s s u m e d and h w a s then computed. If t h i s value of
r
h r did not c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e a s s u m e d value of G (figure 60), another

value of G w a s a s s u m e d and the p r o c e s s r e p e a t e d until the values of

G and h corresponded. Once the shock condition w a s s a t i s f i e d , t h e
r
r e s t of the solution w a s found i n the s a m e m a n n e r a s before.

The modified theory w a s used to obtain solutions for h r , h

m a x /hn,
h / h n , and c / m n a s functions of TI f o r the values of F and S u s e d
min o
f o r the periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave e x p e r i m e n t s . T h e s e solutions,

along with t h o s e p r e d i c t e d f r o m the o r i g i n a l ( o r unmodified) t h e o r y ,

a r e shown in f i g u r e s 61 -64. The r e s u l t s of the periodic wave e x p e r i -

m e n t s (table 6) a r e a l s o shown on t h e s e f i g u r e s . F o r the v a l u e s of

h
m a x / hn
, the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s f r o m f i g u r e s 54 to 57 a r e plotted.
The r a n g e i n the values of T ' f o r the periodic e x p e r i m e n t s f o r S =
0

.05011 w a s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l . T h e r e f o r e the r e s u l t s f o r two natural-

wave r u n s (h = .206 in.

n
,F= 3 . 4 5 , station 120, smooth i n l e t ;

hn = . 3 14, F = 3 . 71, s t a t i o n 120, smooth inlet) a t S = .O5O 11 w e r e

0

a l s o shown on figure 6 1.

3. Discussion of Modified Theory

F i g u r e s 61 to 64 show t h a t , i n g e n e r a l , the modified t h e o r y o f f e r s

b e t t e r a g r e e m e n t with the m e a s u r e m e n t s than the o r i g i n a l t h e o r y

except for the values of h The amount of improvement p r o -

m i n /hn.
vided by the modified theory i n c r e a s e s with the slope. The modifica-

tion (addition of S W t e r m ) to the o r i g i n a l theory d e c r e a s e s the values

0

hmax / h m i n and hmax/hn, and i n c r e a s e s the v a l u e s of h minilan and

c/ an
. T h e a v e r a g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s (over the r a n g e of TI used i n the
e x p e r i m e n t s ) between the modifed t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n s and the e x p e r i -

m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s for h m a x / hn a r e : 4 . 5 p e r cent, So =.O5Oll; 3.0 p e r -

cent, S
0
= .08429; 9.5 p e r c e n t , S0 = . 11 92; and 8.5 p e r c e n t , S
0
= . I 1 9 2,
Fig. 6 I. Graph of experimental values and theoretical solutions (from
modified and unmodified theory) for hmax, h ,andcas
min
functions of dimensionless wave petiod T' for periodic p e r m a -
nent waves: F r o u d e number = Z 5, channel slope = .050 11
- - -- -- -- -- - -- -- -
 .-€
C

t
\

E
C

C
C
\
34
0
E
r

C
C
\
.-sE
r

q
3.

F i g . 62. Graph of experimental values and theoretical solutions [from

modified and unmodified theory) for h h and c a s
max' min'
functions of dimensionless wave period T' for periodic perma
nent waves: Froude number = 4.6, channel s l o ~ e= . 0 8 4 2 9
Fig. 63, Graph of expellimental values and theoretical solutions (fram
modified and u ~ m o d i f i e dtheory) b r h and c a s
maxS hrnin*
functions of dimensionless wave period T' for periodic perma-
nent waves: Froude number = 5.6, channel slope = 1 192 .
Fig. 64. Graph of experimental values and theoretical solutions (from
max' hmin , and c a s
modified and unmodified theory) for h
functions of dimensionless wave period T ' for periodic perma-
nent waves: Froude number = 3 . 7 , rough channel, channel
slope = . 1192
rough channel. The corresponding m a x i m u m d i s c r e p a n c i e s a r e 9.0,

4 . 5 , 13.5, and 9 . 5 p e r c e n t .

At S = .O5O 11, the modified relation p r e d i c t s values of h

o m a x / hn
l e s s than the m e a s u r e d values. At So = .08429 the predicted and

m e a s u r e d values of h /h a r e in c l o s e a g r e e m e n t . F o r both the

rnax n
smooth and rough channel at S
0
= . 1192, the predicted values of

h /h a r e g r e a t e r than the m e a s u r e d values. Thus the d i s c r e p a n -

rnax n
c i e s i n the values of h show a dependence on the channel slope.
malt / h n
One possible explanation for t h i s may be that the geometry (i.e.

Lj l h m a x
and he/hmax) of the shock wave should depend on t h e channel

slope, although the somewhat p r e l i m i n a r y data i n figure 60 did not

show this. However f o r hydraulic jumps the length of the jump h a s been

found to depend on the slope. This i s shown in figure 65 which w a s

taken f r o m Chow's book (29). The r e l a t i o n s i n figure 65 a r e f o r

hydraulic jumps in which the m i n i m u m depth was u p s t r e a m of the

m a x i m u m depth. T h e r e f o r e the moving shdck waves (figure 59) m u s t

be considered to be on a negative slope with r e s p e c t t o the slopes shown

i n f i g u r e 65. T h e r e f o r e i f subsequent m e a s u r e m e n t s of the lengths of

moving shock waves did in f a c t r e v e a l a slope effect, and it followed

t h e t r e n d i n f i g u r e 65, one would expect t h e values of L . / h to

J rnax
i n c r e a s e a s the slope i n c r e a s e d . This would tend t o compensate for

t h e effect of channel slope on the d i s c r e p a n c i e s in h /h shown on

rnax n
f i g u r e s 6 1-64. The m a x i m u m value of L. / h i n figure 60 of about
J rnax
7.5 is lar,ger than the m a x i m u m value of ~ . / h shown in figure 65.
J rnax
This indicates that the lengths of moving shock waves and hydraulic

jumps a r e compatible.
 7 I I I I I I I I 1

6 -
x 5 -
0
E
r
?-4
J
-
3-
2- -
I 1 I I 1 I I I I
1.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Fmin= ~rninIJ07i;n
- - -
-9
$9
Fig. 65. Graph of the length of hydraulic jumps L
in sloping channels as a function of the j
Froude number at the minimum depth F
(from Chow(29)) min
VII-D RE-EVALUATION O F LABORATORY RESULTS WITH
CONSIDERATION TO E F F E C T O F CHANNEL SLOPE

1. P e r i o d i c P e r m a n e n t Waves

The l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s with periodic r o l l waves showed t h a t

even with t h e values of F and T ' fixed, the value of h /h depended

max n
on the channel slope. T h i s can b e s e e n by comparing the values of

/hn f o r S = .05011 (figure 61) to those i n t h e rough channel with

hmax 0

S
0
= . 1192 (figure 64). I t is ..seen t h a t , f o r a fixed value of F and T ' ,

astheslopeincreasesthevalueofh /h decreases.
max n
T h i s slope effect for periodic p e r m a n e n t waves w a s predicted by

t h e t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s only a f t e r the shock condition w a s modified t o

include the x-component of the weight of the shock. T h i s f o r c e due to

the shock weight w a s previously ( D r e s s l e r (15)) a s s u m e d t o b e negligible

c o m p a r e d to the p r e s s u r e f o r c e s . The modified theory g r e a t l y r e d u c e d

t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s in h between the o r i g i n a l t h e o r y and t h e

m a x / hn
experimental results.

The hmax/hn v s . T ' e x p e r i m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s ( f i g u r e s 44, 6 1-64)

should apply to p e r i o d i c p e r m a n e n t r o l l waves in all wide r e c t a n g u l a r

channels with s l o p e s c o m p a r a b l e to those used i n t h i s study. In other

w o r d s both t h e slope and t h e F r o u d e number m u s t c o r r e s p o n d to t h e

v a l u e s of S and F l i s t e d on f i g u r e s 61 -64. If the slope is l e s s than

0

t h a t used t o obtain a h v s . T ' r e l a t i o n , the magnitude of

m a x / hn
h /h w i l l b e g r e a t e r than predicted f r o m the experiments. For
rnax n
example i n a channel with a F r o u d e number of about 3 . 5 and a value

of T ' of 4 . 0 , f i g u r e 61 shows that hmax/hn would be about 2.0 for a

slope of about .050. If the slope w e r e significantly l e s s than .050,

then hmax/hn would be l a r g e r . A s a n upper l i m i t for hmaX/hn, the

unmodified theory c a n b e u s e d , which in this c a s e p r e d i c t s a value

/h of 2. 2.
hmax n
Although the u s e of the unmodified t h e o r y to p r e d i c t a n upper l i m i t

for h /h is somewhat speculative, the w a t e r - s u r f a c e profile f o r

max n
the periodic wave r u n in the 130-ft channel (figure 4 3 ) , i n which the

slope effect w a s probably of m i n o r i m p o r t a n c e , a g r e e d quite w e l l with

the theory. I t is r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t t h e unmodified t h e o r y

should p r e d i c t a n upper l i m i t for h / h with about t h e s a m e

rnax n
a c c u r a c y a s the modified t h e o r y predicted h /h i n the e x p e r i m e n t s ,
max n
at l e a s t over the r a n g e of F and T ' used in the e x p e r i m e n t s .

F o r the c a s e in which the channel slope is l e s s than t h a t used in

the e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e r a n g e between t h e value of hmax/h f r o m the

n
unmodified t h e o r y (upper limit) and t h e value f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t s

m a y be quite l a r g e . I n the example c o n s i d e r e d above the r a n g e of

h /h w a s only f r o m 2.0 to 2. 2. However, f o r a c a s e with

max n
F = 4 . 6 , T ' = 3.5, and So = .O6, the r a n g e of hmax/h would be f r o m
n
2 . 2 to 2.75 ( f i g u r e 62). T o get the value of hmax/hn corresponding to

S = . 0 6 , the modified t h e o r y would have to be used i n the m a n n e r

0

d e s c r i b e d i n Section VII-C, using the shock geometry r e l a t i o n s f r o m

f i g u r e 60. F o r c a s e s in which the channel slope is g r e a t e r than that

used in the e x p e r i m e n t s , the value of h / h w i l l be l e s s than p r e -

max n
dicted f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l relations. If the slope i s considerably

g r e a t e r , the modified t h e o r y could be used t o find out how much lower

the value of hmax / h n would b e than t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l value.

2. NaturalRollWaves

The influence of this slope effect on the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s for

n a t u r a l r o l l waves will now be considered. I n Section VI-B it was

shown that the hmax/hn VS. T' e x p e r i m e n t a l r e l a t i o n s for periodic

waves w e r e a l s o valid f o r n a t u r a l r o l l waves in the final development

p h a s e , if w a s used for h and T w a s used to calculate T ' .

max max av
T h e r e f o r e the L a x / h vs. TI e x p e r i m e n t a l relations for n a t u r a l waves
n
will be influenced by channel slope in the s a m e way a s the h /h vs.
rnax n
T ' r e l a t i o n s for periodic waves. The field m e a s u r e m e n t s in Santa

Anita Wash (figure 51) s e r v e a s a n example of t h e effect of the slope

on the hmax/hn VS. T ' relation. The field values of Kmax/hn w e r e

g r e a t e r than predicted f r o m t h e l a b o r a t o r y r e l a t i o n , and the field slope

was , 0 2 5 a s compared t o . 0 5 0 i n t h e laboratory. The magnitude of the

slope effect on the values of T;rnax / h n can b e evaluated in the s a m e way

as d e s c r i b e d above for periodic waves. However the slope effect (if

any) on the standard deviation of h can not be evaluated f r o m

rnax / h n
existing knowledge.

Because of the slope effect on the /h vs. T ' r e l a t i o n for

rnax n
n a t u r a l waves, t h e r e should a l s o be a slope effect on the growth r a t e s

of n a t u r a l waves in t h e final development phase. Stated symbolically,

i t is expected that for a fixed value of F and

maxlhn -
hmax / h n
sufficiently l a r g e ) , t h e value of a L a x / a & will a l s o depend on t h e slope

such that a s the slope is i n c r e a s e d the value of az /a& will be

rnax
decreased. This dependance of aGrnax /a& on the slope was found in

the laboratory e x p e r i m e n t s . F i g u r e 26 shows the Emax/hn VS. &/hn

relation for S
0
= .05011, and the relation f o r So = . 1192 (rough
channel) i s shown on f i g u r e 29. F o r t h e l a r g e values of /h
rnax n
the F r o u d e n u m b e r s w e r e about 3.5 and 3 . 7 respectively. F i g u r e s 54

and 57 show that for L a x / h g r e a t e r .than about 1.4 the n a t u r a l waves

n
w e r e i n the final development phase. F i g u r e s 26 and 29 show that f o r

a given value of I;rnax / h n above 1.4, t h e value of a k a x / a & was greater

f o r the s m a l l e r slope. T h i s i s m o r e r e a d i l y s e e n f r o m f i g u r e 48 on

which both development c u r v e s a r e shown.

The growth r a t e (aKrnax /a&) c a n be e x p r e s s e d as the product of

t h e slope of the I;m a x / h n v s . TI relation (a (5m a x / h n ) / a T 1 )and the

effect on both of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s could be evaluated, the magnitudes of

-
ahmax
/a& for slopes other than those used in the laboratory could be

determined. Unfortunately the slope effect can only be evaluated f o r

-
vs. TI relation. However the e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence showed
a hmax
-
that the slope effect on both aEmax/a& and a ( h m a x / h n ) / a ~w a s quali-

tatively the s a m e (i.e. a n i n c r e a s e d slope r e s u l t e d i n lower values of

-
ahmax/a& and a ( L a x / h n ) / a T 1 ) . T h e r e f o r e the slope influence on a T f

vs. &/hn r e l a t i o n m u s t be l e s s important than on a I;rnax I hn v s . TI

relation. Thus f o r p u r p o s e s of obtaining somewhat rough e s t i m a t e s of

the magnitude of aKmax/a& for channel slopes other than those u s e d i n

the e x p e r i m e n t s , the slope effect on a T ' vs. & / h relation may be

n
considered negligible.
 Thus f a r in this section the influence of channel slope on the

values of hmax/hn o r hm a x / hn f o r l a r g e amplitude shock-type r o l l

waves h a s b e e n considered. The t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s w a s a b l e to

p r e d i c t ( a t l e a s t qualitatively) a l l the o b s e r v e d slope effects only a f t e r

t h e shock condition w a s modified to include the x-component of t h e

shock weight. F o r s m a l l amplitude waves with continuous w a t e r

s u r f a c e s (before the waves b r e a k ) no shock condition is r e q u i r e d .

However, a s explained i n Section V I - A , t h e r e still m a y b e a n effect

of channel slope on growth r a t e s of s m a l l amplitude n a t u r a l r o l l waves.

T h i s is b e c a u s e the periodic s m a l l amplitude t h e o r y p r e d i c t s a slope

effect (equation 3 . 38).

The prediction of a slope effect on growth r a t e s of s m a l l amplitude

waves based on equation 3.38 should probably not be c o n s i d e r e d a s

sufficient evidence t h a t t h e r e actually w i l l be s u c h a n effect. T h i s is

b e c a u s e t h i s s a m e t h e o r y w a s u n s u c c e s s f u l in predicting t h e effect of

F r o u d e number on t h e growth r a t e s of s m a l l amplitude waves. The

theory p r e d i c t e d the growth r a t e s to i n c r e a s e a s F w a s i n c r e a s e d .

The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s showed that the growth r a t e s w e r e about the

s a m e f o r all values of F , however the value of & / h n a t which the growth

began d e c r e a s e d a s F was increased.

The e x p e r i m e n t s i n which F was fixed and the slope w a s changed

(i.e. F = 3 . 5 , S = .05011, and S = . I 1 9 2 (rough channel)) w e r e i n -

0 0

conclusive on the effect of channel slope on growth r a t e s of s m a l l

amplitude n a t u r a l r o l l waves. The r e s u l t s showed that a given value

O* 'max
/h o c c u r r e d at s m a l l e r v a l u e s of & / h f o r S =
n n o
. 1192 a s
compared t o S = .05011. However the i n i t i a l disturbances (minimum
0

values of
max
/ h ) w e r e significantly l a r g e r a t S =
n o
. 1192 than a t
S = .05011. These l a r g e r initial disturbances w e r e attributed to the
0

differences in the channel s u r f a c e s (i. e. hydraulically rough a t

S
0
= . 1192, and hydraulically smooth a t S
0
= ,050 11) r a t h e r than the

differences in the channel slopes.

 CHAPTER VIII

PREDICTION O F MAXIMUM DEPTHS IN L A R G E CHANNELS

When designing open channels to convey a c e r t a i n d i s c h a r g e i t i s

important to know if r o l l waves w i l l occur o r not. If they will occur

i t i s important to know the height of t h e waves (h ) a t a l l stations

max
along t h e channel. E s t i m a t e s of t h e s e values of h can be m a d e by
max
utilizing the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s of the p r e s e n t study. In a n existing

channel i n which r o l l waves appear a t low d i s c h a r g e s , t h e r e is the

question of whether r o l l waves will a l s o appear at much l a r g e r d i s -

charges. This question, along with the p r o b l e m of predicting values

for a proposed channel will be d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s chapter.

hmax
The l a b o r a t o r y m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e taken i n a wide r e c t a n g u l a r

channel on a constant slope. T h e r e f o r e a channel with t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s

will be t r e a t e d f i r s t . In many p r a c t i c a l c a s e s the channel slope

changes a t v a r i o u s i n t e r v a l s s o that a channel may consist of a s e r i e s

of s h o r t r e a c h e s at constant slopes. A few methods of t r e a t i n g a wide

rectangular channel of t h i s type will be proposed, and the methods

compared by u s e of a n u m e r i c a l example. I n the final section a method

of predicting values of h f o r rectangular channels that a r e not wide

max
will be suggested. F i r s t t h e effect of the channel slope on t h e p r e -

dicted values of hmax w i l l be discussed.

VIII-A CHANNEL SLOPE E F F E C T

F o r a F r o u d e number equal to one of t h o s e i n the l a b o r a t o r y

channel, w e l l c o n s t r u c t e d colncrete channels w i l l usually have a s m a l l e r

slope. T h i s w a s the c a s e f o r Santa Anita Wash (figure 51). In t h e s e

c a s e s the v a l u e s of h p r e d i c t e d f r o m the l a b o r a t o r y r e s u l t s should

max
r e a l l y be i n c r e a s e d b e c a u s e of the slope effect on t h e growth r a t e s of

shock waves (Section VII-D). However it w a s shown that the channel

slope only began to influence the growth r a t e s of a f t e r they had

max
developed into shock waves. T h e r e i s no e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence t o

indicate a slope effect on the growth r a t e s of s m a l l amplitude r o l l

waves, and f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s it is probably sufficient to neglect

any s u c h effect. F u r t h e r m o r e b e c a u s e of lack of data concerning t h e

influence of slope on t h e T ' TTS. & / h r e l a t i o n , and the n e c e s s i t y of a

n
lengthy a n a l y s i s t o a d j u s t t h e k a x / h n VS. T ' r e l a t i o n to apply to a

slope other than that used i n the e x p e r i m e n t s , the c o r r e c t i o n s to t h e

p r e d i c t e d values of hmax would only be a p p r o x i m a t e with s o m e unknown

d e g r e e of a c c u r a c y . T h e r e f o r e in m o s t c a s e s the slope c o r r e c t i o n

need not b e calculated, however it should b e r e a l i z e d t h a t i f t h e channel

slope i s significantly l e s s than the l a b o r a t o r y channel slope ( a t the

s a m e F r o u d e n u m b e r ) , the growth r a t e of t h e shock waves (aKmax/a L )

w i l l be g r e a t e r t h a n it w a s in t h e l a b o r a t o r y .
VIII-B PREDICTION O F MAXIMUM DEPTHS IN WIDE RECTANGULAR
CHANNELS WITH A CONSTANT SLOPE

F i g u r e s 52 and 53 contain the information needed t o p r e d i c t v a l u e s

f o r channels with inlet conditions equivalent to that used i n t h e

'max
laboratory. T h i s would include any channel in which the flow w a s

introduced with a negligible ;amount of d i s t u r b a n c e s due t o flow con-

t r a c t i o n o r expansion. The e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence c l e a r l y indicated

t h a t with l a r g e r i n i t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e s the r o l l waves developed c l o s e r t o

the inlet. T h e r e f o r e any p a r t i c u l a r inlet condition should be c o m p a r e d

to the inlet condition i n the l a b o r a t o r y with r e s p e c t to d i s t u r b a n c e s

that might e x i s t . L a r g e i n l e t s w i l l a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y have sufficient

i r r e g u l a r i t y to i n s u r e that a turbulent boundary l a y e r , a s opposed t o

a l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r , w i l l b e developed f r o m t h e beginning of t h e

channel. With a turbulent boundary l a y e r the inlet would b e a rough

inlet which is the type of inlet to which f i g u r e s 5 2 and 53 apply.

With inlet conditions equivalent t o those of the l a b o r a t o r y channel,

i t i s a s i m p l e m a t t e r to find 'i; a t any distance f r o m the inlet once

rnax
the values of F and hn a r e known. F o r p u r p o s e s of designing channels

the m a x i m u m value of h is a l s o r e q u i r e d and c a n be found f r o m the

max
r e l a t i o n given i n Section VI-A,

-
(hrnax 1rnax = hrnax +t2.58 oh
rnax

F i g u r e 35 gives v a l u e s of oh / h n as a function of .C/hn. F r o m

imax
f i g u r e s 35 and 52 it i s s e e n that f o r s m a l l values of Ihn t h e
rnax
s t a n d a r d deviations w e r e not m e a s u r e d . The r e l a t i o n s f o r oh Ihn
rnax
i n f i g u r e 35 can be extrapolated t o s m a l l e r values of & I h n (and thus

rnax /hn) , but f o r values of lTmm/hn

s m a l l e r v a l u e s of 0" the p a r t
of t h e development c u r v e that i s concave upward it i s sufficient t o

a s s u m e that the s t a n d a r d deviations of h were zero.

rnax
Consider a channel with S = . 0 3 , F = 3.7, and & l h n = 6000. The
0

data points on f i g u r e 53 f o r a n F of 3. 7 1 and 3 . 8 1 indicate a definite

i n c r e a s e in /h at a val.ue of & / h of 1500 and a value of

max n n
-
h /h of 1. 05. T h e r e f o r e s m a l l amplitude waves s t a r t to grow a t
rnax n
about & / h n = 1500. A t & / h n = 2400 the waves would r e a c h a value of
7

h /h = 1. 15 and f o r m shock waves. F i g u r e 35 shows that

rnax n
/ h n would s t i l l be quite s m a l l . At the end of t h e channel,
Oh
rnax
& / h n = 6000, t h e value of Emax/hn would b e 1.70 (figure 52) and

Oh / h n w o u l d b e . 2 0 , s o t h a t ( hm a x )rnax / h n b e c o m e s e q u a l t o 2 . 2 2 .
rnax
B e c a u s e t h e slope of . 0 3 is s m a l l e r than the .05011 used in the

l a b o r a t o r y , the growth r a t e of the shock waves would b e somewhat

greater. T h i s i n c r e a s e d growth would o c c u r f r o m & / h n = 2400 to 6000,

but the slope c o r r e c t i o n to the growth r a t e can only be computed f o r the

f i n a l development phase. F r o m f i g u r e 54 t h i s final development phase

is s e e n to s t a r t a t hrnax / h n = 1.45 and T 1 = 1.6. F i g u r e 30 shows t h a t

T' = 1.6 c o r r e s p o n d s to &/h, = 4000. A s explained i n Section VII-D

the i n c r e a s e d growth r a t e a t s m a l l e r s l o p e s c a n b e computed i f the
-
h /h v s . TI r e l a t i o n for the s m a l l e r slope is known. In t h i s c a s e
rnax n
the Gmax/h VS. TI r e l a t i o n f o r S = . 0 3 is not known, but i t is s u s -
n o
pected that it would l i e between t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e l a t i o n f o r S =. 05011
0

and the t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n for F = 3 . 5 shown on f i g u r e 54. Actually

the t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n f o r E' = 3. 7 should be used. F i g u r e 30 shows

that a t t h e end of the channel. t h e value of T ' would b e 2.55. On

figure 54 i t c a n be s e e n t h a t between values of T ' of 1 . 6 and 2.55, the

change i n the values of Emax/h i s g r e a t e r f o r the t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e
n
than t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e . F o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e with S0 = . 0 3

( F r o u d e number s t i l l about 3 . 5 ) , t h e change i n t h e values of Emax/hn

between values of TI of 1.6 and 2.55 would p r e s u m a b l y b e between the

two changes o b s e r v e d on f i g u r e 54. T h e r e f o r e the m a x i m u m i n c r e a s e

i n t h e growth r a t e (aFm a x / a t ) o c c u r s by using the r e l a t i o n f r o m t h e

unmodified theory. The change i n the value of /h between

max n
TI = 1.6 and TI = 2.55 i s .29 for the t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n (1.57 t o 1.86),
and . 25 f o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e l a t i o n (1.45 to 1. 70). Thus the

c o r r e c t e d value of /h a t t h e end of the channel is 1.74 (1.45 t

max n
2 9 ) , and (hmax)max/hn b e c o m e s 2.26.

I n t h e above example the i n c r e a s e i n t h e growth r a t e w a s v e r y

s m a l l , but for l a r g e r F r o u d e n u m b e r s and g r e a t e r d i f f e r e n c e s between

the channel slope i n t h e field. and those used i n the l a b o r a t o r y the

c o r r e c t i o n t o t h e value of hrnax i h n w i l l be m o r e significant. In this

example the slope c o r r e c t i o n w a s e a s y t o e s t i m a t e b e c a u s e the growth

r a t e s p r e d i c t e d f r o m the unmodified t h e o r y w e r e only slightly l a r g e r

than t h o s e predicted f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l relation. I n f i g u r e 56 the

values of a ( g /h
max n
TI from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c u r v e a r e considerably

l a r g e r than t h o s e f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l relation. Thus f o r channels

with slopes considerably s m a l l e r than . 1192, -

s a y . 0 7 , the hmax/hn VS.

TI r e l a t i o n based on t h i s s m < a l l e rslope would be d e s i r a b l e . This

r e l a t i o n could b e obtained using t h e modified theory ( a s given i n

Chapter VIII), but it would r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e calculation. Of c o u r s e

t h e unmodified theory could always be used t o obtain the m a x i m u m

value of
max
, as w a s done in the n u m e r i c a l example above, but t h i s
would give v a l u e s of 5rnax t h a t would b e much too l a r g e i n c a s e s s i m i l a r
to t h o s e of f i g u r e 56 i n which the slope of t h e c u r v e f o r the unmodified

t h e o r y i s significantly l a r g e r than f o r the e x p e r i m e n t a l curve.

The inlet conditions m a y not b e equivalent to those of the l a b o r a t o r y

inlet. I n t h i s c a s e the m a x i m u m value of i; a t any station can b e

rnax
found b y a s s u m i n g that the r o l l waves begin t o develop a t t h e u p s t r e a m

end of the channel. Thus f o r the channel with & / h n = 6000 and F = 3 . 7 :

at &/hn = 900, i; / h = 1.15; a t & / h n = 4500, Kmax/hn = 1.70; and a t

rnax n
&/hn=6000,E /h =l.90.
rnax n
Consider the c a s e of a n existing channel i n which values of %
rnax
a r e m e a s u r e d a t low d i s c h a r g e s and i t is r e q u i r e d to p r e d i c t v a l u e s

f o r much l a r g e r d i s c h a r g e s . T h i s i s done by finding the

L a x
r e l a t i o n between hm a x / h n an.d & / h which can then b e used f o r a l l d i s -
n
c h a r g e s and a t any station in. the channel. Of c o u r s e o t h e r m e a s u r e d

quantities such a s crh and TI could be t r e a t e d in the s a m e way. The

rnax
concept of a unique r e l a t i o n between h / h (and other quantities)
rnax n
and & / h n , f o r the F r o u d e number ( n e a r l y ) constant, w a s v e r i f i e d in

t h e l a b o r a t o r y (figures 26-29). It is only valid i f t h e inlet condition

is t h e s a m e a t all d i s c h a r g e s .

VIII-C PREDICTION O F MAXIMUM DEPTHS IN WIDE RECTANGULAR

CHANNELS WITH A CHANGING SLOPE

The effect of a slope change on a developing r o l l wave t r a i n w a s

not investigated. I n a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel t h e Fr oude number

can be w r i t t e n a s
Because /h depends on F , it i s c l e a r that a slope change w i l l
max n
influence the wave depths. 'This influence will not take place i m m e d i -

ately d o w n s t r e a m of t h e slope change, but over s o m e length of channel

d o w n s t r e a m of it. A s a n example of what could o c c u r , consider a r o l l

wave t r a i n in a long steep channel with a l a r g e slope change s o that t h e

F r o u d e number i n t h e lower section is about 1.2. F o r t h i s situation,

b e c a u s e the F r o u d e number i s l e s s than the c r i t i c a l value (Chapter 11),

-
h /h would actually d e c r e a s e and at s o m e distance f a r d o w n s t r e a m
max n
f r o m t h e change of slope a uniform flow would be attained.

The mechanics of a r o l l wave t r a i n propagating i n a channel with

r e a c h e s of different slope is quite complex, and indeed not yet u n d e r -

stood. However it is i n t e r e s t i n g to speculate on what would happen in

s u c h a channel, based on what is known for a channel on a constant

slope. To this end t h r e e methods of a n a l y s i s of t h e p r o b l e m will be

shown by m e a n s of a n u m e r i c a l example.

Consider a wide r e c t a n g u l a r channel with 4, = 2400 f t , S = 0.10,

0

F = 5 . 6 , and hn = 1.0 ft. Downstream of t h i s channel is a r e a c h with

6 = 3350 f t and F = 3.5. F o r the s a m e friction factor in each channel,

equation 8 . 1 shows that t h e slope of the downstream channel m u s t b e

.0392 (i. e. . lOx(3.515.6) 2). F o r t h e s a m e d i s c h a r g e and channel

width in both r e a c h e s , the uniform flow equation

Q = bshn &E J i Zn -o
shows t h a t the n o r m a l depth i n the .0392 slope r e a c h m u s t be 1.37 f t

(i. e. 1.0 x (. 1 0 1 . 0 3 9 2 ) ~ ' ~ ) .T h r e e methods will be u s e d t o find the

a v e r a g e m a x i m u m depth and the m a x i m u m of the m a x i m u m depths at

t h e d o w n s t r e a m end of the r e a c h with t h e slope of .0392. These

methods a r e e a s i l y extended t o c a s e s of m o r e than two slopes.

I n t a b l e 14 the calculations a r e shown f o r e a c h method. The

development r e l a t i o n s f o r a / h ( f i g u r e 35) andEmax/hn (figure 52)

n
"max
w e r e used i n t h e s e calculations. In method I the f i r s t s t e p i s to calcu-

late Kmax and a

h
a t the d o w n s t r e a m end of t h e f i r s t r e a c h with
rnax
S
0
= 0.10. Then t h e s e values a r e e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s of the n o r m a l

dkpth of the second r e a c h and used a s "input" to t h i s r e a c h . The values

of & / hn that would have been r e q u i r e d to develop t h e s e values of hm a x / hn

(1. 17) and a h / h n (. 13) had the value of F been 3.5 a r e then found.
rnax
Then with t h e s e values of &/\, the additional growth along the r e a c h

with a slope of .0392 w a s found. The b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n employed in

t h i s method w a s that t h e development r e l a t i o n s (figure 35 and 52) do

not depend on t h e u p s t r e a m conditions, o r in other w o r d s , f o r any

givenvalueofr; /h o r o h /hn, r e g a r d l e s s of how t h e s e values

rnax n
rnax
w e r e obtained, t h e r a t e s of growth a r e given by t h e l a b o r a t o r y

relations.

In method I1 t h e channel w a s a s s u m e d to be on a single s l o p e with

t h e s a m e v e r t i c a l d r o p between the two ends a s t h e o r i g i n a l channel

had. The values of F and h a r e then calculated keeping the t o t a l d i s -

n.
c h a r g e and t h e f r i c t i o n f a c t o r fixed. The values of Emax and o
h
rnax
a r e then calculated f o r t h i s "equivalent" channel.

I n method I11 it w a s a s s u m e d f i r s t that the e n t i r e channel had

So = . 10, then So = .0392. F o r each case the values of

max
and
 Table 14

S a m p l e Calculations Of Maximum Depth

F o r Channel With A B r e a k In Slope

Upstream reach - &=2400f t , S =0. 10, F z 5 . 6 ,

0
hn=l. 0 ft
Downstream reach - C=3350 f t , So=. 0392, F = 3 . 5, h n = l . 37 f t

Method I
At d o w n s t r e a m end of S =. 10 r e a c h :
0
& / h =2400,
n
Hm a x / h n = I . 6, Km a x = l . 6 f t
/ h =. 18, ) =1.6+2.58~.18=2.06ft
Oh n (hmax rnax
rnax
At u p s t r e a m end of So=. 0392 r e a c h :
-
h / h = I . 61 l . 3 7 = l . 17 which c o r r e s p o n d s to C/hn=2500
max n
/ h =. 181 1. 37=. 13 which c o r r e s p o n d s to &/hn=3600
Oh n
rnax
At d o w n s t r e a m end of So=. 0392 r e a c h :
for Kmax' C/hn=25OO+2440=4940, h / h = I . 58,
max n
-
h = l . 58x1. 37=2. 16 f t
rnax
f o r oh : &/hn=3600+2440=6040, oh /hn=. 20,
max max
Oh
=. 20x1. 37=. 27 f t
rnax

Method I1
Average S
o
=- 2400
575ox'
10 + x .0392 = . 0 6 4 5

n = (. 1 0 1 . 0 6 ~ 5 x) ~I. ~0 ~= 1. 16 ft
Equivalent h

Equivalent F = (. 06451. 1 0 ) " ~ x 5 . 6 = 4.5

. u s e l a b c u r v e s f o r So=. 08429

d / h =575O/ 1. 16=4950,
n
hm a x / h n =2.06,
-
h = I . 16x2. 06=2. 39 ft,
rnax Oh /hn=. 27,
rnax
= I . 16x. 27=. 3 1 f t
Ohrnax

" (hmax1rnax = 3 . 2 0 f t
 T a b l e 14 (continued)

Method I11

4, = 5750 f t , F = 5. 6, h n = 1. 0 f t

& / hn = 5750, Kmax/hn = 2.55, hm a x = a. 5 5 f t

/h = .36, (h ) = 3. 48 f t
Oh n max max
rnax
G = 5750 f t , F = 3 . 5 , h n = 1.37 f t

4,Ihn = 575011.37 = 4200, Emax/hn = 1 . 4 8 ,

5;m a x = 2. 03 f t , ah /hn = . 155, oh = .21,

m ax m ax
= 2. 58 f t
(hmax1rnax
Weighted a v e r a g e s :
-
--2400 x 2. 55 3350 x
+-
Km a x 5750 5750
2.03 = 2.24 ft

-
--2400 x 3 . 4 8 t 3350 x 2. 58 = 2. 95 f t
(hmax1rnax 5750
 w e r e found. Then to obtain the predicted values of H and
Oh max
rnax
a t t h e d o w n s t r e a m end of the channel with two s l o p e s , a
Oh
rnax
weighted a v e r a g e was found. The weighting f a c t o r s w e r e based on the

lengths of the r e a c h e s .

F o r all methods the value of (h was evaluated using

rnax ) rnax
equation 6. 3. T a b l e 14 shows t h a t f o r method I1 the value of

(hmax1rnax
was about 10 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r than f o r the other two methods.

I t i s difficult t o s a y which method p r e d i c t s the m o s t r e l i a b l e values.

Method I1 i s obviously easier. to apply, expecially f o r c a s e s involv-

ing m a n y different slopes. F o r method I a t l e a s t the a s s u m p t i o n s

employed a r e c l e a r , w h e r e a s i n the o t h e r two methods the justifica-

tions a r e obscure.

F o r predicting values of h a t high d i s c h a r g e s i n existing

rnax
channels with changing slope f r o m m e a s u r e d values of h a t low
rnax
d i s c h a r g e s , the method used f o r Santa Anita Wash (figure 50) should

be adequate. In t h i s method the m e a s u r e d values of 5rnax a t one

p a r t i c u l a r station w e r e divided by the c o n c u r r e n t value of h at that

n
s a m e station. T h e s e values of 5 / h w e r e then plotted against a
rnax n
value of & / h t h a t w a s computed by adding up the individual v a l u e s of
n
& / hn f o r each r e a c h of constant slope u p s t r e a m of the m e a s u r i n g

station ( i . e . & / h = S.Li/(h,Ji w h e r e &. i s the length of the ith r e a c h

n 1 1

and (hn) i s the n o r m a l depth f o r the ith r e a c h ) . S t r i c t l y speaking t h e

resulting h /h v s . & / h r e l a t i o n i s only valid a t the station a t

max n n
which the m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e taken b e c a u s e of the slope v a r i a t i o n s .
This r e s t r i c t i o n s t e m s f r o m the f a c t that t h e growth r a t e (aEmax/a&)
for a p a r t i c u l a r value of i n c r e a s e s as the F r o u d e number
mix
i n c r e a s e s (figure 52). I n a s y s t e m i n which t h e slope d e c r e a s e s in t h e

d o w n s t r e a m direction, the relation /h vs. & / h n d e t e r m i n e d f r o m

max n
m e a s u r e m e n t s a t one station w i l l p r e d i c t values of hm a x / h n that a r e

t o o low when t h e r e l a t i o n is used a t stations u p s t r e a m of t h e m e a s u r i n g

station, and s i m i l a r l y t h i s s a m e relation w i l l p r e d i c t values of

7

h that a r e too high when used at stations d o w n s t r e a m of the

m a x / hn
m e a s u r i n g station.

VIII-D INFLUENCE O F SIDE - WA LLS

I n Section VII-B t h e r e s u l t s of a calculation concerning the effect

of the side-walls on the periodic p e r m a n e n t r o l l wave t h e o r y w e r e

presented. I t was found t h a t for a fixed value of F and T ' , the value

/h was l e s s when t h e f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e of the side-walls

hmax n
w a s included in the calculation using the concept of a hydraulic r a d i u s .

F r o m t h i s r e s u l t i t is reasonable to conclude that for n a t u r a l r o l l waves

i n the final development phase, the value of Kmax/hn for a given TI and

F would b e Iess i n a n a r r o w channel a s compared to a wide channel.

If it i s a s s u m e d t h a t the TI vs. & / h relation is not influenced by the

n
s i d e - w a l l s , then t h e value of Kmax/hn a t a given &/hn will be l e s s f o r

a n a r r o w channel. Unfortunately t h e r e i s no e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence to

either support o r r e f u t e t h i s a r g u m e n t .

The concept of a c r i t i c a l F r o u d e n u m b e r , Fcr, w a s d i s c u s s e d

briefly in Section II-B. By definition, a flow with F < F is insensitive

Cr

t o s m a l l p e r t u r b a t i o n s of the f r e e s u r f a c e . This i s usually i n t e r p r e t e d

to m e a n that r o l l waves will not develop i n flows with F < F
Cr
. In the

l a b o r a t o r y e x p e r i m e n t s t h e minimum value of F was about 3.5. The

value of Fcr w a s not d e t e r m i n e d experimentally, and indeed would be

quite difficult to obtain because of t h e v e r y s m a l l growth r a t e s for

values of F n e a r Fcr. However t h e t h e o r e t i c a l value of F for a wide

cr
r e c t a n g u l a r channel is l a r g e r for a n a r r o w channel than a wide channel.

Unfortunately t h e r e is no e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence t o bring t o b e a r on what

the value of Fcr is f o r a r e c t a n g u l a r channel, and what influence the

side-walls have on the value of Fcr.

F r o m what little analytical evidence that e x i s t s , it a p p e a r s t h a t

by neglecting the effect of t h e side -walls, the values of that would

max
be predicted f r o m the l a b o r a t o r y r e l a t i o n s would be somewhat high.

However the a c t u a l effect of t h e side-walls c a n not be evaluated until

e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence is available. In the m e a n t i m e the only

a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o neglect the possible effect of the side-walls.

 CHAPTER IX

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The p u r p o s e of t h i s stud,y was to d e s c r i b e s o m e of t h e p r o p e r t i e s

of r o l l waves that develop f r o m a u n i f o r m flow in a s t e e p wide r e c -

tangular channel.

A. F r o m the m e a s u r e m e n t s obtained i n the laboratory channel,

the following r e s u l t s concerning n a t u r a l r o l l waves w e r e obtained:

1. F o r a given F r o u d e number F and channel slope So the

following quantities could be e x p r e s s e d a s unique functions of &/h,,

the r a t i o of the distance t f r o m t h e beginning of the channel to h

n'
the n o r m a l depth of the uniform flow:
-
h /hny where I; is t h e m e a n value (at a fixed t)
rnax max
of the depths a t the wave c r e s t s .

T 1 = S T
o av
&/h
n
= dimensionless wave period in

which T is the m e a n wave period (i. e. t i m e f o r

av
t h e wave to p a s s a given station) and g i s the

a c c e l e r a t i o n of gravity.
-
hrnin
/hn, w h e r e hm i n is the m e a n value of the depths

at t h e wave troughs.

Oh /hn, w h e r e oh
is the standard deviation of Lax.
max max
the standard deviation of T '.
(ik
 2. F o r a given value of 5
m ax
, the growth r a t e asmax/a cof the

shock waves (i. e. l a r g e amplitude r o l l waves) i n c r e a s e d a s F r o u d e

number was i n c r e a s e d by i n c r e a s i n g the channel slope.

3. S m a l l amplitude r o l l waves of significant magnitude, taken

as L a x
/ h n = 1.1, o c c u r r e d a t values of & / h n that d e c r e a s e d a s F r o u d e

number i n c r e a s e d .

4. I n any given flow, T r e m a i n e d unchanged i n a r e a c h that

av
extended f r o m the station where s m a l l amplitude waves had developed

sufficiently s o that individual waves could be identified, to s o m e

station downstream of w h e r e the s m a l l amplitude waves f o r m e d into

shock waves. This portion of the development w h e r e Tav r e m a i n e d

unchanged was t e r m e d the initial development phase. Downstream

of the initial development p h a s e , shock waves w e r e overtaking and T

av
i n c r e a s e d approximately l i n e a r l y with 4 .

5. Two types of wave growth (i. e. i n c r e a s e i n h

max
) were

identified:

a ) n a t u r a l growth - that growth which o c c u r s without wave

overtaking. T h i s was the type of growth that

occur r e d i n the initial development phase.

b) growth by overtaking - that growth which o c c u r s when

a shock wave o v e r t a k e s and combines with another

shock wave to f o r m a single shock wave with hmax

g r e a t e r than t h a t of e i t h e r wave before combination.

 6. After a sufficient amount of growth (5 /h > approximately
max n
1. 5) the xmax/h VS. T ' relation f o r natural r o l l waves was practically
n
identical to the experimental h vs. T t relation for periodic perman-
m a x / hn
ent r o l l waves a t the s a m e F r o u d e number and slope. F r o m this c o r r e s -

pondence between n a t u r a l and periodic waves i t was deduced that growth

by overtaking was the dominant type of growth during this portion of the

development which was t e r m e d the final development phase.

7. The velocity of a n individual shock wave increased a s the depth

a t the c r e s t h i n c r e a s e d , and a s the depth a t the trough immediately

max
in f r o n t of the shock front increased. Consequently, the h m a x of a n

overtaking wave was occasionally l e s s than that of the wave being over -

taken. In addition a n overtaking wave a c c e l e r a t e d while it was propa-

gating on the gradually increasing depth behind the wave being overtaken.

The velocity of the combined wave was g r e a t e r than that of the overtaken

wave, and l e s s than that of the overtaking wave just before the two

waves combined.

8. The frequency distributions of h T , and c for a given flow

max'
a t a given station w e r e approximated by the Gaussian distribution,

whereas the frequency distribution for h was skewed toward the

min
s m a l l values so that the m e a n value was l e s s than the median.

B. The following r e s u l t s concerning periodic permanent r o l l

waves w e r e obtained:
 1. The experimentally obtained h /h vs. TI r e l a t i o n s did not
rnax n
a g r e e with the theory in which the weight of the shock front was

neglected. After the theory w a s modified to include t h i s weight, the

observed values of h /h w e r e within a n a v e r a g e of 6.5 p e r c e n t

rnax n
of the predicted v a l u e s , and t h e m a x i m u m discrepancy w a s 13.5

p e r cent.

2. The modified theory,with the weight of the shock front included,

p r e d i c t s a channel slope effect, such that f o r a given value of F and T f ,

the value of h /h i n c r e a s e s a s t h e slope d e c r e a s e s . Furthermore

rnax n
the modified theory p r e d i c t s that t h e slope of the hmax/hn vs. T 1

relation (3 (h / h ) / a T f ) , a t a given value of h

max n max /hn, i n c r e a s e s a s
the channel slope d e c r e a s e s . T h e s e predicted channel slope effects on

the h v s . T ' relation w e r e observed i n the periodic wave

rnax / h n
experiments.

C. Conclusions concerning n a t u r a l r o l l waves :

1. F r o m r e s u l t s A 6 and B 2 it can be concluded that with F held

fixed and for a given value of 'E; in the final development p h a s e ,

rnax / h n
the growth r a t e of n a t u r a l waves will d e c r e a s e a s t h e channel slope is

i n c r e a s e d , providing the effect of the channel slope on t h e approxi-

mately linear portion of the T ' v s . & / h n r e l a t i o n i s s m a l l compared to

i t s effect on the 'E; / h vs. T relation. By comparing the n a t u r a l

rnax n
r o l l wave r e s u l t s for t h e rough channel (S =
0
. 1192) with those of the
smooth channel a t about the s a m e F r o u d e number ( S = .05Ol I ) , it was
0

found that the growth r a t e s of the shock waves w e r e appreciably l e s s on

the l a r g e r slope.
 2. B a s e d on the f a c t t h a t , f o r a given F r o u d e number and channel

slope, unique r e l a t i o n s r e s u l t e d when the m e a s u r e d wave p r o p e r t i e s

w e r e e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s of & and h ( s e e r e s u l t A l ) , i t is r e a s o n a b l e
n
t o conclude that t h e s e s a m e r e l a t i o n s w i l l be valid f o r any wide

r e c t a n g u l a r channel with inlet conditions equivalent to those in the

l a b o r a t o r y , providing t h e F r o u d e number and channel slope a r e t h e

s a m e as those obtained i n t h e laboratory. If, f o r the s a m e F r o u d e

n u m b e r , the channel s l o p e s a r e not the s a m e , t h e growth r a t e s of the

shock waves i n the f i n a l development phase will b e different than those

i n the l a b o r a t o r y ( s e e conclusion C 1).

 212

LIST O F SYMBOLS

a r e a of c r o s s section of flow

width of rectangular channel

dimensionless complex velocity = C

r
+ iCi
dimensionless wave velocity = c / u
n
C dimensionless number pertaining to growth r a t e
i
c wave velocity

c aver age wave velocity

av
D geometric mean s i z e of sand g r a i n s
g
F F r o u d e number of uniform flow = un/ mn
c r i t i c a l F r o u d e number
Fcr
f Darcy- Weisbach friction factor

g acceleration of gravity
h depth of flow normal to channel floor

h n o r m a l depth of uniform flow

n
h a depth defined by h: =K ~ / ~
C

h mean depth of shock front

e
h
cr
c r i t i c a l depth = (cj2Ig)113
h average depth over a wave length
av
h 5
maxa max
depth a t wave c r e s t and average depth of wave c r e s t s
respectively

Olmaxf max
maximum value of h
max
-
h h depth at wave trough and average depth of wave troughs
min' min
respectively

H dimensionless depth = h / h n

K a constant of integration with units of discharge p e r unit

width = (c-u)h
 LIST O F SYMBOLS (Cont'd)

k g e o m e t r i c m e a n s i z e of sand g r a i n s

4, distance along channel f r o m beginning of channel

length of shock f r o n t

discharge

Cl d i s c h a r g e p e r unit width
a v e r a g e d i s c h a r g e p e r unit width o v e r a wave length
4 av
R Reynolds number = 4 r u /V
n
r hydr aulic r adius

channel slope = s i n 0
So
T wave period

T a v e r a g e wave period
av
d i m e n s i o n l e s s wave period = SOT an or S T
o av mn
t time

t' d i m e n s i o n l e s s t i m e = unt/X

U d i m e n s i o n l e s s velocity = u / u
n
d i m e n s i o n l e s s p e r t u r b a t i o n velocity = u / u
n
- 1

a v e r a g e velocity o v e r c r o s s section of flow = Q / A

u velocity i n x - d i r e c t i o n a t distance y f r o m channel bottom

P
u n o r m a l velocity
n
U:k s h e a r velocity =
u u velocity at wave c r e s t and trough r e s p e c t i v e l y
max' min
W weight of shock f r o n t p e r unit width

x c a r t e s i a n coordinate p a r a l l e l to channel bottom

X coordinate moving i n x - d i r e c t i o n at velocity c , X = x - c t

 214

LIST O F SYMBOLS (Cont'd)

dimensionless p a r a m e t e r = S X / ~ ~ h
o n
c a r t e s i a n coordinate perpendicular to channel bottom

velocity distribution coefficient

specific weight of fluid

thickne s s of laminar sublayer

dimensionless perturbation depth = h / h n - 1

angle of inclination of channel bottom

kinematic viscosity of fluid

wave length

m a s s density of fluid

standard deviation

geometric standard deviation of sand s i z e s

s h e a r s t r s s s i n x-direction averaged over the channel

boundaries

denotes division by h e. g. h* = h / h
c n n c
average frequency of wave overtakes i n a r e a c h of channel
A.e
 215

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C o r n i s h , V. , "Ocean waves", C a m b r i d g e University P r e s s , 1934,

pp. 92-101.

P e r s o n a l communication with R. L. S c h r e v e , o b s e r v e d on Blue

G l a c i e r , Mount Olympus , Washington on 26 August 1965.

H o l m e s , W. H. , "Traveling waves i n open channels", Civil

E n g i n e e r i n g , v 6, n 7, J u l y 1936, pp 467-468.

Keulegan, G. H e and P a t t e r s o n , G. W. , "Effect of turbulence and

channel slope of t r a n s l a t i o n waves", J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h of

the National B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s , v 30, R P 1544, J u n e 1943,

pp. 461-512.

J e f f r e y s , H. J . , "The flow of w a t e r i n an inclined channel of r e c -

tangular section", Philosophical Magazine, s e r i e s 6, v 49,

May 1925, pp. 793-807.

C r a y a , A. , "The c r i t e r i o n f o r the possibility of roll-wave f o r m a -

tion", G r a v i t y Waves, National B u r e a u of S t a n d a r d s C i r c u l a r

521, 1952, pp. 141-151.

D r e s s l e r , R . F. and P o h l e , F. V. , "Resistance effects on hydraulic

instability", Communications on P u r e and Applied Mathematic s ,

v 6, 1953, pp. 93-96.

I w a s a , Y o , "The c r i t e r i o n f o r instability of steady uniform flows

i n open channels", M e m o i r s of the F a c u l t y of Engineering,

Kyoto University, J a p a n , v 16, n 6, M a r c h 1954, pp. 264-275.

Koloseus, H. J. and Davidian, J. , " F r e e - s u r f a c e instability c o r -

relations", Geological S u r v e y Water-Supply P a p e r 1592-C,

1966, 72 pp.
 216

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Cont Id)

10. Montouri, C. , "La formazione spontanea dei t r e n i dlonde s u

canali a pendenza molto forte" (Spontaneous formation of wave

t r a i n s in s t e e p channels), Relazioni s u r i c e r c h e e studi

p r o m o s s i dall' ANIDEL, 1961, pp. 1-19. T r a n s l a t e d to English

by J. C. Van Tienhoven, U.S. Army Waterways E x p e r i m e n t

Station, translation no. 65-12, 1965.

11. T h o m a s , H. A. , "The propagation of waves i n steep p r i s m a t i c

conduits", P r o c . of Hydraulic Conference, Iowa City, Iowa,

1940, pp. 214-229.

12. I s h i h a r a , T. , Iwagaki, Y. and Iwasa, Y. , Discussion of "Roll

waves and slug flows" by P. M a y e r , T r a n s . ASCE, v 126,

p a r t I, 1961, pp. 548-563.

13. Ghambarian, N. N, , "On waves i n inclined open channels", IAHR,

th
11 International C o n g r e s s , paper no. 1.1, Leningrad, 1965,

13 PP.
14. Ghambarian, N. N, and Mayilian, N. N. , "An experimental study of

r o l l waves i n s u p e r r a p i d flow" (in Russian), Akademiia Nauk

Armianskoi SSR, Izvestiig, S e r i i a Tekhnicheskikh Nauk, v 12,

n 2 , 1959, pp. 3-8.

15. D r e s s l e r , R. F. , "Mathematical solution of the problem of r o l l -

wave s in inclined open channels", Communications on P u r e

and Applied Mathematics, v 2, 1949, pp. 149-194.

16. Koloseus, H. J. , "The effect of f r e e - s u r f a c e instability on channel

resistance", Ph. D. T h e s i s , University of Iowa, August, 1958,

39 PP*
 217

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Cont Id)

17. Rouse, H. , "Critical analysis of open-channel resistance", P r o c .

ASCE, J. Hyd. Div., v 9 1 , n H Y 4, July1965, pp. 1-25.

18. Lighthill, M. J . and Whitham, G. B. , "On kinematic waves, I.

Flood movement i n long r i v e r s " , P r o c . Royal Society of

London, s e r i e s A, v 229, May 1955, pp. 281-316.

19. Schonfeld, J. C. , "Distortion of long waves; Equilibrium and

stability", International Association of Scientific Hydrology,

publication no 35, AS s e m b l i e gdndrale de B r u x e l l e s , v 4, 1951,

pp. 140-157.

20. Vanoni, V. A. , "130-foot p r e c i s i o n tilting flume", Tech. Memo.

No. 64-7, W.M. Keck L a b o r a t o r y of Hydraulics and Water

R e s o u r c e s , Calif. Inst. of Tech. , Pasadena, California,

J a n u a r y , 1964.

21. F i s c h e r , HeB. , "Longitudinal d i s p e r s i o n in l a b o r a t o r y and n a t u r a l

s t r e a m s " , R e p o r t No. KH-R -12, W. M. Keck L a b o r a t o r y of

Hydraulics and Water R e s o u r c e s , Calif. Inst. of Tech. ,

Pasadena, California, June 1966, pp. 58-61.

22. T r a c y , H. J. and L e s t e r , C . M . , "Resistance coefficients and

velocity distribution smooth rectangular channel", Geol.

Survey Water Supply P a p e r 1592-A, U.S. Dept. of the I n t e r i o r ,

Washington, D. C. , 1961, 18 pp.

23. Keulegan, G. H. , "Laws of turbulent flow i n open channels",

J o u r n a l of R e s e a r c h of the National Bureau of Standards, v 21,

R P 1151, Dec. 1938, pp. 707-741.

 218

BIBLIOGRAPHY (C ont'd)

24. Rouse, H., "Elementary mechanics of fluids", John Wiley, 1946.

25. P r a n d t l , L. and Tietjens, 0 . G. , "Applied hydro- and aeromechanics",

Dover Publications, 1957, p. 3 6.

26. Rouse, H . , "Engineering hydraulics", John Wiley, 1950, chapter X

by B. R . G i l c r e s t .

27. Elevator ski, E. A. , "Hydraulic e n e r g y dissipator s", McGraw

Hill, 1959, p. 26.

28. Bakhmeteff, B.A. and Matzke, A . E . , "The hydraulic jump i n

sloped channels", T. ASME, paper Hyd. 60-1, v 60, n 2,

Feb. 1938, pp. 111-118.

29. Chow, V . T . , "Open channel hydraulics", M c G r a w H i l l , 1959,

p. 428.
 219

APPENDIX I

Discussion by the w r i t e r of " C r i t i c a l a n a l y s i s of open-channel

r e s i s t a n c e " by Hunter Rouse(17).

Published i n the P r o c e e d i n g s of the A m e r i c a n Society of Civil

E n g i n e e r s , J o u r n a l of the Hydraulics Division, 92, HY2, M a r c h , 1966,

pp. 403-409.

The following c o r r e c t i o n should b e made: p. 406, l a s t p a r a -

g r a p h , 2nd sentence, should r e a d "To aid i n the determination of the

water - s u r f a c e l e v e l s with t h e point gage, a s t a t i c p r e s s u r e - t a p installed

flush with the flume floor was used. "

The w r i t e r r e c e i v e d the J. C. Stevens Award f o r 1966 f r o m the

A m e r i c a n Society of Civil E n g i n e e r s for t h i s discussion.

 DISCUSSION

RICHARD R. B R O C K , ~A.~ M. ASCE.-This discussion will be confined to

the sectionof the paper dealingwith free-surface instability leading to the de-
velopment of roll waves. Following the order of presentation in the author's
paper, these comments will deal with the stability criterion as derived from
Eq. 26, experimental data on friction factors in smooth rectangular channels,
and the author's hypothesis that, "In reality, the augmented rate of loss in-
dicated by mean-flow considerations is not a true dissipation but a transfor-
mation from mean-flow energy to wave energy."
Stability Analysis.-The author's criterion for stability for wide rectangular
channels as expressed by Eqs. 29 and 30 indicates that Fs is a function of f
only. Actually, K is also involved because the numerical factor 1.30 in Eq. 29
was evaluated from 3/2./3j~,and 0.87 in Eq. 30 was evaluated from 1 / J 8 ~ .For
the commonly accepted value of K of 0.40, these factors would be 1.326 and
0.884. The author's factors result when K = 0.407 is used.
It should be kept in mind that this stability analysis is only valid for sur-
face disturbances that have wave lengths that a r e long compared to the depth.
This restriction comes from the fact that the shallow water wave equations
used, a r e based on a hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Experimental Data in Smooth Rectangular Channels.-The author cites data
by Nemec in a smooth rectangular channel which shows that an unstable flow
has a higher friction factor than a stable flow at the same Reynolds number.
The criterion of stability usedwas Eq. 29. TQ the writer's knowledge the only
other data that shows this effect in smooth channels is that of powell. (5) How-
ever, published data by ~ r a c ~ and
7 3 unpublished data by the writer obtained
at the CaliforniaInstitute of Technology (CIT), to be presented herein, indieate
that the friction factor does not dewend on the Froude number even when the
values a r e in excess of those given dyE ~29. and instability is expected. These
contradictory findings a r e quiteperplexing and anexplanation for the discrep-
ancy is necessary for a complete acceptance of one o r both findings. In this
discussion, an explanation of the contradiction will not be given. Instead, for
each of the experiments, a short description of the apparatus and techniques
used will be given where available. Also, the results will be shown on an f-R
plot for each experiment. In addition, a few comments will be made concerning
experimental procedure that may help to explain why differences in findings
do exist.
Beforegoing to the four sets of experiments inquestion, some brief general
remarks on measuring friction factors a r e in order. The normal method of
obtaining friction factors involves measuring the discharge, depth, and flume
slope, and then calculating f by Eq. 27a. In most cases, the discharge and slope
a r e quite accurate. Assuming that discharge and slope a r e fixed for a rec-
tangular channel of width b, the variation of f with d is given by

72 NSF Graduate Trainee, California Inst. of ~ e c h . Pasadena,

, Calif.
73 Tracy, H. J., and Lester, C. M., "Resistance Coefficients andvelocity Distribution
Smooth Rectangular Channel," Water Supply Paper 1592-A, Geol. Survey,U. S. Dept. of
the Interior, Washington, D. C., 1961.
 March, 1966 HY 2

in which f and f' are the friction factors corresponding to depths d and dl,
respectively. This shows, for example that in a wide channel, a 5% positive
e r r o r in measuring d(dl/d = 1.05) results in a 15.8%positive e r r o r in f(f9/f =
1.158).
Obviously, one method of minimizing e r r o r s in measuring the depth is to
run at high depths, which is generally the case in subcritical flow. However,
for supercritical flow in the laboratory, the depths a r e generally consideribly
smaller because the slopes are larger and the discharge capacity is limited.
Thus, it can generally be stated that an accurate measurement of depth is
needed to assure a reliable f value, especially in supercritical flow.
The stability analysis indicates that, if the Froude number is above a cer-
tain value, small sinusoidaldisturbances on the free surface willbe amplified.
These amplifying disturbances presumably lead to the large amplitude waves
called roll waves. However, this process requires some length along the
channel in which the small waves can grow. It has been the writer's experience
that, for flows of appreciable depth, the usual laboratory flume is not long
enough for waves to grow sufficiently s o that they a r e visible to the eye. Only
when the depth of flow is small and the slope is large can surface disturbances
be observed near the downstream end of the flume. Because of this, friction
factors in an unstable flow a r e measured in the reach where the flow is at nor-
mal depth and the surface disturbances that eventually lead to roll waves have
not developed appreciably.
Nemec's data, shown in Fig. 17, were obtained in a smooth rectangular
channel 2.5 ft wide, 86 ft long, having glass floor and walls. The numerical
data for plotting Fig. 17 were read from Fig. 10, The experimental technique
followed by Nemec is not available and it is hoped that the author will supply
this in his closure. In plotting Fig. 17 all of the points for stable flows from
Fig. 10 were used, but only four of the points for unstable flows were used in
each group with approximately equal Reynolds numbers. In selecting these
four points, the two extreme values of f were used a s well a s two points be-
tween these extremes.
Fig. 17 shows that the friction factor for unstable flow can be considerably
larger than for stable flow. At R = 5.2 x 104, the maximumf is 32%larger than
the value on the curve based on stable flow, and a t R = 6.7 X 105, the maximum
f is 16%higher. From Fig. 10, it can be seen that, for a constant Froude num-
ber, the percentage increase in f is greatest at the lower Reynolds numbers.
This observation may be related to the fact that, for a constant F, the depth in-
creases with R, and thus if a constant absolute e r r o r is made in measuring the
depth, the resulting e r r o r in f would be larger a t the lower values of R.
~ o w e l l ' s 5results from a smooth rectangular channelat Iowa State Univer-
sity a r e shown in Fig. 18. The flume was 8 in. wide, 50 ft long, and lucite
walls, and a structural steel floor protected with aluminum paint. The four
flume slopes used and the resulting ranges in Froude numbers are also shown
on Fig. 18. For the maximum slope, where the flow is unstable, the f values
a r e well above the curve obtained from data for the other three slopes where
the flow is stable. The equation shown was determined by the writer and is
not the one Powell reported.
 DISCUSSION

FIG. 17.-NEMEC'S DATA FOR A SMOOTH RECTANGULAR CHANNEL

FIG. 18.-POWELL'S DATA FOR A SMOOTH RECTANGULAR CHANNEL

FIG. 19.-TRACY'S DATA FOR A SMOOTH RECTANGULAR CHANNEL

406 March, 1966 HY 2

From Powell's reports it was determined that a static pressure tube was
used to measure the depth at five locations over the length of the flume. This
tube was connected to a well where hook gages were used to measure the water
level. No mention was made of any surface disturbznces that would lead to
roll waves, and none would be expected in the short channel used.
Inview of the importance of an accurate depth measurement insupercritical
flow, it seems that only five measurements over the length of the flume a r e
inadequate. The technique of using a static pressure tube in a high velocity
flow has the objection that a slight misalinement of the tube may cause a part
of the relatively large dynamic head to be recorded also. Finally, the writer
questions whether Powell had uniform flow conditions, because his tabulated
energy slopes were not equal to the flume slopes. Comparing Figs. 17 and 18
shows that the percentage increase in f (to 66%) for the unstable flows in
Powell's experiments is considerably larger than Nemec found for the same
Reynolds number.
~ r a c ~ used
7 3 a smoothrectangular flume at the Georgia Institute of Tech-
nology which was 3.5 ft wide, 80 ft long, had steel walls and floor covered by
one seal coat and two coats of synthetic enamel, and had a motorized slope
control. Tracy's results for 49 runs ranging in Froude number from 0.144 to
3.96 a r e shown in Fig. 19, It is seen that one relationship adequately fits all
the data.
Water-surface profiles were obtained from point-gage readings taken at
1-ft intervals over the length of the flume and a t five locations in the cross
section. In supercritical flow, the S2 and S3 profilesvary graduallywhen near
the normal depth, a s do the M1 and M2 profiles in subcritical flow. Because
these gradual variations may not be perceptible over a short distance, Tracy
measured both of the profiles and then the normal depth was interpolated be-
tween them.
Tracy stated73 that, in supercritical flow, the free surface was "character-
ized by highly agitated transverse waves of short length." Considering the
length of his channel and the depths of flow used, the waves he referred to a r e
not the small roll wave disturbances that are sometimes visible a t the down-
stream end of flumes. Rather, these waves a r e probably of the type that a r e
inherent with turbulent flow. To obtain a mean depth, Tracy measured the
elevation of the crest and the trough of these waves and the average was used
a s the mean depth. It is significant that this method agreed well with measure-
ments made with static pressure-taps installed in the flume floor.
The writer has made a few friction factor measurements in supercritical
(1.1 9 5 F ~ 2 . 8 8 )flow a t CIT which do not show a Froude number dependence.
The basic data a r e presented in Table 2 and Fig. 20 shows the f-R plot. The
flume is 3.61 ft wide, 130 ft long, has glass side walls and a stainless steel
floor. The flume slope is varied by means of electrically-operated mechanical
jacks.
Point-gage readings a t five locations in the cross section and at 5-m inter-
vals along the flume determined the water surface profiles. To aid in the
determination of the water-surface levels with the point gage, a static pressure
at the pressure-tap installed flush with the flume floor was used. A continuous
recording of the static pressure at the pressure-tap location was provided by
a strip paper recorder and a pressure transducer. From this recording, the
average static pressure (depth) at the pressure-tap location was obtained.
Then the point-gage was s e t at this average depth and the appearance of the
 DISCUSSION

X X X X X X X
W O
% % $ % C ; $ r n ,
5 2 Z Z Z f %

* * * w w m w
,8 Z 4 4 4 4 0,
X X X X X X X
2
m t - W
=?zz@?N
N
P?
t - o m
408 March, 1966 HY 2

water surface a t the point was observed bothfrom above and the side. Armed
with this visual picture of the water surface in contact with the point a t the
average depth level, the point-gage readings w e r e taken a t the locations indi-
cated above. Occasionally during the run, the point-gage was returned to the
pressure-tap location to check on the visual method of setting the point a t the
average depth.
Using this procedure to find the average depth, i t was found that readings
could be repeatedwithin approximately 0.02 c m to 0.04 cm. To get some idea
of the accuracy of the f values, Eq. 77 was used with d' = d+0.05 c m and the
resulting values of f'/f a r e shown in Table 2. The most e r r o r occurs for the
lowest depth which was in Run 3. Small waves, apparently resulting from a
f r e e surface instability, were clearly visible a t the lower end of the flume for
Run 3 only. These waves impaired the depth measurement and the normal

FIG. 20.-CIT DATA FOR A SMOOTH RECTANGULAR CHANNEL

depth was taken from the water surface profile upstream of the point where
these waves f i r s t appeared. It is interesting to note that the relationship in
Fig. 20 gives friction factors l e s s than 3% g r e a t e r than Tracy's relationship
over the range of Reynolds numbers tested.
Wave Enevgy .-In the final paragraph of the paper, the author presents the
idea that the increased friction factors in unstable flow, as found by Nemec,
r e s u l t from assuming that a l l of the computed energy l o s s is f r o m boundary
resistance alone. The author indicates that, in reality, a p a r t of this computed
energy l o s s has been transformed from "mean-flow energy to wave energy."
Considering a uniform flow in a wide rectangular channel, the r a t e a t which
energy is supplied to the flow, p e r unit s u r f a c e a r e a , is y S V d , and the r a t e
of energy dissipation because of boundary resistance is p ~ f/83 p e r unit s u r -
face a r e a . If the w r i t e r interprets the author's concept correctly, in unstable
flow there is also an energy dissipation r a t e associated with the small-ampli-
tude progressivewaves on the surface of the flow. Let the r a t e of this energy
HY 2 DISCUSSION 409

dissipationper unit surface areabe Dw. Conservation of energy requires that

3
y SVd = PI' f + D ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- (78)
8
If fi is the friction factor computed with Dw = 0 , Eq. 78 gives

which indicates that a friction factor computed by neglecting the dissipation

associated with the waves is larger than the true friction factor that reflects
only the dissipation caused by boundary resistance.
Eq. 79 indicates that, unless Dw is not small compared to y SVd, the two
friction factors a r e essentially the same. Although the exact form Dw is not
known, it certainly depends on the amplitude of the surface waves in some
manner, because for a stable flow (no surface waves) Dw = 0. Thus, for un-
stable flows that have small surface wave amplitudes, the writer feels that the
term Dw/y SVd, must be considerably less than unity. The experiments by
Tracy and the writer tend toconfirm this. Some analytical work on the form
of DW would be a significant contribution to this problem.
Summary.-The main purpose of this discussion was to bring out the fact
that contradictory findings exist regarding the Froude number effect on
friction factors in unstable flow. Findings from several sources were shown
in a similar manner to permit direct comparison. Some of the techniques and
apparatus used to obtain the data were discussed where possible. The impor-
tance of an accurate depth measurement was emphasized. The writer's inter-
pretation of the author's explanation for increasedfriction factors in unstable
flow was presented. This required an energy dissipation rate associated with
the surface waves to be introduced. The form of this dissipation term is not
known, but the writer feels that it is negligible for small amplitude waves.
Acknowledgments.-The writer wishes to thank his advisor, V. A. Vanoni,
for suggesting this discussion, and for his helpful criticism during its
preparation.