1

ROMANTIC ART
ROMANTIC ART
MARCEL BRION
64 color plates, 166 monochrome
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 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION page 7

I FORERUNNERS OF ROMANTICISM 12

Plates I-VIII 13

n ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE 29

3
Plates 1-41

III ENGLAND 45

Plates 1-27 47

IX-XXV 65
Plates

IV GERMANY 89

9I
Plates 1-30

XXVI-XLI 10S
Plates

I29
V FRANCE

Plates 1-24

IS1
Plates XLII-LVIII
VI OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES MP l8 *

187
Plates 1-28

209
Plates LVIX-LX

185
SPAIN

I9 °
SWITZERLAND

I92
RUSSIA

SCANDINAVIA l "

2° 5
ITALY

20 7
THE NETHERLANDS

VH THE UNITED STATES 213

Plates 1-16
2I 5

Plates LXI-LXIV 223

CONCLUSION 230

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 233

INDEX 239

All the measurements in this book are given in centimetres, followed by inches in

brackets. Height precedes width.

 INTRODUCTION

Romanticism is not one of those aesthetic phenomena which can be neatly al-
located to a particular period or country. On the contrary: it is a way of looking
at things, a certain vision, which is found, whether simultaneously or not, in the
most widely of art, philosophy, music and poetry. It even affects
different spheres
such seemingly objective studies as science and sociology and Romantic art bears the
marks of its contacts with the society of the day, both that part of society which
accepted it and that part which rejected it. Any attempt to define it by merely
contrasting it with Classicism, its traditional 'opposite', results in arbitrary, arti-
ficial and negative conclusions. But even in itself, without recourse to external
comparisons, the collection of forms and ideas lumped together as 'Romanticism'
is equally difficult to reduce to a convenient formula. Its principal elements are
fairly easy to define: restlessness, yearning, the idea of growth, sclf-identificai

with nature, infinite distance, solitude, the tragedy of existence and the inaccessi-
bility of the ideal; but all these are variously combined and mingled, of various
origins and tending in various directions.
Actual works of art speak more eloquently than definitions. One can learn more
about the nature and essence of Romanticism from a Schumann symphony, a
Caspar David Fricdrich landscape or Childe Harold's Pilgrimage than from any
scholarly disquisition on the subject. Nor does Romanticism reveal itself if ap-
proached dialectically or by reasoning; only through an immediate and total com-
munion with its spirit can one penetrate to its real depths. It is useless to attempt
to decide with absolute certainty whether this or that artist is a Romantic or not.
Chronological classifications are completely inapposite in a matter so much lcsscut-

and-dried than the art-historians would like to believe. When did Romanticism
begin and end? This question could only be asked by someone ignorant of the
complexity and extent of the problem and it can only be answered by an appeal to
the inquirer's own by requiring him to note what painting and music
sensibility,

arouse in him the excitement, nostalgia and disquiet indissolubly linked with the
Romantic sensibility.

For, in fact, Romanticism of the human mind which repeatedly

is a constant
comes to the surface at given stages in the history of art and civilization whenever
circumstances favour its resurgence and return to dominance. It is one of the stages
through which the human mind inevitably passes, and its repeated outbreaks show
 Romantic Art
8

how much dreams and nostalgia, horror of the

are natural to man, offering
finite

an ideal, a self-projection to the

far beyond aesthetics
painter, the musician

alone.
^ ^fJ ^J^
and the poet-a concept which extends .and he
only another facet of Baroque
It tpossible to sef Romanticism as
of the Baroque
as merely a prolongation
Romantic spirit at its most characteristic cannot be
this thesis raises
problems and imputations which
numerous
spirit, but
fact that Rococo the bridge
confirmed by the
discussed here. Nevertheless it is
of
seems to contam a modified version
between Baroque and Romanticism, itself
above all the most Baroque heroes
-Don Juan
the Romantic sensibility. It is
Romantic artists choose to portray, feeling
Hamlet, Faust, Don Quixote-whom
these great symbols of the human
dilemma.
themselves to be intimately related to
Baroque and Romanticism can only
That there is a strong connection between
neither the one nor the other. It has
been for-
be denied by those who understand
d'Ors, the great Spanish aesthetician,
who con-
cibly demonstrated by Eugenio
graphic
siders Romanticism a branch of
Baroque aid has gone so far as to invent a
new name for it, the 'barohus romanticus.
accurate evaluation of
This theory has contributed much to a more
brilliant
Baroque in general which has be-
Baroque art and indeed to the new concept of
one of the more useful
come current within the past few decades -probably
'Baroque' had long been used as a
achievements of modern art-history. The term
that was ridiculous, exaggerated and
extravagant,
pejorative epithet, signifying all

had been for the men of the 17th or 18th century a synonym for
just as 'Gothic'
'barbarianism'.
Those who on chronology, dividing off father from son,
base their calculations
elder brother from younger brother, would
deny all Romanticism to such artists as
the Rococo or the
Mozart or Watteau, on the grounds that they belong to either
to adopt. But the
Classical period, according to which particular system one cares
genius cannot be pigeon-holed in this way; it is ridiculous to
variations of human
suppose that a certain outlook, a certain artistic temperament began and ended on
given dates, like the pheasant season. If we accept that Rembrandt, El Greco and

Rubens belong to a sort of early Romanticism, a 'first edition' of the Romanticism

which was to flourish in the 19th century, we are suggesting (with ruinous effect
have been Romantics in the Baroque
to the time classification) that there could
period. Nevertheless one could make out a case for the Romanticism
of Baldung
Grien, Griinewald, Diirer, Magnasco, Monsu Desiderio and Valdes Leal and it
would not be impossible to postulate an 'eternal Romanticism' with equivalents in
non-European art.

But extending the field of vision always involves a risk of losing sight of the
target itself. One has no alternative but to focus on certain artists in particular if

one is to give them any detailed attention, and as the larger number of Romantic
artists reached the peak of brilliance in the period from about 1750 to 1850, this is

the obvious period to select. would be most interesting to trace the currents,
It

visible or concealed, which led up to this golden age of Romantic forms and ideas
and continued after its subsidence, but such explorations are beyond the scope of

this book.
From the foregoing it will have emerged that hard-and-fast distinctions between
pre-Romantics, proto-Romantics and precursors of Romanticism are entirely in-

apposite; there is no point in discussing which of Brahms and Chopin is the more
Romantic or maintaining that the Embarqucmait pour Cythere cannot be Romantic
because The Death of Sardanapalus cannot be anything else.

Where France is concerned, we may accept the judgment of Delecluze who said

of the movement fermenting around him: 'Those who call themselves

artistic

"Romantics" differ so much in their opinions, follow principles so contradictory,

that it is impossible to extract one central idea from all this chaos. I myself have
given up trying to understand it.' Similarly Paul Valery urged that it was wrong
irnruuuLiwn

to try to provide a single absolute solution for a

problem which did not admit of
such a solution.And he added: 'One would have to have lost all ability to reason
closely to attempt to define Romanticism.' Goethe provides us with an
excellent
example of an artist who remained Roi by temperament to the end of his
life yet whose desire for Classicism governed and controlled his natural impulses
and instincts, creating a harmonious alliance between the two nts.
Every textbook quotes Goethe's apparently decisive and unequivocal rejection of
Romanticism. Pushed to the end of his tether by importunate questions, he said:
'I call what is healthy Classical and what is unhi Romantic.' Undoubtedly the
greatest of all the authentically Romantic creations, in painting, music and poetry,
attain to a majesty and perfection which may well be called 'Classical', but today
this term is used in a much wider, more supple sense than was current in the 18th
or 19th century. Today we would hardly accept the basic, inherent opposition
postulated by the critics of those days and expressed here
by Goethe.
To judgment literally would be to accept as valid an arbitrary, brutal,
take his
over-simple dictum which almost certainly did not represent his true opinion or,
at any rate, the whole of it. It is possible to agree with him if he v iply dis-
tinguishing between the healthier side of Romanticism— in which it approached
Classicism (which for him meant health) —and the morbid side, which represented
a corruption of Romanticism.
In reality, however, it is over-simplifying Romanticism to think of it as a single

phenomenon, for its different aspects in different countries, th y differentiated

Romanticisms of, say, England, France and Italy, can hardly be grouped under one
heading. To take landscape-painting alone: only by a wilful forcing of analogy
and comparison can the painters of the Posillipo School, the Barbizon School, and
Caspar David Friedrich of Pommerania be put into a single category; nevertheless
they are all Romantic, even if in different ways and for different rcasi

One can only venture (without claiming to reach absolute truth) on an approach
equally uncontaminatcd by traditional prejudices and opinions and by hasty or bold
generalizations. This approach would consist of an examination and comparison
not only of the artists generally acknowledged to be 'Romantic', but also of those
who are linked with Romanticism either by their feeling, their technique or their

aspirations and restlessness.

The common characteristics of European Romanticism, irregularly scattered

through the different countries of the Continent and assuming different guises in

each of them, are revealed in a sentence from Baudelaire's A Curiosities. He

too attempted to devise a definition valid for all the different branches and not

merely for isolated cases. He says: 'The word Romanticism I modern art— that
is, intimacy, spirituality, aspiration for the infinite expressed with all the means open
to the arts.' This definition is completed by Delacroix' statement in Ins Journal:

'If by Romanticism is meant the free manifestation of one's personal impressions I

am a Romantic, and not only that, but I was Romantic at the age of fifteen.' By
a

using Delacroix' and Baudelaire's words as a key to the cryptogram of 19th-century

art, we arrive at a fairly clear impression of certain valid leitmotifs.
on the force of personal impression, Delacroix
In insisting is carrying to extremes

the autonomy of individuality, the rights of personality, in opposition to the

universal feeling and passions demanded by Classicism; to a c. stent he is

anticipating and giving in advance a justification for Impressionism. The Romantic

outlook is largely made up of sensibility, always allowed to predominate over
reason, a spirit of revolt affecting the relationship of man to society
and extending

to pictorial, literary and musical techniques, criticism

of divine and human laws

and rebellion against the established social order. To these arc added
a stormy

the instincts and

longing for independence, for no other compulsion but those of
characteristic bias to Romantic
passions. This is the mental make-up which gives its
aesthetics. The establishment of new links between man and the universe,
 Romantic Art
10

communion with
things that had previously been
nature, the newly
objects of terror-night, the
*^F«^f~5£n5d!
deep dreams and tne

new means of
for feeling and demand
2e-all thefe add Jartists' capacity

creations, in the supremacy -of

TheThst are manifested both in purely original
of old arUSUC forms, un-
painting over all the other arts, and in the re^valuat.on

justly forgotten or despised. . . ,.

artist dis-
and spiritual, the Romantic
In his longing for 'distance', both material
and returned to a typically
Romantic
covered the unknown marvels of the Orient
nostalgia for the past these
Middle Ages, magnified and embellished by his
:

are
are not contradictory, for they
desires for both novelty and 'olde-worldliness'

both forms of 'distance'. t c *

prime ambitions to produce the total work \

ot art
It was one of Romanticism's
to sensibility,
that is, a should appeal simultaneously to all the senses,
work which
conception of 'the work of art of the
the emotions and the intelligence. This vague
in its different acceptations, to both
Philipp Otto Runge and
future' is common,
Richard Wagner, for instance; it demands diat everything should appeal to all the
poetry and visual art.
perceptions, should be accepted simultaneously as music,
essential elements of the
This voracious appetite for totality is in fact one of the
assumption diat emotion incomplete unless it is aroused
Romantic spirit with its is

by all the senses, even if, on occasion, it does not achieve its aim.

man that hath no music in himself ... is fit for treasons, stratagems, and
'The
no such man be trusted,' said Shakespeare, the greatest inspiration of
spoils ... let

Romantic painters and musicians; they were quick to understand this attitude and
found in it the justification for their own sensibility. Walter Pater discovered in
Baroque and that part of the Renaissance which is already Baroque (Giorgione, for

instance) one of the basic laws of the Romantic code, that a work of art is more
perfect the closer it comes to music. Poetry itself enlarges and renders more subtle
itsmeans of expression the more it approaches music, as in Keats, Shelley, Nerval,
Hoffmann's Kater Murr and Jean Paul's Flegcljahre. And, of course, the reverse was
equally true. Composers did their best to 'widen the scope of music' by introducing
all kinds of non-musical elements— painting, literature and even philosophy. One
has only to think of typical 19th-century programme music, Lisztian tone poems or
Mendclssohnian evocations of Fin gal's Cave or Shakespeare's Athens.
To get the most out of a Romantic picture, to appreciate to the full its complexity,
it is not enough merely to note its pictorial qualities. The reason why Romantic

painting has become largely foreign, even sometimes unintelligible, to us of the

present day, is precisely this: that whereas Romanticism encouraged non-visual
qualities, we, since Impressionism, have condemned everything that is 'literary' or
'anecdotal', everything that is not pure painting.
It is a serious mistake to ask how a given work was painted and not why—
mistake which obscures the work's essential nature. Materials and technique, paint
and brushwork take up so much of our critics' attention that they have none left
over for deeper, more secret qualities, for the poetic and musical elements so in-
extricably interlinked with the pictorial element in, for instance, the works of the
German Romantics.
For more than a century, everything in a picture which is not pure painting has
been stigmatized as 'literary'; it is, perhaps, one of the greatest merits of the Sur-
realists that they laid stress on the 'subject' again, in complete opposition to
the
current trend. It would be absurd to look for nothing in a picture beyond the
way the story is told; because art-critics were not interested in the stories told,
they also came to ignore the poetic content of Romantic pictures by means of
which
artists attempted to stimulate the emotions.

normal, and probably salutary, for an excess in one direction to provoke,

It is
as a
reaction, an excess in another; one can understand how an overriding
preoccupation
 11
Introduction

with subject-matter should be succeeded by an immovable proscription of

subject-matter as such. And, in a way, one can account for the present equivocal
position whereby Delacroix appreciated only for his 'painterlincss', setting aside all
is

telling a dra-
the other qualities of his pictures— his powerful imagination, art of
matic story, feeling for construction, skill in evoking a supernatural
atmosphere—
just as Caspar David Friedrich is reproached with not having essentially modified
all, nothing
painting techniques— brush work, materials, etc.—which are, after
more than means to an end.
itself; the painter
For the Romantics, the pictorial element never became an end in
stimulated only by
continued to appeal to those parts of the mind which are not
the visual and tactile, but also by intense human feeling. The
aim of the Romantic
restlessness, and a con-
picture was to portray the human animal in his nostalgia,
fused mixture of aspirations and melancholy, and to
mirror the emotions aroused

in the spectator; it was to be poetry and

music as well as painting, both in subject
on die part of the
and treatment. Consequently it demands great sympathy
concerned, a revision of our
spectator and, where we of the present day are
ideas as to aesthetic merits.
expression of Roman-
The eighteenth century saw the beginning of the full
late
spirit of Romanticism
ticism winch continued far into the nineteenth century. But the
Immediately following this Intro-
has been with us at least since die Renaissance.
Romanticism', eight paintings by masters
duction, under the heading 'Forerunners of
die Romantic mood is the principal
of earlier periods arc reproduced, in which
inherent romanticism and as a prelude to
content. They serve as evidence of man's
the Romantic Age.
I FORERUNNERS OF ROMANTICISM

I GIORGIO DA CASTELFRANCO,
known as GIORGIONE c. 1476-1510

Giorgione was probably born at Castelfranco in about 1476 and may well have
studied with Girolamo da Treviso in that town, before working in the best-known
Venetian workshops— those of Gentile Bellini, Carpaccio, Alvise Vivarini and
Lazaro Bastiani. He painted the frescoes in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi at Venice
which have since disappeared, but there some doubt as to which paintings should
is

be attributed to him. La Tcmpesta is one of the few which are certainly by his
hand; Antonio Michicl relates that he saw it in 1530 in the palace of Gabriele
Vendramin. In Vendramin's Collection this mysterious composition was known as
Mercury and his, and art-historians have long debated the problem of its true
subject. Various hypotheses have been put forward but the picture's most striking

qualities are its Romantic atmosphere, the sustained harmony of the landscape and
the enigmatic relationship between the figures and the background. His attitude
towards the elements— a devout, almost religious awe— marks Giorgione out as
one of the precursors, if not creators, of the Romantic landscapes. He died of the
plague on 25 October, 15 10.

La Tempesta
78 x 72 (30! x 28I). Gallerie dcll'Accademia, Venice
14

II ALBRECHT ALTDORFER c. 1480-1538

Born at Regensburg, Altdorfer belonged to the so-called Danube School which

exerted a considerable influence on 16th century German landscape painting. He
was one of the first to give an important place to realistic depictions of various
aspects of nature. With him landscape ceases to be only symbolic or decorative and
becomes one of the main components of the cosmic emotion which the artist
attempts to express. In The Battle of Alexander, Altdorfer uses the precision and
delicacy of a miniaturist to convey the details of the armour and accessories of this
crowd of figures engaging in mortal combat. The most strikingly Modern' part ot

the composition is the huge landscape showing an expanse of sea and mountain
stretching away to infinity. Altdorfer shows here an early version of the pathetic

fallacy, in which the struggle of the sun with the clouds runs parallel with the
struggle of man against man and underlines the 'sun-god' nature of Alexander,
contrasting with his enemy, symbolized by the darkness; at the same time, the
limitless extent of the landscape suggests the limitless conquests of the Macedonian

ICing who aspired to be master of the whole universe. In his conception of huge
ambition coupled with a passionate feeling for 'distance', Altdorfer is revealed as

one of the best examples of the 'Romantic constant', one of the essential charac-

teristics of German art.

Detail from The Battle of Alexander

1529. Limewood. 401 x 305 (158 x 120) Alte Pinakothek, Munich

16

III ALBRECHT DORER 1471-1528

goldsmith. Later ^he

Born Nuremburg, Diirer began working with his father, a
in
Basle, Augsburg and Ulm,
travelled round Germany, visiting Colmar, Strasbourg,
contemporary masters.
and studying the techniques and aesthetic aims of the great
and spent some
He also paid two visits to Italy, staying for long periods in Venice,
time in the Netherlands. Of all his contemporaries he
had the closest and most
between the
fertile contacts with the best of his day. He established a link
artists
while, with his
traditionsof the Middle Ages and the new ideas of the Renaissance,
looks
attitude to life, he
passionate championship of the individual and tragic
a first edition
o
forward to the coming Baroque, which may be called
Animals dates from
Romanticism. His watercolour drawing of the Virgin with
no
the painter was probably
the beginning of his artistic maturity. Although
mother-goddess,
aware of it, his Virgin is a direct descendant of the Mediterranean
creation who is to
the Magna Mater or Mother of the Animals presiding over all

be found both in archaic Greece and Mesopotamia.

Virgin with Animals

x ("t x 9*) Albertina, Vienna
c. 1503. Pen and watercolour. 32.1 24.3
f
/
^
••

*o "

r^i
- 'A ;

>^
18

IV DOMENICO THEOTOCOPOULI,
known as EL GRECO 1548-1614

Born in Crete, El Greco moved while still young to Venice where he worked in
the circles of Titian, Veronese and Tintoretto. Later he settled in Toledo where he
died in 1614.
Landscape of Toledo dates from the final period of El Greco's life and is charac-
teristic of the way in which he was capable of expressing his dramatic feeling in a

simple landscape as freely as in a scene of religious ecstasy or martyrdom. The

harsh, violent appearance of the Castille town he had made his home is rendered
with a tragic force, underlined by of his greens, blues
the hot, oppressive intensity
and greys. Dramatic in itself, the landscape becomes even more so through the
Romantic clouds brooding sinisterly over the scene, the tense, almost unbearable,
silence before the storm. The whose elements seem
construction of the landscape,
to mingle like metals in affinities with some works by Cezanne,
an alloy, has certain
particularly in the so-called Gardanne period when he built up individual forms to
make a coherent structure. But here the objects and town seem about to dissolve,
to be disrupted and transformed by the violence of their inner fire, almost as
though they were being subjected to some form of alchemy; the architecture has
become pure drama.

Landscape of Toledo

121 x 106 (45$ X4i$) Metropolitan Museum, New York

20

V MICHELANGELO MERISI, known as CARAVAGGIO I573-K* 10

flourished in
Considered to have been the creator of Italian Baroque realism, which
subjects taken
Bologna, Rome and Naples, Caravaggio saturated homely scenes, or
from the life of Christ or the saints, with enormous dramatic intensity. Though
figures or objects and painting with almost banal
naturalism, he
refusing to idealize
given to
imbues them with of holiness so that supernatural overtones are
a spirit
Gallery
apparently commonplace scenes. The Supper at Emmaus in the National
provides us with a fine illustration of what may be called his
'super-naturalism —
of
his way of showing the brief movements of the soul beneath its heavy encasing
illusionist still-lite
flesh. The movement of Christ's hands above this almost
which in itself is entire y
introduces the very spirit of the miracle into a scene
without nobility or mystery.

The Supper at Emmaus

c. 1605. 139 x 195 (55x77$) National Gallery, London
 >

'> V -
22

VI REMBRANDT HARMENSZ van RYN 1606-69

Rembrandt's landscapes exert an

mixture of imagination and observed
extraordinary
"^"^^
realty. It was his habit
walks, and
to make notes m
"ut-staiAn the scenes he saw during his
*>£°£7£ZZ
own
a reflection of
hi
his studio a scene which

sp ri and of the spirit of

hh own purposes
P
was, at one and the same time,
the real landscape whose

In fact, what distinguishes

W
elements he rearranged
Rembrandt from
-^M^ the o&er
£
suit

kndscape paLters of the day is the fact

creation lyrical and passionate
that his landscapes

inventions deriving from musical

are,

as web
h
F^
m
P-
These are the pictures whi
^es rather than objective 'slices of life'
way of descnb.n D
'fantastic realism', another
critics to talk of Rembrandt's

17th-century 'Romanticism*.

Landscape with Obelisk

28) Isabella Stewart
Gardner Museum. Boston
1638. Wood. 55 x 71 (2U x
24

VII JACOB van RUISDAEL 1628-82

***tf.JMft CM* |^«jU^Wj one

both daung &>» "^ *
two versions of
There are

Dresden, and the one illustrated,

Ruisdael himself was the most
Illustrious
^"^^ton
^ J from <£ohmo of Dutch
tremendous influence on the
Haarlem, and he exerted a
pictures derive from a pen
drawmg &om
landscape painting. Both
he pamt e
the Teyler Museum, at
are
phere; regardless
Haarlem. This was purely
Romantically transmuted into an
of
evocation

their true position, Ruisdael

^'^T^
<*!«*£><
groups ogether U the objects

d
tombs, the
Lh the most emotional impact-theover 7 ^s
trees
n with the
ruined church, the rainbow emerging
virtuosiry of Romantics like Joseph
the woodedgauges
Anton Koch or Caspa ^ David
hen
th
Fne ^
to cr ate »
result is a symphony in form
and colour, so orchestrated as
myste
as to acquire the force
of an anguished and
mood, and^o planned
memento mori.

The Jewish Cemetery

x 89 x 74) Detroit Institute of Arts
c. 1660. 42 (56
y f~«l
26

VIII ANTOINE WATTEAU 1684-1721

Of the two versions oiL'Emhar^cnt pour Cythbe-^ second,

on be
F^ *£
«* t exp
II, is at Charlottenburg-this
de julienne and bought by Frederick
theRomantic character ofapainter in whom,
into Romanticism. Watteau may
have borrowed
as
^^f°^^Z
bs subject from Rubens
fiom the
G«*
of Love but he charged it
with a dramatic fire quxte absent
already su cumbmg
ister's work. The moving splendour of
to autumn underlines the melancholy
sadness than pleasure, more despair
heroes Cythera is the isle of the dead
this sunset over a park

mood of an allegory
than enthusiasm. For Watteau
rather than the isle of love,
m ^the-
s ">
is le of a P
n
a
^
probab
Charlottenburg version is y^
untroubled by both tragedy and joy. The
immortahzed various very p
picture of a stage scene; Watteau sometimes £
h
operas or plays for the delight of enthusiasts.
The Louvre picture no longer
is bathed
o
which the whole composition
any traces of its origin; the music in

from the subtle orchestration of forms and colours,

being massive and colours which are transparent,
forms wbch are sol
composed of light. tie
^^
genius reached its height in the portrayal of a
world both real and imagmary,
man is truly 'such stuff as dreams are made on*.

L'Embarquement pour Cythere

x 193 x 76) Mus£e du Louvre, Paris
1717. 128 (50J
 ibd

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1 B
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I^Hfir £ as*
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OB
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II ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

e
not a style; it "
ROMANT.C architect, .ecu*m*j
I* Vet ft would
other arts, a combination of nvu
d
RonantkAgcof km pur, "
OUroff
STdm new contexts, and the result h *•«.
"
NC°"
tTowrTcontcmplatingit
OSZZ Mediism was more apparent than
the past, particularly
lor the
real: bod
remote sources of man s

of the same longing for

1£ SS S ;-
" hlTbeVn^fasluon^! the tStb century, but ft was

down of the ^t^ -J*^;

S3T« ICi^WW-lW. W. -y -4 deal w.th
O

*e of these before d.scusstng

last'

The name 'rcvohmonary

has appUca
(«73o-iM
£» L
,1

g
cqucu
J ^ ^^ ^ ^
^
rf

whom the leaders were Lcdoux

(l7a8-x 799), who
Anything that had
^J^SS
consciously set out

! J*C ^
beau
UK ar*w
7
«y> ^
;
,

WOrks,
J^^ ^fife^

the 'ideal cfty'

buddmgs for mstaneeAe fc

designed by Ledoux
Ths was c
hm
tc for exce

t-
,
,

--
,

their des,8
romanac ;; ::r
discontent,
c i:;
they sits
v>crc
discrplcs.
b ° w -*

to«^«-2SS£S
The movement leadmg
to Nco ootn g
^te„t wa ys
P
in d-rTcrentcoun-
h a rf (hc

landscape and of
nanona se name « *« u w '5 ^
Consequcntly

SJSSSC! aattSK
even
baicontmued to ho.d ft. sway
 Romantic Art

30
ET1ENNE-LOUIS BOULLEE 1728-99
it began to be
At the same time, however Boullee was the oldest of the three
French architects (the
durine the 17th and 18th centuries.
oTcfouX enjoyed for its historical
assoaarions. The
rums and folhes or the
*^?™™%*
^g
usn
others being Lcdoux and Lequeu) who broke with
Baroque tradition and invented new forms largely based on
the

to be found in the imitation

intention was to give
to architecture is
=
elementary geometrical shapes. The
houses of diUetann such as Walpo architecture.
Ld te Sen and in the early 'Cornicle'archaeolo gl cal accuracy later
served to
expression to poetry and ideas in

Aspect and an msistence on

for the past 1 Entrance to a Cemetery
really new art
have made Neo-Gothic a

X
Bibliotheque Nationale (Cabinet des Estampes),
Paris.
damn down the vital spirit that might Scott copted med.eva
Th" ca'e and xactitude Lh
which architects like Pugm and
works of the
eventually deprived the*
rifled the imagination and CLAUDE-NICOLAS LEDOUX 1736-1806
creation.
original motive of their is the best known of
this group (Ledoux, Boullee,
•romantic mood' that had been the Lcdoux
comparing the generation of
architect Lequeu) since he was the only one whose
arclutectural

The process can easfly be recognized by buildings dreams were in part actually realized in the 'Ideal City' of
came later. No one could mistake
working before :82 5 with those that
published
Chaux. His theories and projects were
in

Castle of Douglas or Robert

Morns s Inverary V Architecture considered sous rapport de I'art, des mcvurs et de
uTe WUham Adam's (l «8-i 74»)
te

Dance the Younger la legislation (Paris,

from which these two illustrations
1804)
in Scotland) or George
Castle (the first fruits of Neo-Gothic are taken. All his works aim at expressing definite ideas;
authentic Gothic
(1741-1825) work on St
Bartholomew the Great, London, for in the Memorial this is obvious, but even in a functional
medieva building like the House of the Surveyor,
the gushing water
aimed only at resuscitating
manor-houses and churches. These architects man-made arch is meant to express the
were not forced through a
with the modem spirit they
forms that were capable of harmonizing
;
victory of man over nature.

producing copies. But with the advent

of Augustus Welby Pugin *% {«*"*&
matter of 2 Memorial in Honour of Womankind
significance. It now grew to be a
Lbiect assumed a more doctrinaire
ranged on 6 House of the Surveyor of the Loue
religious conviction with Pusey
and the Etiological Society strongly
but
'men over sixty remain faithful to Palladio,
the side of Gothic. It was said that
to Roman THOMAS) VAUDOYER
Gothic' Pugm himself was converted
1756-1846
LAURENT (A. L.
those under sixty have declared for de Rome
Augustine, a pupil of Peyre. He won the Prix
Ages, and built the church of St Vaudoyer was
Catholicism out of love for the Middle and spent several years there, followed by a highly

also interested in the symbolism

of Gothic,
Ramsgate, at his own cost. He was successful career in Pans. This house
was designed while he
the only Christian architecture.
Tins he uses the old
Rome; in it symbolic device of a
and in 1833 published a defence of Gothic, as was in
dome to represent heaven and the universe, supporting
and two
his principal imitators, Sir George Gilbert starry
became the Bible of his disciples
it on a ring of Doric columns, the
of the Greek
earliest
and Sir Charles Barry
known as 'the greatest Goth in Europe', The illustration comes from Annates du Muste,
Scott (1811-1878), orders.

who with Pugin's aid rebuilt the Houses of

Parliament m the purest Vol. II, 1802, plate 64, by C. P. Landon.
(1796-1863)
R>
Perpendicular style. , 3 Design for the House of a Cosmopolitan,
Goethe m his
. .

youth
In background of taste was somewhat different.
Germany the
expressing lofty aspirations and the
had hailed Gothic as the form of architecture JEAN JACQUES LEQUEU 1758-1825
the influence of Winckelmann, he came whose projects
longing for the infinite. (In later life, under Lequeu was a highly imaginative architect,
that they could never
opposite qualities -calm, simplicity and
reason.) were indeed sometimes so fantastic
to set a higher value on the been put into practice. The tendency is
poetic, often
have
played their part. inspiration from the
Political conditions also with a touch of the macabre. He drew
the younger generation by most exotic and varied styles-Gothic,
Chinese. Indian,
The Middle Ages had been proposed as the ideal for
Goethe, and m 1828 Durers
design shows, his architecture
Egyptian— yet, as this
Wackenroder, then by the Boisseree brothers and remained programmatic. The illustration comes from

tercentenary triumphant seal on the resurrection of Gothic. But

celebrations set a Lequeu, Trait* de I' Architecture Civile.

arcliitects to revive and rejuvenate their borrowmgs from the An I de la

despite efforts by 4 Monument to the Sovereignty of the People,
Romantic art made by such men as Georg Moller, K. von
past the contributions to Republique
an cold
Schwechten, Ziebland, and K. Rosner produce only Estampes), Pans.
artificial,
Heideloff, Bibliotheque Nationale (Cabinet des
originality. And yet the
effect, sometimes rather grandiose but lacking in all true
Middle Ages, as they had
Germans had always remained genuinely attached to the PIERRE-JULES DELESP1NE or DELEPINE
1756-1825

never been attached to Classicism, an import

from abroad which had never been Delespine was a pupil of M. J. Peyre
and himself became a
He built sevcra houses
style was taken up with great teacher at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.
thoroughly assimilated. Consequently the Gothic and also some commercial buildings
in the Rue de Rivoli.
enthusiasm as the emblem of a nationalist revival,
of a new patriotic spirit, and of too was under the
spell
such as a covered market. But he
for a tomb
of programmatic architecture and in this design
a new German unity.
give expression to the
paradoxical figure who pro- Isaac Newton he attempted to
Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841), an apparently in a hemispherical
achievements
dome, which

gressed like Goethe from Gothic to Classicism,

began by making designs on me-
physicist's

not only a perfect mathematical

form but also &™&
own words: L Acaaei
dieval patterns as for the Neue Petrikirche
and the Mausoleum of Queen Elizabeth expresses eternity and peace. In his
de Newton. Ce
propose un tombcau en Thonneur
at Berlin and ended with pastiches of
the Propylaea of the Acropolis. Although he genie do.t moms
monument eleve a la gloire du plus grand et a
imposante
introduce the styles of Antiquity respixer la magnificence que la
grandeur
had never been to Greece he nevertheless aspired to de faire pressentir par unc
despite the fact that he had previously noble simphcitc. II sera possible
into the German architecture of his day
Newto
allegorie ingenicuse et analogue
aux dents du grand
a revival of Gothic. monument qu on propose.
worked hard, with a passion clearly visible in his pictures, for a quel usage pent 6tre destine
le
in
'Venetian Gothic', a coloured engraving
During a visit to Italy (1803-1805), he was mainly attracted by The illustration is from
Prix d' Architecture (i779~87)-
the 'Saracenic' monuments of Sicily and
Milan cathedral. His stage designs, too,
background for the Sturm unci Drang Design for the Tomb of Isaac Newton
created a new medieval Germany, a fitting
 1

V 1

4
rLillflfli

/i^^ ~

CA— r-«-* -•'

11
 3 1

33
Architecture and Sculpture
the imaginary Egypt of
JAMES WYATT 1747-18 1 drama, while he composed a wealth of variations on
architect of great brilliance and versatility
Mozart's Magic Flute.
Wyatt was an
who could, and did, produce designs in
cither Classical,
Despite his love and admiration for Gothic Schinkel
made pracncally no attempt
Romano-Byzantine stylos. His most outstanding
Gothic or 'it merely that he
Fonthill Abbey (1795 to 1807) to use it for buildings. It was not that
he thought it Ul
and daring composition was
which he built for the eccentric William Bcckford. The
would have encountered which he imagined to be msurmount-
practical difficulties
in 1825 and the building has medieval masters had
maintained that the technique and tectonics of the
octagonal tower collapsed
demolished. Ashridgc, his other great able. He
since been entirely led him to work in a
Bridgcwatcr, is still standing. It been completely forgotten and it was this conviction which
house built for the Earl of
was begun in 1806 and finished in 1817 by Sir Jeffrey
was easier to design and carry out. The German mfer.onty
Abbey Neo-Greek style that
Wyattville, Wyatt's nephew. The picture of Fonthill accounts for t.K hesitation, groping
P. Ncale's Views of the Seats of
Noblemen complex with regard to authentic Gothic also
is taken from J. Cathedral;
the completion of Cologne
and inhibitions winch for so long prevented
of Ashridgc from a drawing of
and Gentlemen and that
repro-
1813 by J. Buckler. admired Gothic the less they felt able to
the more these Romantic architects
hand, inspired them with no such
feelings.
Ashridge, Staircase Hall
duce it fittingly. The Greeks, on the other
Roman. The longing for Greek harmony
7 led
Schinkel's Classicism was Greek, not
Institute of British Architects. lements of
Royal in Greek architecture
him into this direction. Perhaps he saw
carrying vertical members upon
which were laid the horizontal
construction-the m
10 Fonthill Abbey
X
uL
raves; after all, hlhad said 'Die

kons truktiven Tatigkeit' (Architect™

Archuektur ist die Fortsetzung der Natur
»»aaon °' «« *r
(die
as th ^fnian to foUow up nature
^rucuv activity), ^considered it
desire to go back to
Natur weiter zu bilden). Thus here again one must nonce the
CHRISTIAN JANK. EDUARD RIEDEL. nature to work in close contact with her.
GEORG DOLMAN and JULIUS HOFFMANN Here where the national tempera-
came from King In Fr ncTyet other factors come into play.
Middle Ages
The original idea for Ncuschwanstcin Gothic, the return to the
Ludwig II of Bavaria, an eccentric
monarch with a mama
stage
m nt wTs as durable to Classicism as topolitical (the Middle Ages stood for the
for building. The design
was the work of Jank, a
under the supervision of Ricdcl.
w» chfefly significant in sentimental, its

designer, and it was built,

and 1886. With its
Dolman and Hoffmann between 1869
its ramparts and its towers, the principal
romantic situation,
greatly exaggerated replica
one 197 feet high, the castle is a
with a certain K«dteeto the
of a medieval stronghold,
allusions to the Middle
Ages,
Wartburg. The interior is full of
and lack of sentimentality which
but it has a certain coolness
indicate, the approaching end of the Romantic Movement.

8 Schloss Neuschwanstein

vir u b
from new inventions; the copiers made ^
they were able o give
construction techniques
using the new iron
-rk^d m *^jV
HORACE WALPOLE
and
Robinson was
WILLIAM ROBINSON
17*7-97

the professional architect

Hill, but the conception
1720-75
who supervise-
Gotfnc. Sometimes restoration
V.oUet-le-Duc,
manner with an imaginanve,
very
and or.g^
a pious wish K> restore
who combined
r*^^eS £-J-^ more *
^ to be
occa .

actual construction of Strawberry

and most of the design came
his dilettante friends.
from Horace Walpole and

Gothic forms being used playfully,

accuracy. The earlier part
historical
The style
without any
is

of the house was budt

-Rococo-Gothic
>-™»
.
the
^^^^
Gothic than the
C
Goths. However^ZTi:^ s
^^- « y
^
contribution to
rf authcnuclty .

centre of a landscape garden.

between i 7 49 and i 7 54 as the

the tower dates from 17S9-

9 Strawberry Hill

reviving defunct forms;

Lamarone and
<f™™«™^CZ7Z
£>™™ K
Michelet. In 18
to Victor
6ki for aU
-
Hugo:
Romantic as
£
•Gothic ,s beautiful
*J^^J^£Z»
are to endure
FroMDiy
<*£**'«
-J*"
j wm
which

^^^ dows •
creations d
towers,
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL
training from
I78i-'»4i
Wed. class villas, with their crenellated
m °™™™'
.^^^st Gothic
Schinkel received his architectural in enthusiasts,
but provoked a reaction even T hi> what Michelet
He remembered as a Neo-Class.cist, is
Gillv
he L
is usually
y
had strong Romanric .earnngs
which found c^cssion
Lcause of the absurd distortions
it was
"^.^Ime -h we of history pro-

™%fi£j?£ ** ^—
country houses that
hebudt for the Gotbc
in the castles and
meant when he declared that reactions
W
^«;^~^^^-
mini
"othmg to do wn h
family. These arc
^^ ^
•

Prussian nobility and the royal

fc y
This heap of stones has
.

of an 'Englis . test.
the picturesque surroundings
,=, in

garden, and in their castellated style show the

"*»»*
England in
Schinkel had voted
fhe English Gothic revival.
designed in 1834-
1826. Schloss Babelsberg was
in France.
11 Schloss Babclsbcri
 Romantic Art

34
M DE MONVILLE
LEOPOLD EIDLITZ 1 823-1908 Chambourcy was an estate owned by
Le Desert de Retz near
and was one of the many 1771, probably
with the help of
Eidlitz was born in Prague
trained in Europe who
nt to M de Monville who in
in the Engli
European architects bom and Hubert Robert, laid out the gardens
designed Iranian in 184J-8
«» and architectural
the United States. He landscape style, with numerous
'follies'

Indo-Moorish style for the

circus magnate P. * »-—' fantasies. The house is built in the shape of an cnon,
and returned with ining the Rom.,
who had been travelling in Europe Greek column in ruins, thni

designs and drawings from

which he built «*• fluted
love of ru itfa
Greek art. In the
nostalgia for early
Eidbtz's work, however. IS
buildings and an ice-house
Brighton Pavilion in America. grounds are Gothic and Chinese
Nash The engravings arc
Indian sources than was form of an Egyptian pyramid.
s.
tmer to its in the
dins Anglo-Chinots, Pans, 1774-89.
from G. L. le Rouge, Jar
Connecticut
12 Iranistan, near Bridgeport,

17, 18 Interior and exterior of the house of M de Monville,

Lc Desert dc Retz

JEAN LOUIS DESPREZ 1743-1804

but spent most of his hfe m
Desprcz was born in France,
several buildings, notably Castle
Sweden, where he designed
Linnsus. He is more
Haca and the Mausoleum of
and engraver than as an
important, however, as a painter
stage-designs, landscapes and
architect. His work
includes
shows his interest, which JOHN NASH 1752-1835
imaginary scenes. Tins illustration who in his streets and terraces
in the Bgypnan Regency architect,
Romantics, The great
he shared with many of the
to the Nco-Classical character
of
combine for them the macabre
the contributed so much
style, which seemed to
^

time ready to design 'Picturesque

and the exotic, In his architectural London, was at the same
eternal, the majestic styles. Blaise Hamlet (xlii)
Desprez buildings in any of the
revived
is apparent, but
drawings the influence of Piranesi Middle
rural cottages, reminiscent of
the
was in general more whimsical and Romantic.
much is a group of small

evoke a primitive simplicity.

Ages, intended to

13 Design for a Tomb

Cottage, Blaise Hamlet, near
Bristol
19 Diamond

WILLIAM PORDEN c. 1755-1822

and JOHN NASH 1752-1835

towards the
The 'Indian' style, though part of the tendency
became as popular as the other Oriental styles.
exotic, never
At Brighton the so-called 'stables',
now the Dome, were A. DAVIS 1803-92
J.

built for the Prince of Wales

by William Porden in 1803. fairly broad Neo-Classical
manner,
Davis worked in a
the Indian sort of Italian Renaissance
After 181 Nash enlarged the pavilion, using
5
raneing from Greek revival to a
more active
'Tuscan'. In particular he was
achieving an altogether
motifs more freely and style which he called
which became an important
fantastic effect. in promoting the 'Picturesque',
America only in the 1830's.
Bhthewood
movement in
a tower
'Gothic house with gables and
1 is s<
14 Brighton Pavilion (18U) *
garden. The Gatehouse as
typically 'Picturesque' landscape
Llewellyn Park (c 1852-70).
well as the Rustic Lodge for
rural cottage style, which
Davis liked
is built in the
of his smaller houses. The
Probably by GIUSEPPE PATRICOLA immensely and applied to many
in the
pictures are taken from lithographs
(active first half of 19th century)
in 1790 by King Ferdinand
IV Metropolitan Museum, New York.
This villa was commissioned
Carolina after their flight from Naples.
and Queen Maria Park, West Orange, N.J.
designer was probably Patricola, an
architect from 20 Rustic Lodge, Llewellyn
The
attributed
Palermo about whom very little is known,
but it is

Estate, Fishkill, N.Y.

of its name, Blithewood, Robert Donaldson
by some to G. Maroriglia. The
house, in spite 22
styles, including Chinese,
is a mixture of several diverse
Turkishand—especially in the colour scheme of the
process of excavation.
decoration— Roman Pompeii, then in
Rococo lightness that
Yet the building as a whole has a
Strawberry Hill than to the
makes it seem closer to
Brighton Pavilion.

Palazzo Cinese, near Palermo

KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL 1781-1841
1 5
The grounds of Muskau were laid out by its owner ?£*
Puckler. on the model of the
landscape
J^« °^^
where he had travelled widely.

on the subject, with illustrations

In 1834
by the paint* W.
*«f^E£
Schirme

MAURO TESI 1730-66

of the Muskau house and park:
Andeutungen Mbcr

Tesi was not an

architectural subjects;
architect but a painter
he was chiefly active in
and engraver of
Bologna,
Landschafo
here is plate 10).
,
Stuttgart. 1834 tf»
Schmkel erected several smaU
*~£T
budding,
His sencs winch Ik aho
where he decorated many churches and
palaces. itself,
castle
from 1822 onwards, but the
Mauto Tesi
of aquatints, Raccoha di Disegni Originali di

(Bologna, 1787), from which this illustration is taken,

designed, was never built.
the
Friednch Forstcr
gardens of Muskau w shke
^HSdng
that to walk through
contains theatrical designs, ideas for
tombs, etc. He was paintings by Claude.
through picture-gallery full of
a
Egyptian art. and made
particularly interested in ancient
Poussin and Ruisdacl.
many designs in this manner.

21 View of the Castle at Muskau

16 Sepulchral Chamber
. / nmim tiwdtanl at>< .vmrirw '
 39
Architecture and Sculpture

UNKNOWN ARCHITECT KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL 1781-1841

In the third
quarter of the 1 8th century the estate WM Schinkcl was a stage designer before becoming an architect,

Sir Harry Englcficld. In 1798 and worked almost exclusively for the theatre.
until 181 5
•improved' by the then owner.
Duke of Marlborough and it is to Possibly he was drawn to it by his early love of painting,
it was bought
by the
d the 'peculiar character of varied loveliness but the scope it gave to the poetic imagination no .1

him ,,

which it was noted. It abounded The fairy tale setting oi Ondine and the
and splendid decoration' for
vividly the Rom., medieval atmosphere of Klcist's play exactly suited
buildings, and showed
in rustic
to return to rural simplicity. romantic spirit hex* arc taken from
longing for nature and desire
Hofland. Descn Sammlung von Theater-Dtkorationen crfunden von Schinkcl:
is taken from Mrs
The illustration
Gardens of White Knights, published in Potsdam in 1849.
Account of the Mansions and
Ondine plate 12. Katchtn von Heilbronn plate II,
illustrated by T. C. HoHand (London. 1819).

28 Stage Design for 'Katclien von Heilbronn

23 'Round Seat' from White Knights, near Reading

32 Stage Design for 'Ondine'

CHARLES HAMILTON
Pains Hill were 'improved' by their
owner
The gardens of
Hamilton from 175© onwards and arc an excellent
Charles
garden, of which
example of the 'Picturesque' landscape
of garden, modelled on the
few survive. This type
Claude, Salvator Rosa and Gaspar Poussin. is J.
M. GANDY 1771-1843
paintings of
Bom in England. Candy was trained
as an architect an.'
LOSt characteristic
English contribution to the arts of
sudden c
century and. as the 'English Garden',
has spread all an extensive Italian tour which came to a
the 1 8th
iys modest, and he
such gardens, is carefully
over Europe. Pains Hill, like other
natural, every clump of m as the assistant and draughtsman of Sir
laid out, though it looks so I

portrayed in radier grandiose

usually dotted
carefully planted and spaced. Such gardens arc John Soar.
He also made dr vast imar
in various styles. Gothic, Grcc. olours. 1
I

with summer-houses W
buildings which he could have had no hope of ever
Chinese, etc.
reason been called 'the

The illustration shown here is one of a

English Piranesi'.
24 Pains Hill, Cobham, Surrey
scries of watercoloun.

29 Design for an Imperial Palace

WILLIAM CHAMBERS 1723-96
is known mainly for of British Architects, London
his
This great and important architect Royal Institute
buildings, such as Somerset House. There v
Neo-Classical
imagination. In
however, another more exotic side to his
Chinese Buildings, and in
1757 he brought out Designs for
designed not only the pagoda shown here
Kew Gardens he
Roman arch, a mosque and a classical temple, thus
but a
the one that
of world in miniature not unlike 1773-1808. attributed to
creating a sort
comes from
HUBERT ROBERT
Hadrian had in his villa at Tivoli. The illustration
but in lata ufe worked only as
Robert began as a sculptor,
his Plans of the Gardens and
Buildings at Kew in Surrey, 1763- contemporaries
a painter and dl «. Like most of his
fascinated
he went on the grand ton. -
Chinese Pagoda, Kew Gardens there many years, dr,
25 by the country that he stayed
landscape and ancient
and sketching the kalian
•"**• In
remains, its gardens and found
Fragonard and the dilettante
F. J. BELANGER 1744-18 18 the company of the
painter
and Sicily. St Non
were designed as part of an English landscape Abbe St he travelled to Naples
Non
Buildings that
of the Picturesque published an account of
this tour 'ftetheWte
garden had to conform to the standards
,

Robert
as docs this 'folie' built by
Belangcr for de Saint-James M Voyi juedc Naples ct de S
the same
.5

for^the continued to paint mostly

between 1782 and 1787. The Romantic
passion returned to France, but
combination of wild them on his earlier sketches.
primitive is given expression in the subjects, basing
temples the Done
nature and very early architecture. For
since it was the in a Landscape
order was considered the most suitable 30 Ruins
and therefore most in keeping
earliest of the Greek orders London
Institute of British Architects.
with nature. The rustic vault formed of unhewn stones is Royal
avoid all
also characteristic of the current attempt to
artificiality.

26 Folie de Saint-James

active 1852-77

GIOVANNI BATTISTA PIRANESI

Piranesi was a practising architect, but
1720-78

his buildings
were
H CUTHBERT
Cuthbert was a stage
Covent Garden. Drury
He i known to have
designed the
designer
Lane and the Princess s
sets for
^^^^
Thca « c
several of Charles
,

insignificant compared with his

achievements as an engraver. productions, including
King John
v
Kean •;s Shakesoearcan p
Shakespearean
Rome, where he .
*™ iJJujrrarion
He was born in Venice and later moved to fx8«). Macbeth
1853) and Hamlet
(IS5»;- Thi$
succeeding
was fascinated by the surviving monuments,
wonderfully in conveying their grandeur and ruined
p.ers
Their high vaults, arches, columns and
mag...
provide the inspiration for many of Ins own »n vcntJOn$ -
imaginative historical accuracy.
reworked of
1761) *re full
The Careen (c. 1745.
gloom with great
fantasy, conveying an effect of sinister 'Hamlet
3 1 Stage Design for
dramatic power.
Museum. London
Victoria and Albert
27 Etching from the 'Carcert
 Romantic Art

^^^ ^
^J— THOMAS BANKS 1735-1805

The European
art-fo r
W^on' of Gotluc
n^-g forgot =no be
SfS It was in Rome,

Fuscli, David and

where he lived for seven years and met
Wright, that Banks executed this group

of Thetis and her Nymphs,

in which Rococo merges into
nostalgic return to man of vast culture whose aim was
its long s cep tn g Romanticism. He was a
feeling after had no
surgence of national
no means
U »P^^^ to equal Greek sculpture; moreover he was one of the

die
such past, no roots
inhabited
by
explanations are
from
by
wbch tins

a new people,
"^^^
"£l Why should a new
L
Jdels offered by
^^^^ A,
The ansW er is that
mort active exponents of the

, synthesis

seen in all his works.

'Gothic Revival', cultivating

of Classicism and Romanticism

which can be

country,
of creatmg us own Jonn and sty
^ Nymphs Consoling Achilles
European Gothic, instead
before breeding its
an oftsp
own architects Amer,a.«****
£
or Men
g^ ^ J^ 33 Thetis and her

1778. Marble bas-relief,

oval.

it was Englishmen such

I789_ I831) who
Neo-Classicism had
introduced
its
^^^^^L
as Latrobe (1764-1820)

partisans too and Latrobe

broad-minded
^ lgo5
9i.5Xii9-8X9(36X46iX3i)
Victoria and Albert Museum,
London

^&£2S3S^S£Z~ unity of style Ameri

bong Nutt ys rouy

most characteristic products shoulders
Gothic, Turkish and Venenan styl
^ JEAN BERNARD DUSEIGNEUR,
which Classical,

^^^^
,

FoUy in
^^.
^£^ JEHAN 1808-66
hand the d known as
On
£* -r^
together. the other u similar to contemporaries as the 'Victor

ilTowr 1 (I7 8 4- I844] I

- turud
«"*
church
Duseigncur was feted by his
Hugo of Sculpture'. Unfortunately his fame was confined to

and he had to sacrifice his

Ste Clotilde in most limited Romantic circles
those winch enervated
which sprang up all over ^fj^^a ^ean k al however
architects.
,

Their
the
standards inorder to make a living; he
most conventional
ended his life as a
sculptor, executing official
to his best period and
commissions.

Americans were
*T£^'£Z™*. than in amalgams of styles
by His Orlando Furioso belongs
his masterpiece.
is

S&SZ+SZtt vdUs buUt by Town and

Davis ,803.80,)
34 Orlando Furioso
between 1830 and 1850. ^r„o™«tv to survive in America model dates from 183 1). Bronze
,867 (the plaster
130x146 (5 x*X57i)
Musce du Louvre, Paris

S3B33£3Ses5gS HIRAM POWERS 1805-73

This sculptor belonged to

sought
a group
inspiration and
**^?»^
**-«*£^
frequently
marmorean Bock Powers w
james called them 'the white
.

an .***
still strongly attracted
by the academic tradition
at this time, even a forceful
exercised by Gothic mythology, but he was equally
inclined towards
it is a measure of the intense fascination maker of wax models for
TJect realism. Before becoming
a

the pioneers of the New World. the Dorfeille Museum he had

been a shop KSUtant. He ;

stayed there till his death.

went to Italy in 1837 and

35 Proserpine

Marble, h. 50 (i9i) T _„ ev
v,
Newark Museum, Newark,
New„ Jersey
...
,

Collection of the

SCULPTURE
Art-critics
fuch —t
probably influenced by the
LnanL
as Theophile Gautier

unjustly severe on Romantic

categorical condemnations of two
and Madame de Stael, tend o be
sculpture. Gautier maintained
that of aU the am the

expression is certainly sculpture. It

lends itself least to Romantic
seen,
WILLIAM WETMORE STORY
Like Powers. Story lived in
Italy
1819-95
where he^was
m Rome -*""^
(he*
oTwhich of necessity Robert Browning; he worked statues
form in Antiquity. Every sculptor is
producing a very, large number of busts and
definitive
to ha"e eached its
Religion of Olympus. For
style.
rather cold, but sometimes energetic,
SiSl~ bottom he is always an adherent of the
an inherent incompatibihty
between sculpture,
he pn Madame de Stael perceived art par excellence.
36 Venus

which she called a pagan art, and painting, the Christian

received a^ long-lasting nnpetus
from Neo- 1864. Marble, h. 100 (39i)
of course, true that sculptors
It is Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
in funerary art, however, the
CWism, parti ularly in France and England;
36
fcJWW.'i
 d ,

43
Architecture and Sculpture

by John Flaxm.m (1755-1826) and the tomb of

monument to Nelson in St Paul's
BENGT ERLAND FOGELBERG
1786-1854
witness to the
Stockholm, Fogelberg lived first in Pons
Eyre Coote at Westminster by Thomas Banks (1735-1805) bear
After studying b
Sir
^ hen in Italy among the circle surrounding
Thorw^ldscn.
birth of a new spirit which shines through their dry Cano- * the
of the mot*e forces behind the
Z a result he
became one
resurrection of Gothic and tradition whereby England, incapable of breeding her
own sculptors, borrowed
in Sweden with its
Vrtistic revival the Renaissance had
T c ancient
Scandinavian gods. Nevertheless
Ins mythological
them from Holland or France, 'English' sculpture since
Italy,
by
a sort of Classical 'temperance .

Torrigiani, Le Sueur, Gnnhng

Gibbons and
been represented by such men as
lyricism is restrained

NoUekens, Wilton and Bacon contmued

to
ThcGodThor Roubihac. Authentic Britons such as
imitations of classical mode fa.
37
produce scholarly but self-inhibiting
plaster, h. 67 (26!)
Nationalmuseum. Stockholm
P
There is more originality in certain
Gennans-Gottfned Sdudow M^M.
statue of Thor executed m Rome in 1840
(i*H-.86i); but even -'-Romano
Study for the large Christian Ranch (l 777-1*57). EmstRi I

pamtcr-compatnots and one looks vam for a m

cism falls far short of that of their
France, on the other hand,
cXtor-«nius comparable with Fnedrich or Runge.
P
8 vigour. «<**£
WILLIAM R1MMER 1816-1879 prod Romant,c works of real original,
c

^
anatomist. Rimmer dissected pugnaciously Classical) and the
A doctor and enthusiastic

£
oubhc taste schools and academies
(which r. I

applying this knowledge to sculpture.

numerous corpses before to exlubit these
revolutionaries, the
L realism was so
>*6x
exact that when his Gladiator was
^
cnt.es thought that he had
taken cast,
on ommhtees of the salons which refused

saw the rise of a number of important sculp** ,

•
fittSof the 9 .h century

m
i
in granite
He also sculpted directly
fr 7m a living model.
in a similar style.

38 Female Head

Marble, h. 48.5 (i9*)

Corcoran Gallery of Arts,
Washington
spilt
FRANQOIS RUDE 1784-1855
opinions are reflected ,n hu

^
Republican
Rude', idealistic and
Musee des B " ux Ar^* ^°
work. He refused to go to
Italy for fear that «
with
would
^m. Goblins Abroad 1831,
ofat
- /'
who fclt so forcign to his
the favourite themes
»?^£^
its

_
Tntammate his taut, vigorous realism
was given him by the Witches' Sabbath (1833). call to
The subject of this monument to escape
he killed himself in order

^^^^^^
Guard
ding officer of the
grenadiers of the Impcnal age that in t849 JjJJJJJ^ Unlike
w7o had
when it
commissioned it. but refused it
was finished.
as unacceptable
Id the engravings ^^^^
over Napoleon
39 The Imperial Eagle Watching

1845. Bronze. 29x54x29 (nJX2i*xu*)

Musee des Beaux Arts, Dijon

-•*
ANTOINE AUGUSTfiN (AUGUSTE)
PREAULT

excess, drawn
.towards
dfwas hardly more dun 6
its

Jehan Duse.gneur
ae^wore»vdvet^^^
Unngs^
cism and troubadour
(^W ™s
tn
ft 6
•

oi]r
^^ ^ ^
,
whose work U ke
mixturc of scnous

,
,

minutc
his clothes-
^ om^-
givcn to . SO rt
sca l e serious
,

By^mperament violent and given to

^
d
the 'infinite', Preault
character
produced works
which were rejected by S^ons
and
in extreme, and
often b.t sobtu
°^J^ Acade- J>
'

^^J^nS
of bastard Gothic it»
«»"" y
emotion became ^ affectation and
.nto sentimentality.
Unfortunately
abl lny to reahze,

alike. His life was passed

,

works to the extent

like Pierre Puget. he

of longing to
thirsted for "large

'sculpt mountains'. ECm^~^^^^^

^^
40 Massacre

109 X 140 (43 X 55*)

Bronze bas-relief.
sculpture,
1834.
Musee de Chartrcs a feature of
Romantic
nature and attempted
tc make £ works ; x Fp
h,
rC ss his rather
which fe ^^
revc-

and violent by
lunonary social ideas
In oppos - ^^ -*- * ,„ le works were

FELICIE DE FAUVEAU 1799-86

Fauveau's life «al£<£
Two prions dominated Felicie de *>:m*
:

Royal.st and took P

and politics. She was a fervent
machinations of the Vendee. She
renamed « °nie ™«
to devote herself to her att.
but tins at ."^ ^ «^
T* douI
.

'monumental', remains dmmaly

sntended to be
wealth
in it.
weighted down w.th a
tendencies and is
nostalg.C
Her sculpture redects a encloi
anecdotal details.
distorted Medievalism. ^s^rTon by an ambition to hjs
Spare her B,uerry bounds. but less of a visionary;
Sweden Refuel <° visible powerful as Preault
41 Queen Christine o) a was as
Monaldeschi
*«»
coloured plaster 34 * 54 (1)1
Haot-tehef in terra cotta and
Musee de Louvicrs
 Romantic Art

»nd hi. »/»*».

U k. H, ill at «c with P.odtict, of the im.gmtion

GraiUon, the poet of the

It
Since Classical
was left to

(X808-X879),
humble and
Rome,
two Romaics, Jean Pierre D
- restore the statuette to
'

sculpture had
^^^^S^d
°PP^ ssed

>ts
°^fS
;

jf
pos««»_mth
,
as

poht ca
we ofsatire

Honorc Daumier
satir i st 's arsenal.
.

^^
('j^ ™ g ^
8
During the same period Anton* Louis Bar^e

David d Angers (1788 "50; y &

other end of the scale
,

ofReahsm while JamesPradier (17^185*)•«*^°^XTm

of his work Barye is a
^^^SX^S als, shown
struggles

epic of super-real dimensions.

 Ill ENGLAND

far-reaching transformation of the

English Romantic Painting grew out of a
English feeling for nature. From now on
Nature was to be shown without artifice,
Romantics sought only the poetry of truth.
without 'literary' programme; in it the
the traditional grand tour
Though some artists still went to Italy to perform
obligation and almost all found their chief
others repudiated this time-honoured
and
inspiration in the English landscape,
an inexhaustible source of artistic interest
the senses. Moreover English
Miasm
iov of pure delight for the heart and
quali-
irrational, fantastic and fairy-tale
drew added sustenance from supernatural,
inbred saturation with
ties which are a constant of
the British character and from its
Macphcrson s
the poetry of Milton, Shakespeare
and the Bible; to these were added
literary hoax was published,
and Percy s gloomy
Ossian as soon as that famous
R
ThTtwo elements of equal importance, a
appreciation of nature and a
genuine,

translation, often unconscious,

of literary uito p.cto,
^^.^^
ombined to mould the personality of
the first I

Sm
poe^v

of the
Blake, John Martin and John
last-named was to be a Classical
Flaxma.i. (Although
painter, Ins vibrant compos,
uons afterT>antc
*•*•*«»£
style comparable with that
of Carstens.
and Ae chylus are in a graphic Romantic
England, also gave a

ts
artist living in
The cxamp^nd teaching of Fusel,, the Swiss

sftsssa * ~* agt-f *•— essential character

of
of both his art and
•„ lv w-k in effect defining the
'
e
and ,.lus,on. experience
between troth
Hm^o; mm the" indeed notarr.er
Wm tnc
himseit. for
^^ tcnm wlth thc

f SrX^gSSSetbTt lung of coming m through

..window,
characters ot the bidic,

and
*""*£*£**
he was once present
disgust, a ghost
at the

appeared to him. tfotn a

^ ^
another occasion, to
as an artist
his horror

fthe supr eme

convinced of the
m an isdie artist,

unity of a
the
^J"
^^^^^Z^ he™
prophet is the man of
Anally >

^SpS
integr al a skilful,
But a we. g
between true and false.
tinctions

P— m tcchniquc for use

1^—
salons, even makeup an organic and
b S
from smooth-flowing
d with numerous media,
^rwTo,e He
 Romantic Art
46
formulae
claiming that some of the
watcrcolour to a thick, almost granular paste,
were dictated to him by angels or prophets of
Israel.
Milton and the Bible and
Throughout his life he was an avid reader of Chaucer, he
ten years before his death
a disciple of Boehme, Swedcnborg and Paracelsus;
Dante in the original. If he was
totally
learned Italian in order to be able to read
affairs of life, not to say
abnormal
inexperienced and unqualified in the practical
it was because his
whole attention was
in his efforts to adapt himself to them,
claimed by the invisible and the imaginary. His
kingdom began where other men s
left almost destitute and,
thanks
ends; it is easy to see why he was misunderstood,
protectors and friends.
to his moody character, almost without GEORGE ROMNEY 1734-1802
honesty, the pertect
The most striking quality of his art is its deep, essential His reputation as a portraitist should not obscure the fact

fantasy. Blake's figures have a Romney also produced dramatic composite

objectivity with winch he portrays his inspired
that
generally taken from Shakespeare and Milton.
Flaxman, a purity of line reminiscent
1

classical beauty close to those of Carstcns and Romanticism is marked by a strong tendency towards the
bright light of day, without
of Ingres. Profound mysteries are brought out into the supernatural and fantastic.

disguise, without chiaroscuro; Blake had the

courage to approach the most mtimi-
Nature Unveiling Herself to Shakespeare
dating aspects of die supernatural with the simplicity
of a child. Convmced or the 1

'the truth', he portrayed

absolute reality of his visions, which to him represented 1786.Pen and wash. 25.7X40 (io|x 15 J)
recognized Royal Institution of Cornwall, Truro
them in a pictorial idiom which Raphael or Michelangelo would have
Odilon Redon,
as valid.There is nothing in common between his style and that of
to disguise the truth rather than
for instance, which he would have considered
take on the sinuous grace of ALEXANDER RUNC1MAN
reveal it; his angels communicating with mankind
1736-85

reminiscent of Botticelli's The son of a Scottish architect, Runcim in ugly

Prud'hon's girl-figures. Occasionally his pictures are
influenced by the Italians, Michelangelo and the Mam
drawings illustrating the Divina Commedia and his Satan Watching
Adam and Eve (1808, of Fuscli and owed his celebrity principally
He was a friend
Otto
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston) calls to mind the idyllic idealism of Philipp to his Ossianic Cupola for Penicuik House, no loo

in existence.
Runge's The Times of Day, e.g. Morning (Kunsthalle, Hamburg).
extraordinary
The figures themselves may be cold and static but this is offset by the 2 Fingal Engaging the Spirit of Loda '

and
movement which runs through the compositions as a whole; the play of curves
forms almost Pen and wash. 41.2 X 52 (i6i X 2i|)
balancing counter-curves in the rapid passages of his undulating National Gallery of Scotland, Edinburgh
succeeds in conveying cosmic energy itself; each stroke has an
autonomous vitality,
at once supple and tender like a musical phrase.
Thus he manages to maintain a
lyricism, often
balance between the text of his poems, pulsating with a Biblical
SIR JOHN EVERETT MILLAIS 1829-96
emphatic, rhetorical and weighted down with obscure symbols, and their
trans-
With Rossctti and Holman Hunt, Millais founded the

lucent visual version, mostly achieved with superb economy of means

and often Prc-Raphachte Brotherhood in 1 848. Known
principally

for his portraits and genre paintings, he

w the
reduced to a magnificent interplay of pure lines. and
staunchest advocates of the return to the simplicity
In this Blake somewhat resembled John Martin (1789-1854) although
Martin the Pre-Raph
sincerity of the primitives for which all

was prevented from attaining a classical balance by the taste for excess which gives yearned.

an overtone of extraordinary fantasy to his paintings, mezzotints and illustrations

Study for The Flood
to Paradise Lost; die last-named are the only works of his generally known since 3

his pictures are not easily accessible. Particularly attracted towards representations 1849/50. Pencil, pen and wash.
24x41.6(9^x16^)
of the bizarre and extraordinary, which he brought to a strange but fascinating British Museum, London
perfection, Martin specialized in apocalyptic visions, whether taken from real
episodes of ancient history, as in Marius Meditating on the Ruins of Carthage and Sadak
in Search of the Waters of Oblivion (18 12, Southampton Art Gallery) or from the
WILLIAM BLAKE sec p. 74
Miltonic struggle between the legions of the damned and the angels. As he portrays
them the endless halls of Lucifer's subterranean palace have the same architecture 4 Study for America

as the colonnades of Cardiage; in both the architectural perspectives are set in a

with watercolour.
c. 1793. Pen and ink lightly touched
gloomy vastness lit by thousands of candles and fade mysteriously away into the
6J)
distance. His hell is of grottoes illuminated by murky lights, of rocky
a labyrinth British Museum, London

vaults extending beyond the scope of the eye, of seas whose waves leap up to
extraordinary heights. Giant candelabra light up Dante's 'citti dolente\ which
sometimes resembles a monstrous stage peopled by hordes of demons. There is a DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI p. 86

striking contrast between these chasms where space closes in on

huge itself like a

of Earthly Paradise where Illustration to Poe's The Raven

shell and the broad landscapes, bathed in sunlight, the 5

walk the Chosen. Although the antique nudity of his handsome Satan wearing a
brown ink. }}.6>Z2.S (13* *9)
1846. Pcnril. pen and
kind
Greek soldier's helmet makes one think of die Classical heroes of Flaxman or
 1

England 49

Fuseli's Nibelungen, the fallen angel's wild, desperate eyes arc typically Miltonic

and Romantic.
As aforesaid, Milton and Shakespeare were the strongest literary influences on
the English Romantic painters. George Romncy (1734-1802) the great port
depicted Milton after his blindness, dictating his poems to 1
but in
general it was Shakespeare who provided the richest sources of material. King Lear
in the Storm (1767, National Gallery of Scotland) by John Runciman (1744-1768) is

one of the best examples of this pictorial Shakcspc m, but it can be found
an equal extent in painters as un-English as Dc -I
ch and
WILLIAM BLAKE Richard Westall (1765-1836) and H. Cuthbert (worked 1858-1877) also ba i< d th<

best works on the great Elizabethan dramatist and their most bnlli 1

6 The Ancient of Days

inspirations from him. However Richard Parkes Bonington (1801-1828), mi
Body colour, including gold, over relief etched print.
1827.
admired by the French, on whom, as one of the most discerning and refined
25.3x21.5 (i0X7i)
The Whitworth Art Gallery, University of Manclu 31 landscapists of the period, he had a profound influence, derived only a sort of
'troubadour' grace from thisShakespe.u i.i!iisni,\\ bile, as a history painter, I Con

went for preference to episodes from the Renaissance or Middle Agi ' in
|

David Scott (1 806-1 849) revealed a serious, dramatic strength, particul his
EDWARD CALVERT 1799-1883
and grim picture of the Russians burying their dead.
youth Calvert was friendly with Blake,
In his
Fuscli

Palmer and later he came to oscillate between lyrical John Copley (1737-1815) ami Benji West (173 8-1 820), both outstand
(m his Cornwall landscapes) and a Nco-Classicism tinged with history painters, belong to American rather than En; but John I

symbolism. His best works arc those in which be fceb and

without Mortimer's (1741-1779) Hercules Killing the Hydra, Willi. 1

(1787
luces the beauty of nature, seriously, simply,

adding any literary overtones. Expiring on the Body of Leander (Coll. Mrs E.J. Britt- I
Benjamin I [aydon's

Furrow (1786-1846) pictures, appreciated in Ins day and still mu< b discu
7 The Ploughman, or the Christian Ploughing the Last
minor Romantic works, although it would be wrong to judge them on the high
of Life
level. Joseph Wright, known Wright of Derby (1734-1797) bel
as
1827. Wood engraving. 8.2 x 12.8 (3* X $\)
to the 18th century than to Romanl although b loonlight
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
is in the true Romantic-
(1779, Coll. Colonel Crompton-Inglcfield)
portraitists. Animal por-
More interesting and less well known arc the I

traiture had begun to flourish in the 17th or 18th 1

due to H
RICHARD WESTALL 1765-1836
English love of dogs and horses, and Francis Barlow (1626 1702), J
ymour
A history painter, born at Hertford, he was particularly edjbutonl}
appreciated for his illustrations from such poets as Milton,
(1702-1752) and John Wootton(c. 1686-1765) arcjiistl
cism could produce truly excellent horse-
;

°7)
Shakespeare and Byron.
Icorgc Stubbs
and James Ward (1769-1859). and at least one genius in I

8 Detail from The Death of Ophelia

(1 724-1 806).
X Stubbs wrote two learned technical works on the anatomy
of the horse and the
1793. Watercolour. 18 x 12.7 (7* 5)

m cngr was em-

British Museum, London
comparative anatomy of man and animals, worl
I

The subject is taken from Hamlet, Act IV, Scene 7

His vision
ployed by Josiah Wedgwood to make enamelled pottery plaques.
like that of Delacroix, lull and
the animal world was essentially dramatic,
after him, and like Goya, Gros and Puseli,
he was struck by tl.
Barye
JOHN FLAXMAN 1755-1826
of the horse, by its almost supernatural mystery winch mac! ling
nature'
Flaxman was an eclectic, dividing his interest between
mythology. His masterpiea iesofthr.
ical antiquity, which he imitated for Wedgwood's akin to a god in ( .
oic
have pain;
•Etruria' factory, and Gothic, whose qualities he was one of representing a fight between a horse and a lion which fa id to

the to rediscover. He was hailed by the greatest men of during a visit to Morocco in 1755. The last
at a similar fight
first
after being present
his age as an artist of exceptional merit. Walker Art
most striking is in the
of the three was copied by Gencault. The
9 Thomas Chattcrton Taking the Bowl of Poison from the Spirit
Gallery Liverpool: in a landscape of
rocky gorges half plunged in darkness-
anguish of the main protagonist-
of Despair
harmonizing magnificently with the fear and
a sun-creature, while die hon,
crouched
Pen and ink with grey wash. 32x27 (i2j x io$) appears the horse, a luminous white, like
Iolo Williams Collection, England about to spring, gives the impression of being
from which he is
in the half-darkness
hellish. Seeing him the horse rears
and snorts,
an agent of the night, terrifymg, and
contrast between the horse 1 dazzling
white-
gripped by a sort of sacred terror. The
the sky and the da, v mbol-
m
balanced by the silvery pearl of a cloud
JOHN SELL COTMAN p. 57 ness;
izing death, gives this scene a tragic
emphasis rarely equalled in
Eukto
^^P^ "^
Subject from Ossian being sacrificed by black slaves,
10
Even Delacroix' Sardanapalus, with its horses
the same power The
1803. Indian ink wash, over pencil. reveal the 'personality of the animals with anything like
his tautened muscles, his
mane tossed by the wind and
21.2x31.5 (8$x 12J) twitch of the horse's skin,
British Museum, London
 Romantic An
50
^ngravnig s or
beautiful horses of Baldung Gr.en
.

eyes full of anguish, recaU the

ren arkab
Death and the Deu,L Another
the soldier's palfrey in DUrer's Knight,
work by Stubbs is Ins enigmatic picture of two
monkeys Bahoon
his aim
M £<»£*»
of Surgeons of England). Here
Macaque Monkey (c. 177°, Royal College near
where animal nature approaches very
seems to have been to catch the moment
of the monkeys are
to that ofhuman bemgs, where the attitudes and movement,
the
guided almost by Poe s feeling for
•almost human'. In this picture Stubbs,
trivial than animal-painting,
something more
grotesque, achieves something less
territory of the subconscious
However, Ward
like an invasion of the mysterious
almost rivals pathetic pictures
him with Ms oM
Horse Fighting* Boa Solvate £
Camrose Collection), both infused with
Collection) and The Fall of Phaeton (Lord
an extraordinary wildness of spirit.
landscape painting were, on the
The two most important influences on English
a sort
distinctive features, and, on the other
one hand, the landscape itself with its
English art-lovers. Probably they would
not
of cult of Claude Lorrain practised by
in
this painter had they not detected
have become so passionately enamoured of
the sublime and the pictorially
him a sensibility similar to their own, a conception of
exercised a profound influence on
garden design,
beautiful which had already
The truly Romantic musicahty of Claude s
before ever being applied to painting.
that one
in a supernatural atmosphere so
paintings and the way his landscapes float
can almost feel the presence of the
gods-aU this is allied to Shaftesbury s
philosophical theories which caused the 18th
century to push the metaphysical idea
a positive deification of nature.
of a pantheist universe to the point where it became
In addition, Berkeley's 'practical dream'
had called in question the reality of matter
innately sympathetic towards
and of experience. England had never felt strongly,
the artificiality of Neo-Classicism, which
even in its hey-day had failed to take
now outmoded. The 'picturesque' was far more accessible and
root and was
aesthetic perfection and it fostered a whole generation ot
more admired than
for gentlemen's parks, lovers of
landscape gardeners creating Romantic
'follies*

who expanded their architectural fantasies and archaeological para-

Neo-Gothic
Strawberry Hill, castle-size
doxes to fit the scale of buildings like Fonthill and

and extravagant both in theirconception and in their form. Price's definition of

continual variation of forms, colours,
the picturesque as 'roughness, irregularity,
light on the innate English taste for fantasy,
light and sound' throws an interesting
even-* by-product of the spirit of liberty, of autonomy
instinct-for nonsense,
that makes every Englishman sufficient unto himself.
to what extent and by what means Claude
s
It is very interesting to examine

English collections inspired the first landscape-gardeners to revolt agamst

works in
bushes and straight walks Almost
formal gardens and topiary, with their shaped
certainly Chambers, Kent, Lancelot Brown,
Whately and their non-professional
detected a harmonious mixture of
disciples Walpole, Hamilton and Lyttelton
pictures. Even when Richard Wilson
sublime and picturesque elements in Claude's
(1714-1782), a who remained unknown to the wider public and mis-
Welshman
understood by art lovers, was painting the country
round Rome he brought to his

veil over the Italian

work an English nostalgia which cast a curiously Anglo-Saxon
scene. On his return to England, on the
other hand, he grafted an Italian atmosphere

on to the English scene. However, it is clearly the

memory of Claude's powerful
and reconcile these
and harmonious organization which helps him to organize
anglicisms and italianisms.
Edward Calvert (1799-1883), a friend of Palmer who attempted a metaphysical
Francis Danby (1 793-1 861) who was
interpretation of the English landscape, and
so-called 'fantastic genre', are good examples
for a rime John Martin's rival in the
assimilation, at a deep level, of objective
nature, everyday scenes, and
of this
Continental artists; the two sides counterbalance each other,
influences from earlier
technique would probably
whereas a too exclusive attachment to French or
Italian
England 51

have tied down these English artists to a servile and sterile imitation of the past.
Even when Nature is the only inspiration of the English landscapists, their way
of looking at it is clearly related to Claude and they still, during the early period
at least, prefer views winch fa mcthing in common w beauty portrayed
by him. In making it a condition of the bequest of his pictures that one of Ins
landscapes should be exhibited between two pictures by Claude, Turner indicated
how much creative impulse he had derived from the ex of die painter with
whom he felt such a strong affinity.

Although the English landscape in general becomes, like a Claude picture, a

composition in which the real is organised in a poetic and I

I
fashion, there

are two quite separate methods of achieving this. Adherents of the first merely
detected and reproduced the poetic reality within the objective appearance of I

scene: this school included the early English Rom.n iard Wilson, John

Crome, known as Old Crome, and the Norwich School which derived from hi
The second group envisaged landscape as fantastic tic creation, either Inter-

preted or wholly imagined. It included men of very different b

talents—Gainsborough and Palmer, Constable and Turner. With the first group
the accent is on objectivity; with the second the vision is so subjective that some-
times, with Turner, almost turns into a kind of unreality or abstraction, and the
it

actual subject of the picture either disappears or becomes unimportant.

Old Crome (1768-1821) probably had more in common, both aesthetically and
temperamentally, with the Dutch painters than with Claude, but the example of
Ruisdael and Hobbema helped him to find himself and his best works are, of course,
those which most characteristic of himself alone,
are for ex The Poringland Oak
(c. 1 81 8, National Gallery, London) or Moonrise on the Marshes of the Yare (c. 1808,

National Gallery, London). These pictures have a quality absent in Wilson although
to an impressive
the latter's Cader Idris (c. 1774, National Gallery, London) attains
to under-
grandeur which always escapes the more familiar style of Crome. It is easy
stand why Constable said that Wilson's landscapes dwelt in his
mind like 'delicious
dreams'.
The early Romantics first declared independence of Italianism by completely
their

eliminating historical or mythological characters or replacing

them with English
peasants and countryfolk. The few figures from the Odyssey
and Acncul <

Romanticism by grafting on to it
by Turner merely served to intensify his own
a certain Romantic vision of antiquity. Wilson
had himself observed (and in this
unreal
was supported by Reynolds) that only an unreal landscape could contain

characters. • j •

'What reality?' for artists seem to have envisaged it

But one is bound to ask: is

many different ways. At first sight it would seem that Thomas

and expressed it in so
the same process of ideali-
Gainsborough (1727-1788) submitted his landscapes to
zation as his portraits; he starts by
observing objectively, then looks for the essence
and finally saturates the whole picture
of the thing observed (the view or the face)
pathetic atmosphere characteristic of his
with a romantic, dreamy, melancholic or
the figures, transforming them
own temperament. He casts a fairy-like grace over
simultaneously aristocratic, lyrical and Romantic.
into something 'rich and strange',
landscape picture he was not in &ct content
But when he set about composing a
constructed it according to Synth dlfr-
with merely seeking after nature; he
as those advocated by Leonardo
da Vin
cinatory techniques of the same kind
Gainsborough
Hokusai. Reynolds writes that he saw in
s

the Chinese painters and

pebbles and
studio curious models made
with blades of grass, lumps of moss twigs,
probably gav, Ual
aid of these models which
pieces of looking-glass; with the
im^i.^'his landscapes.
impulse to Ins imagination, Gainsborough
perfectly clear
the creative faculty-for it is
This strange means of stimulating
or copying his models-
that Gainsborough
8
was not content with merely enlarging
It never distracted
has sSctog m common with the process of poetic inspiration.
 Romantic Art
52

Gainsborough from real nature, because a sort of two-way exchange between real

pictures the
and created nature grew up. The more one studies Gainsborough's
the
more one appreciates the quality of beauty which he transferred, exalting it in
process, from the 'subject' to the canvas.
This whole process of transmutation and exaltation is typically Romantic.
Both
The Harvest Wagon (1771, Barber Institute, Birmingham) and The Bridge (c. 1777,

National Gallery, London) start from an 'impression', a 'feeling', but these are

developed and amplified; in recalling the emotion originally aroused by the

natural
powers.
scene the minute components of the model are transfigured into elemental
The painted landscape vibrates with a deeper resonance and the little toy figures
Gainsborough had placed on the model in the positions they would occupy in the

picture take on a magical life.

The superiority of Gainsborough's figures to the animals in James Ward's

(1 769-1859) pictures is immediately obvious, although Ward was a brilliant, force-

admired by Gericault. He had a feeling for the earth; his palette

ful colourist, justly

contained warm, rich reds and luscious greens and he cast over the whole of his
canvases a pale golden light with a sumptuous sheen. His sensuality was shared
by William Etty (1787-1849), particularly in the latter's passionate nudes, realistic,

often a heavy, but always with a fine healthy relish that sometimes escapes
little

Thomas Stothard (1755-1834). On the other hand, few could rival Stothard in his
manner of transplanting classical or mythological figures into a typical, fresh
English park (The Greek Vintage, c. 1821, Nymphs Discover Narcissus, c. 1793,

both in the Tate Gallery, London). His figures have the 'fashionable' grace and
elegance, sometimes inclining to affectation, of the ladies painted by Gainsborough.
It was no accident that John Constable (1776-1837) became a landscape-painter.

After a long struggle with his father who refused to let him take up the hazardous

career of an artist, he finally wrung from him the concession that he might paint
portraits— the branch of the profession considered by the family to be the most
lucrative and possibly also the most honourable. And it was indeed his portraits JOHN MARTIN see p. 72

which gained him the admiration of Ins contemporaries; they did not know what
1 Detail from The Last Man
to think of his landscapes. Nevertheless he was destined to become the supreme
portraitist of the English scene, in both its humbler and its more majestic aspects. 1833. Watercolour. 47.6x74 (18JX27J)
Laiiig Art Gallery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
He was particularly anxious to add nothing beyond what could be seen: 'The
landscape-painter,' he wrote, 'must walk in the fields with a humble mind. No 12 Manfred on the Jungfrau

arrogant man was ever permitted to see nature in all her beauty.' Remote from
1837. Watercolour. 38x53.9 (15 X2i£)
academic formulae, convinced that the artist should confine himself to 'the close City Museum and Art Gallery, Birmingham.

and continual observance of nature', careful not to overlook the slightest puff of The subject is taken from Byron's Manfred

wind wafting a cloud, the smallest play of light on a leaf, he focussed his gaze on
all his surroundings with enormous intensity. The idea that only certain aspects

of nature were beautiful was rejected; all was grist to his mill, since all could THOMAS GIRTIN see p. 63

be metamorphosed by the enchantment of light and shade. Sky, trees, water— he

concentrated on them the passionate attention of one who knows that no single 13 Subject from Ossian

sight can everbe recaptured. Deeply conscious of the mutability of the world, he Pencil and grey wash on buff paper. 27.3 x 41.2 (io$x 16*)
Collection, England
proclaimed: 'No two days nor even two hours are alike; neither were there ever D. L. T. Oppc and Miss A. L. T. Oppc

two leaves of a tree alike since the creation of the world.' The man who is con-
vinced that each instant, each morsel, of nature is unique, would indeed be a fool

to deprive himself of the joy of capturing as many as he can. ALEXANDER COZENS 1717-86
is one of the richest and most
varied
This attitude involves a certain inward struggle, visible in Constable's sketches, Cozens, born in Russia,
figures of English proto-Romantuism. From his
whose rapid execution in short, precise, essential strokes, aims to capture a particular friendship with Beckford he derived a penchant for fantasy,
moment and, despite the fleetingness of time, to capture it in all its fullness. For the and his landscapes arc bathed in a sort of enigmati.

between his sketches and finished pictures. when they arc taken from nature and of a realistic
same reason there is a vast difference 11

character. He died in Rome.

If one examines the two versions of The Hay Wain (1821, National Gallery, London),

Salisbury Cathedral (1823, Sketch: Guildhall Art Gallery, London. Picture: 14 The Cloud

Coll. Lord Ashton of Hyde) or The Leaping Horse (1825, Sketch: Victoria and Albert Grey and black wash on toned paper. 21.5 X 31 -7 (8i X I2 $)-
Museum, London. Picture: Royal Academy, London), one sees that in each case D. L. T. Oppc and Miss A. L. T. Oppc Collection, England
13
15
 *m
<*&
\

'
-&*-* i

19
18

20
 England 57

JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER sec p. 82 the 'sketch' is no rough preliminary, it is a finished work, whole and complete in

Hut
itself, the equivalent of the final picture in the artist's eyes— perhaps even superior
i< Thc Mer it Glace, Chamonix with Blair's
to the final picture, because it contains the initial emotion which gradually fades
over pencil on grey paper. away more worked Thus the freedom of the sketch, glowing
1802. Pencil and watercolour the it is over. still

3X4X47.3 («*Xl8t) with the intoxication of a communion with nature which the art-lover of the day
British Museum, London
could hardly share is replaced in the final version, to be bought eventually by the

art-lover, by a classic perfection, sometimes even a rather cold formalism: thc fire

of the sketch has been surrounded with guard and prudently damped down.
a
JOHN SELL COTMAN 1782-1842

Cotman 1 A
along with Girtin and Turner, one Even the rhythms change: the violent currents, internal and external, always
of the 'founders' of the English watercolour.
For some time
in a state of creation, as it were, turn into a calm, grandiose monumentally. When,
he shared the fame of the two aforementioned painters.

to express the graceful

as in his Hadleigh Castle (1829, National Gallery, London), he painted thc bitter
His v among the first

English landscape with fitting sensitivity. The fluidity of his solitudes of a haunted castle abandoned to ruin in a landscape devastated by a
gave his pictures a
an outcry. For here objective vision verged on visionary
colour and delicacy of his light
storm, the critics raised
rare charm.
creation and on distinctly Romantic fantasy, and Constable found himself faced

16 Croyland Abbey with scornful incomprehension.

Even Ruskin had not grasped the quite individual quality of Constable's trans-
1804. Watercolour. 29.5 x 53-7 (iifx2ifc)
the landscape than
British Museum, London figuring vision; he maintained that the artist saw no more of
attempted to
could be seen 'by an intelligent fawn and blackbird*. Constable had
outlook in his Lectures on Art, published between 1833 and 1836,
explain his aesthetic
RICHARD PARKES BONINGTON 1801-28 and of engravings, English Landscape, in 1830 but he
in the preface to his collection
perhaps he
Although he died at a very early age, Bonington exerted a
was too modest to be able to explain the true nature of his genius, or
considerable influence on other artists, particularly the aesthetic theory. In all
worked in was merely incapable of doing so, remote as he was from all
French Romantics. After studying with Gros. he
have sincerity he attributed the merit of his works to
the things portrayed and judged
Delacroix' studio. His landscapes and historical scenes
having seen and expressed
an outstanding freshness and vivacity. himself superior to others of his day or earlier only in
what they could not or would not acknowledge.
17 The Castelbarco Tomb, Verona
'light -dews-breezes-bloom-and
freshness;
Constable wrote of aiming at
canvas by any painter in the world
not one of which has yet been perfected on the
.
x 133 (7** 5 i)
1827. Watercolour. 19
Museum and Art Gallery, Nottingham value of things; if
This reveals pride aswell as humility, and a feeling for thc true
discovered that the
it is unjust to the Dutch painters before him who had already
thc chief organ of sentiment', it shows
sky is the keynote, the standard of scale,
RICHARD WILSON 1714-82 light, thc ever-
as an interpreter. In worshipping
After studying with Wright and practising as a portraitist that he considered himself mainly
he had made the crui id »bs« vation that
and took up landscape changing factor which changes all things,
1

in London, Wilson went to Italy

painting with ZuccareUi and Joseph Vemet. He

was a solitary
transparent but, on the contrary, a
substance in itself, a
certain memories of light is not colourless or
man, a great lover of nature; although enabled to paint
thc material quality of light he was
Italy can be traced in his pictures, he may almost be called the real substance. And in divining
and to give his skies the value of a
compact rather
creator of the English landscape. the material quality of mist
English
dampness in thc air which hangs over the
than a fluid, element. Thc typical
18 Grotto
well may Fuscli have -narked that
on seeing a
scene became almost tangible;
calling for his greatcoat and
umbrella. This irritable
White and black chalk on light brown paper.
Constable picture he felt like
it is no paradox
16.6x21.3 (6*x8i) contains a good deal of truth and
Museum, London
sightly spiteful quip of Fuseli's
British
compliments ever addressed to Constable.
to call it one of the fmest
spauitings as golden
Constable's descriptions of Turner
If one compares it with
with it is easy to under-
visions' which, however,
'one would like to live and die
JOHN CONSTABLE see p. 78 atmosphere. For
can be attached to light and
™the different meanings that
forces; the artists's task is to
reconcde
19 Night Scene: Building and Trees
Snstbe these are two opposing material and substance
giving each an equal energy
1830-6. Sepia and grey wash. 18.7x22.8 (7JX9) diem and make them harmo'nize,
c.

Victoria and Albert Museum, London ZT^^"^^^^^^

From Malvern Hall (1809,
National Gallery, London)
onwards we see the

^J^f
of Constable; it is not the
immense extent
treatment of spa e t
Qf thc Dell in Mminghm
Park (1 830,

FRANCIS DANBY 1793-1861

to rival John Martin in fantasy
Danby, an Irishman, attempted
and Turner in v. ,m colour technique, but his most personal
s thc
and original works arc those in which h
spirit with an almost
sincere en* a truly Romantic

naive simplicity.

20 Romantic Woodland

1825. Watercolour. 19 X 246 (7**9*)

D. L. T. Oppe and Miss A. L. T. Oppc Collection, England
 Romantic Art

h the year
y
(1775-1851)
(l775
before O^
born at a London
. l85 ,) was bom
birth m S*^£*^
baroer s, ne
barber,
^
«»"r Covent
, .
f Rom anric
ige Turner was
apprenticed to an

scenes ofGotbic abbey

ruins-Tintem Abbey.Ma
-^^2'^
"^ / A^ey^tc. -becoming
Mor recepdve to the
*
interested in the
architectural problems

poetry of these ruins than

^
Constable, who declared
V <
ti^th
J t he feelings wWch
guided
^dieval because
^fP^^^w
^J^ ^
their inventors are
unknown to us' rum >, Turner early

•, new Gothic building is in

reaUry hde less abur the
of these sp re
steeped himself in the rich melancholy claud / who Spired
P
-**» X£*5~*
sky with their delicate
his large compositions
on Clas* cal
D.doB Ca
j£
*JJ«^ f£
IS
ofAppulus (
Nationa l GaU ery,
4,

London), f
f>»g ff ) J
(
Tate Gallery, London), lgoo> Tate
Diio «.</ A»ms (1814. Tate
GaUery, Londo n) ^"^ L ,,., (ft

Tate GaUery,
GaUery, London), Agrippina
Landing u>,th the

over the sea, sumptuous

Unes ^^2^Js\nd archways
London) and whose sunsets
frequently imitated.
opening on to the shore he
,
him
P
not reaUy correct, for
mto ^Jgg'Vji
The word 'imitated' is „ the
tofindlnsow^sty^venwhe^
visit, n
campagna during his tint
Roman
by his own poetic
temperament. A^^—^^ih geological character
enchanted

^^1^, where earth, water, sky and atmosphere are aU reduced

to a

Pe y ha the Ughtest subtlest,

Nl tu r aUy enough Turner increasingly used watercolour
S and reabty
these melanges of dlusion
mc,t ™arent medium, to convey
S Ins 3eds of watercolours many are studies
from nature
dreams, the imaginary landscapes
of his mmd. Only water
^™-^
his efforts to capture his
Sour, which does not thicken light or add weight to the "^sphere,
<
« apable

in which the artist hved,

although he also tried
of pomaying the magical universe some of hi
clumsy) which he appended to
.translate it into verses (mostly
didactic ambitions revealed
pnnc.paUy m his Lber
pictures. He also had certain
period of twelve years on the model
of
\mdiomm which he composed over a symbols and
Claude's Liber Veritatis; and
Ruskin admired the large number of
monster
(Ruskin claimed that every part of the
aUegorical meanings in his work
Python, 181 1, Tate GaUery, London,
had some mythological
in Apollo Killing the
aU the poet of light, the man who blended
into a
significance). But he was above
His
single indissoluble chord the
world of reality and the world of appearances.
struggle between matter and mind and
work constitutes an innocent but bitter
his errors to his lack of faith and
despair.
Ruskin attributed both his failings and
Constable attained the immanent but made no
attempt
In other words, whereas
for Constable
to progress beyond Turner stubbornly pursued the transcendent. If
it,

light has ceased to be a property

of objects and become an object in itself, Turner
which he floods it and to be only a state,
wants matter to dissolve in the light with
England
^
a condition of the existence of light ... In this sense light is spirit— formative and
animating spirit— and it is easy to understand how the outcome of Turner's
evolution, very like Cezanne's, should have been that he reduced forms and sub-
stances to series of coloured vibrations.

Watercolour had become the favourite technique of many English painters; they
appreciated the spontaneity, immediacy and G 3 of execution which it en-

couraged, or rather necessitated, since with watercolour retouching is impossible.

The poetic genius of Keats and Shelley had its pictorial overtones; through tl

medium of watercolour, pictures became pure poetry, as Constable wrote of John

Cozens (1752-1799) who he though the greatest genius v. ei painted

landscapes'. A friend of William Beckford, owner of Fonthill a hor of Vathek,

Cozens travelled with him in Italy. He studied with his own father, Alexander

Cozens, who had published a work entitled N! thod of Assisting the Invention
several formulae
in Drawing Original Compositions of Landscape which contained
lend of
like those used by Gainsborough. Thomas Girtin (1775-1802)

Turner, who said of him that if Girtin had not died so young (
success, since Girtin's
he (Turner) would never have achieved any outstanding
He managed to rccon poetry of water-
genius was far greater than his own.
portrayed winch, in mting,
colour with the solid substance of the material
l Cox
did not melt away into light but acquire
Ins wat.
designer in Birmingham in
(1783-1859) was originally a stage
1

(e.g. The Terrace of Haddon Hall, 1849,

colours, sometimes treated like backcloths
artificiality.
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford), there remains a certain graceful

lohn Sell Cotman (1782-1842) produced oil paintings with a rare quality
Stow,
Castle Museum, Norwich; A
of dramatic nobility (The Wagon, 1828,
youth
His watercolours date mostly from Ins
1825 Private Collection, Norwich).
and he seems to have abandoned tins
mode of expression when he was about thirl
friend of Blake's and teacher of
Samue Palmer.
lohn Varley (1778-1842) was a however,
seem a minor figure;
By contrast with Girtin and Cozens he may
I

and Ins sensibility

he erred on the side of virtuosity
a skilful teacher, although
his purely technical researches.
became rather rusty in the course of
transcendence in connection with die
B Zc
may speak of a Romanticism of
Samuel Palmer (2805-1881),
-nary
wateLouriL, the Romanticism of immanent
itself, the mystery of
the
nSVfaan xpression of the magic in matter

SpL w'ent much further than

although he almost always
Constable in giving landscape a
added to it animals or men
curious
working in the

bookshop at Stoke Newing ,

^ ^ im m ^

35

London), and the

^^S^^
SJS- Moon 0* ttofO-
spectator into an unreal

L feel a different
atmosphere or,

^°J^J^ J
reality from
^JSS^S^!^
ic
»^ F r

p[cMrci
"|
tcchnique used
angular
by Pahner-a
texture, whrch
^**j£25££L,
appears duekjnd c.o
any i*
H
transparency.
§ h

ass r z C£--s asft»?

 romantic Art

^
60

WO rds ^^J£%^T*£^
SS»^A aC=2SS^ -~
and fusion
-
lose

and .,« of an
k f

looksmoreconformist; the
greatsch ool SO port
«*»
genre se
,

^ ^ Mu^ , ready .

aUy declined untU they

But there is

Raphaelite Brotherhood
were replaced by the
something typically
I
in 1848, eleven

Romantic the desire to

years
RomanOC
^
*T^V™
»?T
*£<£?
b k's death; if,
on ^
grounds that
of
that
p re .
is,

one' accepts as
it is

back
mediocre and
its
commonp lace in stead of
past glory. Wilham Ho man Hunt
^«
(1827 19 o)h
tLsform

Dante Gabrie l Rossetti

it and give

P
it

from ^
Burne-jones (1833-18
l82 8-l882) and Edward
(
ame source as the Nazarenes;
takmg re »

then
^
artistic n mt
d
U ma
««J
an d period,
» f)™"°^nance"
^
they

^
Italy for e communion
fled to Renaissance
Although sharing their ^* J"J^jto
d » ch F^
^
U Moreover, they
with nature which
seem to have been
completely ignorant of
archaic
sustained Constab
the^ a ctrtm
b le

«^^ ™ 8
t]
*Y
werc dcmand ing
? ^^
an artificial, deliberately
painted his finest pictures
with a true
"^^"^
£
™* J^T m
a m f n ature
'
wh chi they

and pr ecept. Never-

would

never have attained,

weighed down as
^^J^ thcir revolt

theless there

against the materialism

J
is something smcere and noble
and machinery-wor hip

the opinion that the ^P^^^SLmy

and h
£t Rmkm hefodu

and
g ^
voluptuousness,
r
was
^
poetic grace y
was purity, simplicity,
beauty where all
m
had founded the 'noblest
school of art we have *en th
p *^
William Morris (1834-1896)
in the field of
decoration he
was
mh G ™ ™* r^'^S^B^
^™^ ekmenB of folk art.
there is some-
be a Ut ies
Burne-jones' pallid ang b
Beside
thing refreshing about
and
Madox Browns
^^
g£JJPf
(1821
[893;
e
although the
and

fJ^
.

always
me
remams subordu °
quality of the painting and Tumer
important
^ ^^^^^p^lta
pictorial feeling are less

Le no successors;
demned themselves to an even
m
narr ^^"l^Z r
™f deliberate Qnl Geo g
Only
that of tl
Frederic k
Nazarenes,
con-

Watts
in that it was even more systematic
(,817-1904) contributed
and
an element of novelty, ^SM^ rf
.^
SS
V Z
mte
5
;^ trnatic, more genuinely
.Iwavs excepting Samuel
Palmer, who
poetic, than the

is m a class of his own.

«*. painters of

^ffldcSnU
The Aesthetic 1
super-refined,
r
uncommitted
wi]de ^^
to the point
a m ^
of deliberate
sphere of

^ZZ^tT^CLu Romanticism, just as in

in the sphereof painting, was a kind of exten-
France Odilon Redon and the
Symbobsts
I

SAMUEL PALMER sec p. 76

SntfEnebsh
s,on oi * n S usn J
Romanticism. In 1821 Constable had

S^
L«
Xhat*TLe
of French
would be no more English art and it
kter that Turner died,
although Palmer lived on for
was exactly
another thirty

preceding generate had left off. In he

21 Cornfield by Moonlight

Watercolour, gouache and pen.

Sir Kenneth Clark
Collection,
with the Evening
Star

19.4x29.7 (7* X »*>'

England

Sand Whistler took up where the

S
Lte^Romanticism had said all that it had to

"s to
Sod s
whose life-blood had dried up
p-vide nourishment
of expression Blake, Constable,
say the Pre-Raphaehtes cultivated

and which turned too much towards the

for the future. Perhaps
Turner and Palmer had made further
„ perfectuig their vanou 22

c.
The Valley of Vision

1828. Pen and wash, heightened

with white
for the
their own contemporaries, but also 28.1x66 (nix 26)
Tvelopment impossible, not only for L. G. Duke Collection, England

immediate future.
 i

/
 63
England

see p. 68
GEORGE STUBBS

23 Owl

1800. Pencil. 39x 26.2 (15* X i°J)-

Public Library. Worcester, U.S.A.
Free

24 Flayed Horse

c.1776. Black chalk. 36.2X19-7

(H*X 7*)
Royal Academy of Arts, London

JOHN HAMILTON MORTIMER 1 741-79

Romanticism with his
Mortimer heralded the advent of
from
taste for excess and
violence, his use of subjects
etc.. and his break away
Shakespeare, witchcraft, folk-lore.

from the academic outlook.

25 Orchestra of Demons

Pen and ink. 15.6 X 21.6 (6i x8i)

British Museum, London

JOHN VARLEY 1778-1842

Old Watcrcolour Society and exerted
Varley founded the
the English painting
of the day.
nsiderable influence on
even such men as David Cox. Samuel
indirectly affecting
Palmer and John Linnell.

26 Coder Idris

c. 1803. Watercolour. 28.5 X44-4

(«iXI7*)
City Museum and Art Gallery. Hereford

THOMAS GIRTIN I775"i8° 2

Turner, who was a great admirer of Gird

»» lw*»*
«£
much from him. was convinced that if

Turn. Ineverhav*
lour and
discover new ways ol
addeda new 'dimension' to the medium whi.
tog '

become one of the best v.

27 Bolton Abbey

1800. Watcrcolour. 32.3 X 47S

(i2*Xl8i)
City Art Gallery, Leeds
64

IX JAMES WARD 1769-1859

William
under JR. Smith and his brother
Ward began as an engraver, studying
the rural sentimental manner of
his
Ward Ws first paintings were influenced by Society commissioned
1800 the Agricultural
bTother-m-law George Morland. In
Bntam; tbs
of cattle, sheep and pip of Great
Mm to panTme various species
financial failure but established
Wards
coUecln of animal portraits was a period
reputation as an animal painter.
Between l8 I5 and 1821 he devoted a long
Waterloo. Ward was a believe
oC^mense composition showing the Battle of Fusel., hi
rfieTpocalyptic doctrines of
Edward Irving and admired Blake and
Z powerful apocalyptic feeling and he
neve
own p cturesTre often suffused with a there
prayer. Within hrs realism
1™I™1< without previous meditation and
is a strong element of lyricism and poetry.

Regent's Park: Cattle Piece

x 46) Tate Gallery, London
1807. 73 x 117 (28I
66

X JOSEPH WRIGHT, known as Wright of Derby 1734-97

Wright began by studying portrait painting and became most successful in this

sphere. Josiah Wedgwood, for whom he collected material in Italy, held him to be

painter to become interested

one of the greatest painters of the age. The first English
in the spirit of the Industrial Revolution, he
painted forges, foundries and scientific
for their striking effects
experiments not only for their documentary value but also
This picture of a family
of light, which he reproduced with much originality.
of his tastes. The
making an experiment with an air-pump is a good example
children's distress at seeing the dead bird is
reminiscent of Greuze, while the force
beauty of the light-
with which each character is individualized and the strange
an air of fantasy, almost of religious feeling
which
effects give the homely scene
reminds us that to the 18th century science still wore a mystical aspect.

Experiment with an Air-pump

1768. 183 x 244 (72 x 96) Tate Gallery, London
68

XI GEORGE STUBBS 1724-1806

qualities— the
A Baboon and an Albino Macaque Monkey combines all Stubbs'
anatomical
documentary scientific interest he attached to animal painting, his
knowledge, the truth of the surrounding atmosphere in which he
placed his

and, in addition, a truly 'psychological' approach to

animal painting. It
models*,
subjects. He
shows moreover with what originality he approached these scientific
was obviously not only concerned to differentiate the two species of
monkey by
personality, all the more
their zoological characteristics: he gave each a distinct
fascinating in that these animals are not very remote from
the human race. The
figures are placed
dark background against which the two strangely melancholy
whiteness of the
shows up the warm, supple softness of their coats, giving the
Hunter, a
Albino a mysterious brilliance. The picture was commissioned by John
animal pictures which
surgeon and anatomist who made a remarkable collection of
Stubbs painted a series
were to illustrate his revolutionary theories on physiology.
for him.
of portraits of rhinoceroses, monkeys, tigers and panthers

A Baboon and an Albino Macaque Monkey

Millboard. 69.8 x 90.1 (27* x 39) Royal College of Surgeons
of England

(Hunterian Collection), London

XII GEORGE STUBBS
scientist; he
Stubbs the finest of the English animal painters, was also a capable
which sell remains a
published at least one book (on the anatomy of the horse)
standard work. Wedgwood also commissioned him to produce designs for his
subjects were taken from rural life and
hunting .but
porcelain vases. His favourite
painted three versions of the Wkte
He
he was also interested in wild animals.

Horse frightened by a Lion, one of

which (that in the Louvre) was copied by
accuracy is raised to the level of dramatic
Gericault. In this picture documentary
Stubbs in portraying the strange soid
emotion. No other painters have rivalled
and (in this case) the almost supernatural
of the horse, its enigmatic reactions, wild
in the light, in contrast with the
atmosphere surrounding the 'noble creature'
beast emerging out of the darkness.

White Horse frightened by a Lion

i 77 o. 101.6X 127.6 ( 4
ox 5 oi) Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool
70

XIII THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH 1727-88

Gainsborough, the son of a Suffolk cloth merchant, was trained in

London from
enthusiastic about the Dutch
1740 under the influence of Gravelot, but he was more
masters of the 17th century. Fortunately his love for the
English countryside urged
his native
him to apply his sensitive and eloquent talents to the familiar beauty of
him from clothing the objective
Suffolk. His passion for truth did not inhibit
in the
reality of the creatures and things he saw with a poetic feeling, particularly
portray the intimate
'fancy pictures' of the latter part of his life. He was able to
marvellous
harmony between the souls of the landscape and the figures in it with
felicity. Landscape is no longer mere background
but the source of living emotion.

If the Romanticism of a work like The Mowing

Walk is not immediately obvious,
it between the 'pre-Romantic' 18th century and the spirit
nevertheless forms a link
is all refinement
of full-blown Romanticism of the first half of the 19th. This picture
in one of the
of form and delicacy of sentiment. A pair of happy lovers are walking
quality so dear
parks in which art and nature combine to produce the 'picturesque'
to the period. No extravagant passion disturbs the serenity
of their happiness, the
charm
delicate harmonyof the blues, greens and greys is exquisitely fresh and the
of the work is only heightened by its (apparent) air of incompleteness.

The Morning Walk

236 x 178 (93 x 70) National Gallery, London
72

XIV JOHN MARTIN 1789-1854

fantasy pictures and illustrations of

a
This visionary artist who painted numerous
colours
rare, sombre beauty for Milton's Paradise
Lost, started as a painter in enamel
ot De
pictures and the Eidophousikon
for a porcelain manufacturer. But Turner's
sense of the super-
Loutherbourg inspired him with a profound and genuine
used curious eftects
natural which is revealed in his pictures and engravings. He also
of light with good results. ,

is the most
Of all Martin's works Sadak in search of the Waters of Oblivion
which has
accomplished and successful; only part of a larger composition
it is really
ot tne
unfortunately been lost. taken from a Persian legend, the story
The theme is
the
noble Sadak and the djinn Alfakin. The contrast
between the small size ot
figure and the barren immensity of the rocky isle
where the djinn had promised
that he would find the waters of oblivion is brought
out with passionate vehemence
of the ngur
and dynamism. stormy atmosphere and the oppressive arrogance
Its
has
are reminiscent of Lucifer in Milton's epic. The play
of light on the bare stone

fierce splendour.

Sadak in search of the Waters of Oblivion

1 812. 76.2 x 62.4 (30 x 25) Southampton Art Gallery
74

XV WILLIAM BLAKE 1757-1827

poems and the Divina Comnf* were his

^" ^?^ r
tisdcoutloo | c i sfe r

more than once trienas vu g

innocent nudity; a dmittedlv hides
the

ESSSSjlSSJ *>» .0 IW. d-kff »d — code.

wcrttrig Beatrice in
Paradise
D<wfe
*
l8 2 4 Watercolour. 94 133
.
(37 x &) Tate Gallery, London
•
76

XVI SAMUEL PALMER 1805-81

introduced by
Palmer was by Fuseli and Blake, to whom he was
chiefly influenced
mysuc and
John Linnell. Blake attracted
him particularly because he too was , t :

Boehme
supernatural; he was also a student of Jakob
interested in exploring the
the everyday hfe
Nevertheless he took his subjects from
Sie German mysL he portrayed with the affection of
a Virgil
of the English countryside which To
concentrating on the work of
countrymen and the progress of the season,

exp Z he elaborated a very individual technique, combing

his feeling for nature
and adding thick layers of varmsh
winch
oU-empera andwatercolour painting
In his composition
the depth and lustre of lacque,
gfv many of his pictures wbch
tumultuously heaped up, with an effect
Igures and objects' are often effects
by a desire to obtain
clearly dictated
nfovmg rather than clumsy, since it is

Coleridge and Wordsworth. But his

way rf
See those of Ins favourite" poets,
nature is Ins
expressing his feelings for the
mystery, perhaps even the terror, of
new heights in dep.ctmg the secret majesty of
the
alone. In particular, he reached
the super-
they aroused in him. Palmer reveals
night anddusk and the emotions
itself and lifts them on to the
plane of a magical
namral elements inherent in nature
^mmunSn with landscape. His Cm*
Jim Even* Church, with its mountain
long line straggling along the
of churchgoers
Hatched by moonlight and its

no substantial difference, and perhaps no

difference
vaTey -ems to say that there is

objects.
in essence, between man and inanimate

Comingfrom Evening Church

x 20 (12 x 7i) Tate Gallery,
London
1830. 31
78

XVII JOHN CONSTABLE 1776-1837

where he was able to express

its innermost and
most secret n£ g ^
brooks and meadowlands
Hm it was never
all
^^'^^tlZ^
necessary to peopk the '"-^F^^Sng otpan
or classical

changed
^
figures in
8
order to fill it with a godhke

as he became more

scapes, and less dominated

cultivating a 'Romanticism'
presence. His mantie

and more concerned with

the

by the influence of Ckude

which was very f
™
:

«£2S°Ew5k»« eve
'^^/^^ingly
"
and
g

character
r

tragic

temperament, his work became

feeling. Owing
more and more saturated
to the enthusiasm aroused
in France by

^"°
^ ™??SI**<*
^ «M
which

^^^^
in. He aimed only to
be a f
he neither knew nor believed rich) warm
he became its inspired
d^
and it was in spite of himself that

^
in
<eH
naanner conveyed every least variation in light,

forests and mellow golden

^
the play of

water, stormy skies, thick black

end of career, after a lifetime of
his
research into technique,
«^J^°
his brush

enough to convey every gradation of his moods.

Dedham Mill
x 76 (21 x 30i) Tate Gallery, London
c. 1819. 53-5
80

XVIII JOHN CONSTABLE

are not lyrical transcriptions
of
Constable's seascapes, unlike those by Turner,
painter, but sober, sensitive representations
nature stirred by a drama created by the
clearly in his pictures of fields and
of objective fact. His Romanticism is seen most
enter into closer cornmunion.
woods with which he was more familiar and could
-glistening grass, dewy hedges,
The things which made most impression on him
tree, the solid yet pliant earth
beneath the
the sun playing through the leaves of a
missing from the 'mighty monster But
although
feet of the walker-all these were
.

the half-demoniac, half-

Constable may not always have grasped and conveyed
divine qualities of the sea, he at least revealed an
element of beauty in it which tew

painters before him had achieved. For this he

had recourse to the method of form-
painting.
and colour-analysis which he had devised for landscape

Weymouth Bay
53 x 75 (21 x 291) National Gallery, London
XIX JOHN CONSTABLE

Z&J The .„»„ d—gf = *£££ » CEW

j^^jafrs^i :#5 l- we. - -*.
8

the cheeks.

Marine PWe "«* Cfcii« ««i Brfefctow

London
x oj) Tate Gallery,
,824. 127 x 185 (50 7
82

XX JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 1775-1*51

and with Girtin, Turner began

After studying at the schools of the Royal Academy
throughout his life and
work as a watercolourist, later turning to oils. He exhibited
general was immeasurable. His
work
his influence on the course of Romanticism in
as dramatic seascapes
and
includes historical and mythological scenes as well
treated with an in-
sunsets on an epic scale in which forms and colours are
tended to
exhaustible variety. Towards end of his life the form in his pictures
the
basic
to make art return to the
dissolve into light and movement as if he was trying
itself. So powerful
was his
principles of universal creation, to the origin of life
imagination that it transformed things seen into a fantasy
world with laws and
different from those of objective reality. Though
The Shipwreck
dimensions quite
is translated into
is based on a wreck actually seen by Turner, the whole scene
convulsions of a monster
fantasy by the artist's imagination; the waves become the
animal, its winces and sudden starts, the elements undergo a process of 'divinization

and 'animalization'.

The Shipwreck
c. 1805. 171 x 241 (67i x 95) Tate Gallery, London
XXI JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER
Leander 'from the
Turner said that he took the subject of The Parting of Hero and
the Hellespont every night
Greek of Musaeus'. The story goes that Leander swam
Aphrodite. When returning one night he
was
to see his love, Hero, a priestess of
complete despair, also drowned he:
swallowed up by the waves and Hero, in
poems with which he often accom-
Turner retells this sad tale in one of the strange
composition combines all the darkest and
panied his pictures. The colour of the
The structures of the temple of
most powerful tones at the painter's command.
like strange dream-buildings
the sini
Aphrodite, looming up towards the sky
of moonlight, the groups of phantom-hkc
darkness of the water brushed by a ray
the drowned welcoming
Lcander-all d
figures representing the souls of
,

subtle and balanced harmony. As

yet
elements are united in a magnificently
dissolved into light; the masses still
have their
Turner's forms have not completely
ideas and technique are undergoing
a
weight and force. Nevertheless his esthetic
admired by Turner
radical metamorphosis.
Eight years earlier Etty known and 1

subject at the Royal Academy,

but Ac h**
had exhibited a picture on the same
Tlus tragic
far outstrips it in solemnity
and myth-like, supernatural power.
work
imagination.
story also aroused Byron's

The Parting of Hero and Leander

x 236 (57* x 93) Tate Gallery,
London
1837. 146
84

XXII JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER

On
o2lTM
hearing that the Houses of

naintines w
pamtmgs which combine
Parliament were on fire during
Turner hurried out to watch;
on
an immediate impression of
_
tragedies, such as the
^-^^
the night of 16th

this tragic event wun

burning of Troy. Myth

that he lent the very
real specie
Xea ty w^so rigged in hi! mind
Bridge the splendour and honor
ih he\ad seen from a crowded.Waterloo
S
11
cosmic catastrophe. The two
paintings he made from his

memories were exhibited the following

-tercolour sketch*
year at theRoyal Academy^
hcfiorms
m
Z 8 flames
in rne confusion of leaping
and nocturnal darkness, and
the

^S
moKwtcruX-ofme
composition (the
to burst
picture.

Jto flame use* The other versior

bridge and crowd are almost
*
which « very
i

invisible) is in the
n.pasto
P«*ubr. Je lummous

Cleveland
dfem
Museum of Art, Ohio.

Burning of the Houses of Parliament

x 123 x 4 8i) Philadelphia Museum of Art
1834. 92.5 ( 3 6i

*9
i '
 L ^

XXIII JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER

Snowstorm Tumor had
attached to the Steamer in a
According to the tradition falhng on,th
better able to watch the snow
WrnStifd to the mast in order to be equal
v lirh he was travelling. This
snowstorm at sea is made up of

^ £JJ^ o£e^ U b brilhantiy executed with

a virtuosity
tf magin
parts ot

E tSpal S
called an 'apocalypse of
h
..
the heavens

were not all able to appreciate

^'«££*£
»^
:
the novelt,
„!,««

^ ^ ^ ^d
-rTu^ct^r^
$
melts

ch was
away into light.

much
R ,
of its
Acadcmy

Steamer in a Snowstorm
Gallery, London
1842. 90 x 120 (354 X47i) Tate
XXIV DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI 1828-82

both in their
The members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood are Post-Romantics
expected of painting. Rossetti, commonly
considered
aesthetic code and in what they

the founder of the movement,

was a poet as well as a painter and practised both arts
and the supporters of the Arts and Crate
equally Like the other Pre-Raphaelites
materialistic thriving Victorian era
movement, he had nothing but scorn for the
craftsmanship, rustic jollity and general beauty
and hankered after a past filled with
largely a figment of his imagination.
There are perhaps analogies
which was
and those of the
between the ideals of the Lukasbund of Cornelius and Overbeck
but Rossetti's pictorial qualities arc finer
and his lyrical
German Nazarenes,
invention more original.

Princess Sabra
The Wedding of St George and
1857. 86 x 86 (34 x 34) Tate Gallery,
London
XXV
WILLIAM HOLMAN HUNT
1827-1910

Holman Hunt was, like Rossetti, one of

the Pre-Raphaelites but his style is more
vigorous and virile. In Claudio and
Isabella, a subject taken from Shakespeare's
Measure for Measure, he tries to represent

a meeting between two imaginary cha-

racters in a realistic, everyday manner.

In this, Holman Hunt was not unlike

Millais and even Egley; he lacked the
poetic drive of Rossetti and Burne-Jones.
On occasion his attempt to 'be true to
life'makes his work prosaic, stiffening
the figures and stultifying any expression
of inner life. If he is a Romantic at all it
isby virtue of his fixed conviction that the
Middle Ages represented a paradise lost.
His melancholy evocation, from the stand-
point of the Industrial Era, shows an
idealized past which he loaded with slightly
theatrical beauties in order to escape

from the hard facts of his unsympathetic

surroundings.

Claudio and Isabella

1850. Panel. 77.5 x 45 (30* x 18)

Tate Gallery, London
 IV GERMANY

German Romanticism sprang from two sources. On the one hand it represented

the ideals of the 18th ccntun

I

tya
a deliberate revolt against
<

small elite of thinkers who borrowed their ideas from Irene 1, I

was directly linked with

Aee of Reason. On
tbi
the other it

i,th and t6th centnries. Tl

««
German art of the
MimesSngers and the Nibehtgenlied by Bodmi-r t.

texts of the
Herder's work on folk poetry, created a new understanding £
had despised or, qui -K, HO
of 'the past' winch the Aujklanm£
thinkers began to
At the same time both artists and
natural
on a scientific-mystical study of the
,

to embark
Naturphilosophen; Carl Gustav Cam' jkm
•

a Natu, '«
conception of Mother Nature, of
'

'y
as do his philosophical
and biologi.
J
us" as much
the German countryside, to the Rhine, ti
openedTo
towns unchang.- the Middle A;
cathedrals and little

% cess; rcssaSK
, „U rf.«M.teoi, .,.«« P-ob.bl, k»«w «,mol,i, 8
Em.emo^.nJJo^J^'^ .„, h f ,.
..,- „ „ „,„

ESSSZ&5ZXZ* .<"— «~
Tales.
the author of the d
,
lUng
common whom
Tins
J^*"^™*^ <& is found it, Schdling, to
 '

Romantic Art

90

and the mesmerist Eschenmaye,

philosophy deals with the
While
marriage of nature and
Nova.,
J^^^^^
^
m»^ ,
Go'™ *

Hubert/who wrote on the "dark side

SyMimof Mure was
of the
comb jnjng
-"J^J^pSfarf
Remhold"^fon
Soul and phenomena and
Trey.ranu P
Gottfned
Troxler, the conclusions of o^

bndgc bet* ccn th past

constitute a *
in the Romantic
period, almost seemed to

the present, besides being a

symbol of the enduring
Romantics boasted that they were the
only true ^J^£^3
f^^^^S!
We
and Schlegel wrote.
real y Uve
revived the forms and spirit of medieval art,
interpreted in bygone days
Z Middle Ages for these were wrongly
the true as one of
German Romanticism repudiated Classicism, it hai ed
A ho h early

us first niters the Danish painter Jacob

AsmusCarstens i*7W^££
or, if you hke, Classical
cussed later who worked m a sort of Romantic Classicism
Ro lucisin) along the hues suggested by
In an age when there was a
Wehl in Ins book on
close collaboration in art
between Copenhagen and ^^CZ
German Romanticism. Bonaventura Gene
h LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER see p. 121
Ge ml
Y ne had
a profound effect on

£ 8-8 6 who like Carstens aimed to reconcile in his

)

ont a ted outlooks, Classicism

pictures the two arbitrary

and Romanticism, divided his

attention between
1 Genevieve de Brabant

medieval and Neoclassical subjects,

themes borrowed ^m
Shakespeare, the Drawing. i8X27(7>< 10 *)
Victoria and Albert Museum, London
mythology.
and, in a vague way, from Greek Kumthalle, Hamburg
idol of the German Romantics, Probably a sketch for the picture in the

18th-century German artists had

succumbed to the fascination
While the earlier
and teaching at Rome or Pans, the Ro-
of Italyand France and sought inspiration :

did distinguished teachers like

man^ turned away towards the North. Not only Copenhagen, but, even more
MORITZ VON SCHWIND see p. 119

Abildgaard and Jens Juel teach at the

Academy of
^countries harmo- 2 The Spirit of the Mountain
climate of the^Scandinavian
important, the physical and spiritual
German
nized with the temperament
and aspirations of the Germans. Southern c.1846. Pen. 16.7 x 30.3 (61 x nl)
backs on Italian lightness Folkwang Museum, Essen
artists in particular went to
study in Denmark, turning their
Study for the painting
sunny, shadowless landscapes which so
attracted
and gaiety, French clarity and the
It should be borne in
mind, however, that the Lukasbund was
the Nazarenes.
to Rome.
founded in Vienna, and passed from thence JULIUS SCHNORR VON CAROLSFELD see p. 99
Friedrich,Runge,BlechenandKersting
The fame of the Danish masters attracted
Michelangelism of Carstens, his violently passionate Siegfried and Kriemhild
to their studios. The Nordic
3

the epic world of the sagas and war-

'Romantic Classicism', the Ossianic mists, Pen and and watercolour. 18 x 22 (7* X 8|)
ink, pencil
Scandinavia, drew the Germans like iron
poems common to both Germany and Victoria and Albert Museum, London
Exchanges be-
filings to a magnet and
aroused their curiosity and fellow-feeling.

tween Copenhagen on the one side and

Hamburg and Dresden on the other became
was very successful m Saxony and MORITZ VON SCHWIND
more and more frequent. Dahl, a Norwegian,
the Dresden School; the minor artists-not of
largely instrumental in founding The Faithful Sister and Kings Son
4
powerful, untameable originality would always
course those great masters whose
save them from of servile imitation -of Germany and Denmark began
the dangers The drawing is an illustration to a fairy story

.1. 28.2x21.9 (n| x8i)

common pictorial language.
to share a sort of Historischcs Stadtmuseum. Muni' b
lie Lukasbund (the
Guild of St Luke ), also
Peter Cornelius and Ins friend
a deserted monastery near
known as the Nazarenes, who took up residence in
Rome to paint and follow an almost hermit-like way of
life, attempted a revival
JOSEPH ANTON KOCH sec p. 120

aiming at simplicity of spirit and execution,

of German medieval religious art, Crossroads
ever sincere ingenuousness. It is Landscape with Hercules at the
of line and colour, an almost naive but
5
sobriety
the full the Nazarenes' freshness or feeling, then-
difficult for us to appreciate to Pen ind I
; ghtened with white
but pious aesthetic attitude of the 'primitr
honest desire to return to the humble 27.4X41.7 (l0jXl6i)
the 15th century, and even Folkwang Museum. £
(by winch they meant the Italians and Germans of
 /

?v

.4
/ \\

I
m
- - ' ; y
*'

1450

i££*l

-:
 , W *
Germany
hound u P wuh .
Rapi 1D urcr), there ,

grow out of a pure life. We tend to snspec. ar,

anght of the re. n&drt*

foTtract nonce bv,
en" but in re,

Durer. Fro,
of nature, typified by
r efugeforGe,
-*•«**
art;

Under
Overbed
the patronage of the
verted I

Gcr-un eon -
murals .nwhich
constructed ln,ge groups of
painters of the Id -nc, A n^erofo
afterW.nl , Jog
OverbeckandC >:

who were soon ech

founders of the Brotherhood,
^adow -7
8-'
noteworthy arusts-W.lhelm
MS-^.johann Anton
Sehnorr von Carolsfcld (W->
*
*^^ ° ,1 "
Anton Koch (1768-1839).
'

VON CORNELIUS 1783-' engaging of the religious

IW
PETER
Cornelius founded the
Lukasbund. d «» of «
W* to rediscover the
„-ene Movement, whose aim

fiinoMa
He
with
decor,:
frescoes. Later h

principal of the A,
to Munich
hi 1825; he
^££T
,

also did frescoes

hVh'camc
sacrifice.
11 1 1W1 Rnmant
^^
CantheNazarencs
the
of the pasi
imitate the art-forms
6 Fotft'j Wiffc 0>» Easter Day
natelymosto
-too forcefo! ,

iry

Scene 2 of Goethe's
play w„< ively unitadng »
„, lllty
The subject is taken fromPart to be content
I.
feg.
L .ot.Kandat
Pencil. 4OX3S (1 Si* 13*)
Historisches Stadtmuscum. Munich
no longer sofor the
and not their
their
(

'^X™
worbisfosnness of feetogando
Effortlessly
,

1781-1841 heart and mood.

KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL because they
Berlin. Schinkd taught eval simplicity,
WhUe studying architecture in
Goethe a.
Middle Ages and Classical An*
^yenth,

bo
*
spirit and
grade, returning
to the wo,
J-
do to c

ical architect;
his
N„
««»*
Led on Greek tempi

7
!ngs

The
show ideal buildings in

Castle of tlic Grail

imaginary landscapes.
LhnuMly speaking, the

pauumg, and that they

even attemped ob JjJ^ k ^ ^
Drawing. 28.9x32-! («**"*)
Wallraf-Richartz Museum. Cologne

in religious
-learned from Koch. .
00k on w importance
too that landscap
was due to them
=

CARL PHILIPP FOHR i79S-i» l8

Fohr died at
ri paint.ng.It-s i-^*££S35 —« **
Like many Romantic artists.
he was drowned at Ron
tossmg the Tiber.
tew
A
J[

picture,.
•™J" Lkgro, " ' J
f ^The V° J of the Jordan „ £*-
(Worm/
he panted count, " and l»IO
pupa of Koch and Rottrnanr, into the German cjHvicr bctv
»«

«»riSS£S5
originality.
vCal a fresh and robust

An
Gbtz von Berlkhingen among

of Act V
ilhutration
the

of Goethe's famous
Gypsies

early drama
r
Pen and wash. 374 X 47-4 (Hi X lot)
HessischcsLandesmuseum, Darmstadt.
 Romantic Art

94
FRANZ HORNY 1798-1824
pictorial vision and animation characteristic von
the realistic imagination, Horny was a friend of I 1

treated with
Carol shared in the group activities of
Francoma. ,

of the old masters of Swabia and .,..,, ome. He died at two

Franz Pforr, who died in Albano at twenty- thcN
The due nons of Italy did not lure which he
Rome, to red.
village of' 1

the Hamburg Bnperor nml watcrcolour r ainter

ral heritage. His Entry of
-

;n hk native German
,icr
Horny w
fou
S7to Bask (.809-1810, Stadelsches
Institut, Frankfurt) retains

depth of feeling and robust

naturalism winch
a rusne
9 View of Olevano
viour an ingenuous almost naive, ch.ilk. 5 3-2X37-3 (« X 14*)
and Gothic Classicism
h ve nolgm common with the concept of ide Renaissan ce.
Pen and brown ink over red
Martin von Wagner Museum, WLirzburg

h rl ed by the Nazarenes,
1
intonated as they were by the Italian
bri htest star of the new
L
drew on the inspiration of both Route
school was Carl Philhpp Fohr
and Florence only to drown hinadf
carefully studying Cranach and
m to
Altdo fer,
(^^ CARL ROTTMANN 1797-1850
R ott at© for Tieroic pastorals' in
,.
the style of 1

Tber at the age of twenty-three; after W ed

and Koch by Ins long

^translated Ln
into .Romantic idiom in
Ins Rstumjrom Hunt (Schloss * Italian Baroque painters

nan mountains. He also travel)

l

'v
""' h
he re taut ed he workc.
by the contagion of Itahan.zation, andCr, e
„ u u,n Darmstadt). Little infected most clearly orbed his « until the end o. In, Inc.
for reality which comes out
obu mess and a sort of bitter feeling toVwn
provides the background for of Landscape
„ h ponra.t, A German landscape 10 Italian

David Passavan (1787-1861)

Institut, Frankfurt by Johann
ebches X47 (i2jxi8J)
I in the monas ery Pen and ink. d watercolour. 31
Pans before settling
|

S Led with David and Gros in Victoria and Albert Museum, London

of S I Ludvrig Sigismund Ruhl (1794-1887).

or '

literary/troubadour" style in has Fa,rMchs,uc

at
*/^*£*£2her Todc, (Kunst-
a more artificial, LUDWIG VOGEL 1788-1879
religious revival in
Vogel took part in the movement for
h m
t wSSg
the poetry of Healer,
religious subjects, these painter,
von
followed the lines laid down

Arnnn and Brentano, interesting

themselves in ancient
painting taken up by
lived in the Convent
the
of S
group of
Isidoro.

Switzerland, Ins native country,

German artists who

Later he returned to
took up residence in Zurich

Z Li Ilk
medieval poetry
poetry, Mlrchen, songs, epics
and .egends. The vanished
began to be reborn in paintings and
drawings. Pocci, Disteh
ch an, of
and fcvot,
liis own country.
nceforth to painting landscapes
of

of
"pecker Ncurluthe*, Moritz von
Schwmd, and Ludwig R.chter never tired 11 Portrait of Overhcck
unity of for u-
knights and enchanters the ultimate
g stories of mermaids,
..chmen soundmg their trumpets from
tall <">*«*»£ Pencil and wash. 26
Kunsthaus, Zurich
X 1 5 (10* X $i)

their medieval appearance

under the onslaugh
France fewer towns had retained
oSsSsm:
existed so th
Germany a large number of authentic
e Gothic backgrounds
were not deliberately archaic, art
ftcu 'f^T^ LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER
unaltered
original forms which had remained
Constructions, but a reflection of 12 Italian Landscape near Castelgandolfo
ever-fertile grace
Tough and were still capable of an ever-fresh,
the centuries Drawing. 27 x 29 (io* X 1 1 V)

Victoria and Albert Museum, London

of the Dance of Death onct a
"ISSLrf (I8I6-I8S9) revived the old theme
used the subject of a series
,

by
fairnhar subject in churches and cemeteries and as
no
on the history ot CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH see p.

Holbein Rethel painted large historical compositions

who
Ch ^
nagl (A chen Cathedral), was haunted
by a world of ghosts and skeletons,
losing his reason at the age of thutj.
13 Setting Sun on the Beach, Riigen

1; h asmg obsession which culminated in his Sepia. 24.8X37.7 (9* xi4i)

and ,8j2, he derived nothmgfron
Ln visited Italy twice, in 1844
Although he
realism in the manner of Alma
Tadema; hew s
Dr Fritz Nathan Collection, Zurich

except a cerL taste for Biblical

deeZbasicaUy German, like Schnorr von
Carolsfeld (^-M
whe^ despite
but on LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER
himself on Fra Angehco or Raphael

S
being Nazarene, no longer modelled

wSp
the most German of painters, to
sight
and fervent admiration. Despite its
whom the Romantics devoted a

,»Pf^^V ***
pious
14 Rowing Boat on

1823. Pen, pencil,

the

brown and grey wash.

Lake of St Wolfgang

12.5 X 18.6 (4. X7»)

„/ St John visiting
the Fondly ofJesus (18.7.
Gemaldcgalene,
*>££»£*£
German gen
Wintcrstcin Collection, Munich

vigour and originality of the

whole and in detail, a tribute to the
Antiquarian and arcbaistic preoccupations
were never essential o
French
*»«» .

EDUARD VON STE1NLE 1810-86

is often found in Rom

my at least, never had the artificiality winch
be Austrian 100I,
Acn
Which, I
,

men worked in Rome

to the Middle Ages was
an organic growth, aid

^ o.( . ,
,

feature
.. Overbeck and Fuhrich. He IS best known
new, even if this novelty retained
XdZZ g a desire to create something
were driven on by a ^^efafajfa^ works of Clci 1
1
illustrations to the

Brentano, legends and folk talcs.

o the old German poets and artists golden age

Gothic centuries; as though lured on
by a lost paradise, a vanished 15 Little Girl under an Ap\
and
harmony
was j^noe* exaltation, religions fervour,
when all strength,
which
rationalism of the 18th century [841. Pen. 16.4x17(6^x61)
Wpmess they thrust behind them the to model Folkwang Museum, Ev
In their pictures they attempted
seemed to them to have destroyed all this.
 . , a , .

99
Germany

PHILIPP OTTO RUNGE sec p. 105 the present on the past, not by artificial mutation but by awakening in themseb Ives

the old spirit which had inspired the old art.

'"' rg
preserved a child-
16 1

Moritz von Schwind (1804-1871), a Viennese of great charm,

ichc -
43-3X31 (!7XI2i) like freshness of heart and mind throughout his life;
he really believed in the legends
C.X80S.P
Rhineland, the adventures of knight-errantry. Voluble,
Munich prolific,
of the forests, the
most exquisite and sub. a, he
typifying the axiomatic 'Austrian gai. its

approached the idyllic reality of his Symphony (Ncue Pinakothck, Munich) with
CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH ID his book
the same gusto as the imaginary happenings of wizards iries

Saxony her Viennese, he

Rocky Gorge Like Eduard Jakob von Steinlc (i8io-i88<
in
17 illustrations.

recaptured the whimsical gaiety of the student

on holiday, of the Renaissance artists
69.3x494 (27ixi9i)
Sepia.
with flo iusic and
Folkwang Museum, Essen travelling through the beautiful towns of Germany, filled

Eugcn Napoleon Ncurcuther

goodfellowship. Three fine Romantic engravers.
and Ludwig Adrian R.chtcr (1803-
JULIUS SCHNOUR VON CAROLSFELD 1794-1872 (1806-1882). Ludwig von Maydell (.795-1846)
and Steinle, although they were
After workinu with
the N 1
Rome, he was engaged by
1884) must be mentioned in connection with Schwind
indtheMun ">jured "P
Ludwig I ofBavaria to decorate painters. Richter, in
hi

P ailltil, S and
better known as illustrators is

Rc,idenz. He brou I

cosy h
nation and an energetic. unforgettable pictures of an ideal Germany, with its
»J
lurtul lyrici haunted by eerie
forests gnomes and unicorns. But he
also e one « ,

irelyd.ferentlevclfromalltherestoflnswork.asnKlod>ousandevocan
Johann Scheffer von Lconhartshoff o„anen t
Portrait of the Painter r/,E/te(.837.Gemaldegaler,e,Dre, .

asaSehumaLsymphony;lnsR V,rScc,eo H I

gilded
themes-the rocks crowned with rums
1816. Pencil. 25 x 20.4 (9i X 8) combines all the typical Romantic
Bib r Akademie der BUdenden KQnste.
Vienna
student, the musician, the pair of
lam. .

by the setting sun, the wandering

l

painful in its intensity, , transformed

m to a
Schwind's tender nostalgia, almost
.stood artist who
JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOETHE 1749-1832 Spitzweg (1808-1885). a much „
form of trony byy Karl oanttc
mterestcd in the visual arts,
particularly
Germany, with its touching ,

Goethe v
real talent. The tire redUcove'd Ihe poetry of Bicdermeier of
drav „inced a very
beauty compounded of sv.
ng make it easy to
understand why iod
episodes,
e ana gave it 1 curious paradoxical
er"nd
and spirit of th
wondered whether to devote himself rl Ncue Pinakothck, Munich) and
JPoor Poet 18U(c
at one time he even

to painting rather than

poetry.
KE^^S^E
ZlZllL
£S -gtd examples of «
adls a very individual savour
to Spitzwcgs works.
However.
,of w.tand

19 Study of Rocks

c. 1785. Pen and brown and grey wash. H X17.1 (4*x6i)

Winterstcin Collection, Munich

FERDINAND VON OLIVIER 1785-1841

Olivfc
He knew Koch and
,rt 3nd d 'P lom:,tiC
itr
number ot?telW
ncroic p in the Italian style
and reli gl ous scenes set

hich often took him abroad.

^™^^Z^Z£L
a large mountains
'

^ a member
ot

^ ^^ ^
lU ch influenced by him
v
years.
the
professor
Lukasbund. Towards the end of

of art-history at the Munich

his life he
Academy.
became
g
B a truly modern w B fo e go: g
he remained forty-five

end of ne naastu
his lite e m
until the visible
A certam
20 View of Salzburg and the Bernese Oberland with loving at tent on.

» the way he organ,

clumsiness
<
s

P
^
his treatment of
these unknown places and
^
c. 1818. Pencil heightened with
Albertina, Vienna
white. 19x31-8 (7*xi2i)

a continuous
fashion of
^^^IZZ
narrative

\^^^^S^c!m
mwhich die
of having actually seen
the
is sympathedc

CARL GUSTAV CARUS 1789-1869 and his dcpicnon of

it has the
accuracy

^^ J
_ fi
Landscape 1817.

£ttZ^~2~ "
objects portrayed
and experienced their £' IM dribach
21 Gothic Cathedral Seen through
Ruins
Ferdinandeum, Innsbruck)
began a development
and
which was to.cuhnmatc
^^^^SL^MIitd^
^ ^.^ m
oJ

^
1832. Chalk. 23.7x24.2 (oJxqJ)
mflucnce on
Folkwang Museum, Essen -d
JOHANN ANTON RAMBOUX
Born in Trier, Ramboux worked first
1790-1866
with the I uk,sbund
Ac Nazarenes and a large
Koch's objective
^f^^^c
analyt.cal reproduc.
onj t
was not the only approach
fo by Carl ^
He .rage of his stay
, Pans, and later in
ml -ke
Mumch
watercolour
on wrucu
of the age; a more
^^^^^^^s^PaMng: 'Amancontem-
i«*n« paintings,
cop,, erous ram
he drew for inspiration in his own pictures.

the South-West
22 The Choir of Cologne Cathedral from

X X42D
1844- Pencil and watercolour. 60 107 (23*

Stadtmuscum, Cologne
 Romantic Art

JSd tenet

near-mysticism almost
of Romantic
more impor^
fa^SS ^Ucrion;
than
^ .

of existencea „d
.his pantheistic

privdege <£itaj2 metamorphoses

coml nunio„ is the £J°S he movements and Carus wrote,
felt the force
of the spiritual life

^J^™
of feehng w kWn
oursc , V es\ as
^ w
^ ^
var .a tons
of external Nature
to the GenMn
(i 7 74-iM
towe« o
Caspar David Friednch more
painters of his day,
expression.
in that

His drawings, models

^-"^Tw
fF^*^ that he observed
nature with
that he attempted
t0 detaU,

^ £^£ ^
almost because both
a patient
attentiveness, an ?^°Vf™ °f Lancia of each tre e
of each tree,
Jgrasp the individuality &om them the secret of
Jtreeand the branch were
the organic
structures which ^«J*3S
create, and mamttjl and loves them with
a feehng

lstinctio ns between
the

of universal intimacy whic h does

R°™nt 1C eve
=

^J^
^f
"£,„?, part f the artist, every-

eg o and the
non-ego. For the

thing emanated from

htm and a continual
tide
o osk Joshed
^ ^ ^^
between man,

G^,^^
bonfe away on the ^XTXu^EsSShisfemousT^Ato
mhis^«M<^^
(tStp.Gemaldegalene, Dresden)
thcMoou
the soul out towards
ob tswhtch e
co.
reAma ^^ B ^
d back into the
4*
a movement of ^ the t0

profound personality Of ^«*^*5™K

j look fust^at your picture:w
your spiritual
V
eye, then bring
^
.

\- -^^ ^™
y an
your physical eye and
to flight of
day what you
essentially Romantic
processby which
simultaneously a
the,

"ascription o
ep«s "
^
^P^ ^^
fa real, external,
^ ^
objective
FRIEDRICH OVERBECK
After helping to
r uWasbund in
j (the Lukas
found ui
1789-1869

^" ^
Vienna in 1809.

landscape
conscious and
is

subconscious mind ...

estabhshedbetween^—misand,, amps bk
other that it become
the
a
„ ,» — to g
^ .
mtennediary .is
$ ^ inextri
^ w> ^
^ mood
by
of the ag is, the ,rt of the ,S* cenmry «° *g
{

^
bound up with
, nist fr0 m
emotion behind the
the external
images
contemplat on
^""j^
;~ *^ the landscape in
is, of course,
the
also
that period.

Jternal image Foo/15/1 Virgins

with nature tng T/ie H^«5c <wir/

artist's
eye to conform
mind's 23
mood. diameter
the visual
materialization of the
artist s
^ David Pencil and colour
wash. 35-5 (u) *»
Drawing from the
Staatliche Graph,-,
I,

This metaphysical
symbolical
"J^^*^ emph asLed by the painter.
O^nal

Friednch's pictures,
Whether the subject

into storm-clouds,
^^^gupom
,s

or the port of G

horizon with the majesty

^gS ^ F^ ^^^^
eif^a
of souls dung
*

w mg o
of the mormng mists
shi are saihng
human
or sinking
towards the
Sammlung. Munich

PHTLIPP OTTO RUNGE

always the indirect

subject For

parallelled by the scope

J*^*?,^^ ^
of the mind behind ^ it this g for
amplitude, for open
rf
24

;....
Noon

, s

l>cn
a sketch for the
and wash.
picture of the same
7i.7X48(^xi9)
title

of land, tor sKies

rmcu Hamburg
to remind one horizon, for mountains
whose Kunsthallc.

Pomeranian sand-dunes
soaring peaks make
"ft^J^&S,
one think of the q KSt
:* tot

^«^
as in Chinese paintings,
^ 25 The Lily of Light

M
To Friedrich
on the individual
there

Technically he succeeds
was an
spirit,
essential conflict

suffocating
m suggesting
it nd the open
A presence
u of ^ Ja and
^
^ back
t he sky.
rf
^ ^
^
A study for the larger
X 809. Pencil,
black and
WaUraf-Richartz Museum,
version of
red chalk. 57-2X41
Cologne
P»t

flnid, transparent
Ught-toud * I™{Sj3[ io recurs in so many of the
OVERBECK
JOHANN FRIEDRICH
his Dreams
troubledI souk 26 Joseph Telling
rich's lonely, and n rf , metaphysica l
ln his paintings
\^227icZ^ 8 man
from the dark prison of Ins on- Drawing. I3-7XI7-5(5*X6J)
Private Collection

^fSrtS^mons. 1
Bu t all these symbols merge in
a great
 I

X
l\ -
;
*
-,

n
'A !

me

M
V

^
in
%a&
 !

103
Germany
elemental
vibrating pantheism, in which Nature is loved for itself, for its basic,
power, whose different facets are revealed in its various lands*
Friedrich once said to Peter von Cornelius, when the latter was visiting him, 'CJod

is everywhere, even in a grain of sand'. Tins communion with the dh fa ich

intensely religious flavour revealed in all his subjects: the run 1

gives his work an is <

mountain of the Cross in the Mountains (1808, GemSldej Dresden),

on a high
or
the Cross in the Riesengebirge (Staatliehe Museen. Berlin), the ruin
expanse of the North Sea, or
inite
of 1

Gothic cathedral, -

a pine-forest. It results, however, not from a deification of Nature or the elemen

&t soul which had been shared by
but from the conception of a univd
Angel -nd
the German mystics from Mcistcr Eckhart to
poets like Novalis and Holderlin.
indifferent to the opinion held of him by his com, mgh
Completely
kind and hospitable to those who visited him, secretly consumed I I >le

Fricdn. elf
melancholy which, in his later years, led to insanity,

from liis era and he still n outside any bisl

down to its smallest detail however solid and

pervade art long >ge
and in the same way his influence continued to
<»
is His gospel was spread abroad not only by hi
past.
(1774-1842). GeorgPi iedi ichKersI ing
KiieeWn (1772-1820), Ferdinand I in

painted a fine portrait of him, and the R>

»;
(1785-1847), who
ick"
lived on
the visionary pantheism of his art
fa

the Expressionist Ian

lin and, even more distinctly, in
Friedrich which aul Klee
and Nolde. Moreover there is hardly a single passage by 1

would not have endorsed.

body ol by
other painters stand oul from the great
Two
Naturphilosophen and the in
JULIUS SCHNORR VON CAROLSFELD reason of their affinities with the
Both In, me (l 797-l855) *
Untung them with Friedrich.
27 Study for the Large West Window of St Paul's Cathedral, unknown outside Gen <«'
Blechen (1798-1840) are practk all)
London me most striking ol iBy
n) comb.nc, ,11
in Winter (Gemaldcgalc. i

and watercolour Id b *OW,thj

1862. Pen and ink, pencil Romantic ihemes-G Ron lan c
85X53(35i><20 l-gbss window the author .
Ughts sinning behind
Victoria and Albert Museum, London catastrophe in Mm 9
masterpiece unfortunately lost in the
•

Ws a thunderbolt falling on a vein,

of a sword, so Blechen atte

£
CARL SPITZ WEG seep. 123 croix wanted to pamt the flash
-re of
with a tragic grandeu,
a thunderbolt' investing
it
of
The Departure infern lity.
28
an instrument of divine or .

the supcrv.s.on of Karl

Drawing. 22x33 (8JX 13) ml hen had begun as a stage designer under -.tcly pro-d
one and the same A,
Victoria and Albert Museum, London Srfunke (,781-184.) who was at
covered Germany with cop.es of
the
fȣ*
I

Lchit who
His best pictures show p
a v o n ly pro-Gothie pairJ.
curves of a r.ver and who
ca«k brood over the .najest.c b-W
JOSEPH ANTON KOCH fantastic cathe
bv he sp'cs and bell-turrets of
29 Dante and Virgil in the Underworld

Pen. 37-2X3o(i4t>
Landcsg >ovcr
Niedo ,
" ltej
Juration of sev
throw lake of boiling
embezzlers
,. the
appeasement of Mahcoda.
of Ciampolo of Navarre right to liberty of
interpretation.
landscapes should not
the Chief Of Demons, and the story

LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER

Fields
30 Peasants Returning from the

Drawing. 29 x 17 (" i x 6i)

toria and Albert Museum,
London
 Romantic Art

in the current ot
cosmic energy, u** ?
„^„„V. the more outstanding

H, pto. to» »«= *o »~>» no»

,„ p.ofco to ,ho tag* »
;
rirShh
h,ncUy 8»
^ ve m oulJoJ hi. to.
^ ^

A s «,>h]o»PM*0"o*o'0fD«h^

=rsOT£7S£s -p»» - — ** -
^ ^

.
-
kcomo, one with .ho 4™my. , ,
f lh, 0eim ,„ mnd .nJ genius

h
examining the way in which ***-**

SSST^iS
Sd£fc
remaps u is best
u to confine oneself to
der landscapes f H ans Thoma
tier's
P
p up.»
Karl H^ Wy* b the
to nature^
inspired by Fnedrich's panther attnude
romanuc trag compositions,
omLtictagic r
an entirely modern
the Classica l sce ncs with
x
£

w* oooall, in.er,»ed » ttootaot *». of bfe

Moon (•i7-.W0) who

the ancient German forests and Giovanni

are baled in the pantheistic spirit of
of Maloja for whom mountains were living
Seeanhu ("858-1899), the hermit o in the silence
be heard
rhythmical breathing could atmost
crea™ whose quet
yielded new modes of expression w y
Sday For all these, 19th-century idealscompletely drfferent from those of the
although
T( thought and feeling which, substance.
genuinely Romantic in essence and
preceding generation, are no less
 a A
& ^
VS

*m

XXVI PHILIPP OTTO RUNGE 1777-1810

Daniel,
Runge at theage of eighteen joined the firm of his brother Daniel.
however, realized that art was Philipp's vocation and
made him a regular
allowance which enabled him to work as he wanted.
He studied painting at
Copenhagen
Hamburg with Hcrterich and Hardorff, and then, from 1799 to 1801, at
became friendly with Ludwig
with Jens Juel. Later he went to Dresden, where he
return to the innocence of
Tieck and Caspar David Friedrich. His ideal was to
straightforward communion
childhood, the symbol both of the pure heart and
look at his pictures to the accom-
with nature. He would have liked people to
and poetry, which he felt would bring out and
undo
paniment of music
Unfortunately he completing
musical and poetic content of the painting.
his series of Hours of the Day which
was to be an allegorical depiction of the
earth, and his transmutation from
matter into spirit.
cycles of nature, man's life on
colour, takes on a symbolical meaning.
In his pictures each shape, almost each

Rest on the Flight into Egypt

1805-6. 98 x 132 (38* x 52) Kunsthalle,

Hamburg
106

XXVII CARL PHILIPP FOHR 179S-1818

in Heidelberg, Fobx first studied under Friedrich Rottmann and OW.Jdl.

Born Munich m
attending the Academy at
in his native town and Darmstadt. While
the old German masters.In the autumn
, he became acquainted with the art of
8 1 5-6
was much influenced by Joseph Anton Koch
of 1816 he settled in Rome where he
same time he studied the Venetians and
with whom he came into contact; at the
painted at S.ub.aco
Roman campagna which enchanted him. Principally he
visited the
dinerent
landscapes a Romantic quality quite
and Tivoli finding in these Italian
character of the medieval and
Renaissance
from those of Germany and recalling the
paintings so much admired by the
Romanized Germans, Nazarenes, and others. His
ceuvre is one of the best examples of what
German Romanticism as a whole owed to
Passavant, Fuhrich and, of course, the
Italy-a trend which can be seen in Ramboux,
in the Tiber in 1818 just alter
Nazarenes and Koch. Fohr was drowned accidentally
listening to the song of the Daughters
of the
finishing a drawing showing Hagen

arid
in Italy recalls Koch's style
The poetic composition of this Romantic Landscape
necessary for
his methods of construction; the strolling musicians and pilgrims are
was painted in 1817, the year before Fohr's death and shows his art
'local colour'. It
of distance, the serene yet powerful harmony
of the
at its height. The feeling
reflect
atmosphere and the Italian gaiety affecting both man and nature admirably
German painters of the period, giving their art a
the spell which Italy cast over the
very individual flavour.

Romantic Landscape in Italy

1817. 133 X07 (52J x 38%) Collection of HRH The Prince of Hesse and the Rhine
Collection, Germany
I
XXVIII CARL BLECHEN 1798-1840

particularly during the winter of 1828-9, Blechen

While staying in Rome and
harmontous
gardens of the Villa Borghese whose
painted several views of the
greatly appealed to him. There is
nothing of the
groups of trees and beautiful light
his early years in a composition
such as this:
Nordic, Medievalist Romanticism of
by a fresh, spontaneous, almost im-
Nordic ruins and forests are replaced
pictures he painted in Naples Amalfi
Capn,
pressionistic, sensitivity. Like the
these Villa Borghese pictures show that
Blechen
Sorrento and the Roman campogna,
manner, in which there had still been a
had completely cast off his earlier tragic
The landscape awoke his sense of the beauty of
Italian
certain theatrical quality.
'Romantic than in the earlier works he does at
least
nature, and if he seems less
landscape painting. A number of drawings and
reveal a modern approach to
served as studies for this picture are
known.
watercolours which clearly

In the Park oj the Villa Borghese

Berlin
78 x 63 (30} x 24*) Nationalgalerie,
XXIX CARL BLECHEN

As his family intended him for a

business career, Blechen

began by
before
qualifying himself for this
at the
beginning to study painting
Berlin Academy in 1822.

While travelling in the following

met Johann Christian Dahl

year he
Friedrich; the
and Caspar David
clearly inspired the most
latter

Romantic, Medievalist and mysteri-

and
ous of his works. Between 1824
1827 he worked as a stage designer

under Schinkel at the Konigstadt

principally devising sets
theatre,

for operas and Romantic dramas.

he
During a two-year visit to Italy
discovered a new world of sunlit,

of an easy exist-
tranquil landscapes,
His
ence beneath an ever-sunny sky.
art became less monumentally tragic;
light
he learned the value of effects of
on trees, his palette brightened and
sensitivity
an almost Impressionist
This
came to enliven his canvases.
serene, peaceful harmony was
shatter-

ed in 1839 by symptoms of madness

and he died insane in Berlin at the
Women Bathing
age of forty-two.
was the outcome of numerous
Terni.
sketches made in the park of

Women Bathing in the Park

of Terni
32x24.5 (i2|X9*) Kunst"
1829.
museum, Diisseldorf
no

XXX CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH 1774-1840

Like the similar picture at

one of numerous attempts
Weimar, this is

the smallness of
JyMjg
the 'infinite landscape and
to bang out the contrast between
human dividual looking at it The man in the red
to be Friedrich himself, and he
jacket and white

appears minute in comparison

with the eno
*^£
ot nam
only an insignificant part
storm clouds and night sky all round. Man is
approach its proportions by Ins
understandmg love
a whole, but he can
the fairylike curv
communion with
the
it. The background darkness
rainbow represents the fearsome, mysterious force of
encircled
the elements.
by
^
subjects an
Friedrich's favourite
arc admirably painted; they were one of
allowed no one into his studio when he was painting
them: I have to give ^y
my clouds and rocks, m ordei ^
up to my surroundings, to be united with

what I am'.

Mountain Landscape with Rainbow

c. 1809. 69.8 x 103 (27* x 40}) Folkwang Museum, Essen
!
112

XXXI CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH

the subject of many
Fnednch was bom at Greifswald on the Baltic which is

shadow over most of them. Up to the

age ot
of his pictures and casts its peculiar
for four
native town; he then studied
twenty he was taught by Quistorp m his
the Copenhagen Academy of Fme
Arts which exerted a considerable
years at
influence on the development of German Romantic
painting general,m in 179*

the rest of his life, apart

irom
he left Copenhagen for Dresden where he spent
into contact with
other
numerous visits to Greifswald. At Dresden he came
Mullet, Runge, Olivier
and
Romantics, both poets and painters -Kleist, Tieck,
Kersting; he did not meet Goethe until 1810. Dahl
was a close friend; m tact tne
life. In 1805 he
was
two men shared quarters for the last twenty years of Friedrich's
in Weimar, althougn
awarded the prize of the Friends of Art, founded by Goethe
Friedrich's art, with its passionate, absolute Romanticism,
was directly opposed to
of landscape
all In his feeling for a certain 'supernaturalism
Goethe's aesthetic ideas.
he somewhat resembled Carl Gustav Carus and led the
way for a number o
Klinkowstrom. H£
German artists, including Oehme, Blechen, Kugelgen and
the end ot his lit
melancholy developed into more severe mental troubles towards
last drop of
beauty
and in 1835 he was paralyzed by an attack. Friedrich wrung the
his writings, in
out of the mystical conception of nature he so often expressed in
manner not unlike that of Blake.

The Cross and the Cathedral in the Mountains

c. 181 1. 45 x 38 (17I x 15) Kunstmuseum, Diisseldorf

114

XXXII CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH

pictures showing people looking at
the moon
Again and again Friedrich painted
at the Moon, in Dresden), but
the scene always
through trees (see Two Men Gazing
sinister character, as if magic
were brewing. Instead.of taking an
has a mysterious,
as in his landscapes, Friedrich
here confines
obvious pleasure in wide open spaces,
with a
stunted trees. The moon itself, crowned
himself to forests of twisted and
look
halo of mist, is revealed against a
backdrop of misty vapour. The two figures
mountain during the night to watch this pallid
moon
as if they have climbed the

feebly light up the country around

and the dark tree-tops. In this com-
rise and
one at Dresden, Friedrich shows how intense his
position, akin to the analogous
nocturnal face of natural phenomena
fantasy could be, how sensitive he was to the ,

strongly he could be
in the words of the philosopher von Schubert, and how
familiar things and places
overwhelmed by supernatural feeling when looking at
branches,
tree, with its exposed roots and stopped
at unfamiliar moments. The

seems about to turn into a living monster.

Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon

1819. 35x44 (13**17*) Nationalgalerie, Berlin
 - \.

&>fb*&z
-.-V--
116

XXXIII CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH

Friedrich's biographers trace the origin

of The Wreck of the 'Hope' to a news item
the artist. It is known, too, that he
which is said to have had a profound effect on
sight of the ice breaking up on the
Elbe
was very moved on one occasion by the
and he never forgot having seen his brother
drown in the frozen masses, as a child.
Fnednch s seascapes:
On the other hand ships are usually symbols of human life in
an example of this, as are the many
pictures
the Four Ages of Man in Leipzig is
in the grey bnghtness of the
showing ships either leaving the port of Greifswald
and despondent. Fnednch s
morning (youth) or returning in the evening, tired
quality, as if for him they were indeed
ships are endowed with a strange living
profound underlying unity of nature
equivalent to human beings by virtue of the
the Hope
linking inanimate and animate objects together. Thus The Wreck of
hopes and energies, destiny
means the termination of a life, the destruction of
embrace. This theme
overwhelming the individual and crushing it in its inescapable
Friedrich that he painted two versions of the
wreck and Quandt tells
so haunted
was one of his most popular pictures probably because
that he planned a third. It

symbolism was immediately intelligible to the viewer.

its

The Wreck of the 'Hope'

1821. 98 x 128 (j8iX5ii) Kunsthalle, Hamburg
118

XXXIV GEORG FRIEDRICH KERSTING

1785-1847

a; £ coo,,
tvniral of these is
** *_-». ^^*2t-5s^
of Fnednch
his portrait
wim, -
in bis studio, b
s
Tn tRtR he went to the porcelain
manufactory ot Meissen. »w wbch
Lot most outstanding exponent,
held an important place in
of the/bourgeois inumism
Germany, though not m
other countries.

Children at the Window

DUsseldorf
68 x 52 (26J x 20*) Kunstmuseum,
XXXV MORITZ von SCHWIND 1804-71

Grillparzer and Lenau, and KupelwKser,

the
poets ^5^, s

approval as an illustrator of contemporary

^eland and Morike, as well as the
His admiration for Runge, however
works. Modelling hrmself on
^^^^
^"^So
<^^^^Z J
f™*£Xore ambmous
technique and embarked
Vienna. In t8 47
on
he was
large mural
made
^^^^"SSL
a professor ot the
Acaaemy * where he d.ed at the age of
_

allylundlessmteres^
He exceuea
tenderness and fairytale atmosphere. and imagination.
l>» g
refreshing simphcry
in portraying the poetry of reality with

In the Artist's House

Schackgalerie, Munich
c. i860. 71 x 51 (28 x 20i)
120

XXXVI JOSEPH ANTON

KOCH 1768-1839

Koch came of a Tyrolean

peasant
£* -» £ ^
He was one of the first pauner
take an p
^JS—
^
on his work.
portray them with
equal regard for the
^^ P *
first

^T£ ^
and to f;

b
studied under Hetsch
and Harper a the K»
, ater he
where he
estabhshment to travel nor
rigorously disciplined .»J^f wholl realistic

pfrfecte/his landscape
wholly imaginary, but
^£ ^^^"berJftom^^
composed of a number_ot
^
nature
^
and arranged according
short, he was one of
"JJ^-^^L
R™^ ™ ^
most acnve and^ong
the
the
P
of the new attitude
^ Rome
towards the landscape developed by fa l8j9 After
.

mterrupttons, unt.l dr
end ot to $
where he Uved, with few
becotningfriendly with the
Nazarenes
.J^^^^r style of the
of Italian painting and
I7 th century" and
^ing
composed
^*f™™ Z
historical scenes taken

to produce^ sym p
>^ ««££££Z>
from the D a cLmdia or Ossian.
D^n
landscapes- This
^
charming
In

Waterfalls near Subiaco

Narionalgalerie, Berlin
1813. 58x68 (22^x26*)
— ^*S*r- «»>

Mr
,m>

'34L

XXXVII LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER

1803-84

native city of Dresden to

"company Prince
left his
At the aee of seventeen Richter

and pennon. He exceUedJ, &

remarkable in conception
atm osphcre of medieval •^^"""g'g^JS-Se one hand, and

S
The
a series

Little Lake
of steel engravings on
the reg.on.

Berlin
1839. 63 x 88 (24J
x 34*) Nationalgalerie,
XXXVIII CARL SPITZWEG
1808-85

rSSHL^ in contemporary mvestigations in puntmg

techruque.

The Outing
27 x 49 (ioi x 19*) Neue Pinakothek, Munich
XXXIX CARL SPITZWEG
Like Hans Thoma and Arnold Bocklin, Spitzweg

belongs to a sort of Indian summer of

Romanticism.

After studying pharmacy at Munich University

in

1832 he went on a journey to Italy where his

eyes
painting.
were opened to the splendours of Italian
It was not until the following year, however, that

conva-
he began to teach himself to paint while
lescing from brain fever. Later he was
given some

lessonsby Christian Heinrich Hansonn, and studied

the Dutch masters in the Munich
Pinakothck
to
before asking the elder Eduard von Schleich
teach him. While producing illustrations for the

review Fliegetide Blatter, 844 by Braun

founded in 1

genre
and Schneider, he also painted the charming
scenes which made his name— pictures with
thick,

recalls
warm colour and a use of light which often
'painter-
stage designs. Spitzweg was one of the
poets' of whom there were so many in
Germany
Their
in the Romantic and post-Romantic period.

influence lingered long in German art and

is still

visible even in Expressionism.

Life in an Attic
Munich
1866. 54x31.5 (2i*xi2i) Schackgalerie,
124

XL ARNOLD BOCKLIN
1827-1901

Bockkn was one of the few

he stubbornly resisted
^£^l£SS£J£^
^
the academic outlook
of the school

WO rked under Schirmer. As ^."f^jJ^S.dying^Ita.fcmigoi.

^m^ly,
century struck him as
unfavourable to art he se

Perhaps his lyricism is

possesses many of the
overdone, too
f ™
qualities of the

Lession with death, aspiration

J
~™
**"*™£^%?^
towards
—
clamatory

^ ^^
R C
*
and^thea« a fe he certainly

used as a

^^
he treated Romantic
reproach against Bocklin,

the means open to his

the Mediterranean
although
n*^*f*
themes realistically, even
,t would seem

generation to express
landscape and insight mto the
to be to ha

^.«^f^g^W-
£<**£* £
sensuahty
^ he used

of hie and to
Wedding Journey an exaltation
His favourite subjects, The
,

solemmty, exist
Dea<f, a melancholy
evocation of tragic, resigned
Sco/rAe

ttated.unrhetorical.mall the
lookine for a representation of
many 1^.^* *^^S^»e.
death which would be both
tragic an
:

Sfy the Venetian cemetery on the

Isola di San Michele
«^**J3
idea of 77* IWc of the Dead,
tock and dense/dark clumps of
poplars came to accentuate
*
but the initial image was transformed
*^nu«^to
e C

corpse o i s
^ 1
acter

vessel solemnly carrying the

|

of the scene more and more. The the idea

stateliness, admirably reflects
with a magnificent, if lugubrious,
Skeleton.
in his Self-portrait with
as also>visaged by Bocklin

The Isle of the Dead

x 122 (29x48) Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York
1880. Panel. 71
126

XLI HANS THOMA 1839-1924

of .long to, ° *'»" ™ ™*™ , itha O« cor ,„ „f olock-o>»

» F«r.w„g».

Museum-honours accorded torn

Schll Z'ZZ and direL of the Karlsruhe

by d
Ali ;Si reX^Thoma may he reproached
from acqtunng
GeUidikeit which have prevented lurn
an^ rather bougeois
does not suffer from the* fault
,hh-
"epu^rion outsl Germany, In the S«n
magical light ripples over the trees
and water, whde the
tranqud, simple beauty; a
life in the matenal of the
dress and ved, the straw
Sashes of sunlight bring out the pamter ^67.
artist and in fact, in any
o'f h^t .th'a boldiss unusual in this
close to Impresstomsm.
to tins picture, Thoma, the 'Realist', approaches very
Hans

In the Sim
110x80 (43*x i*) StaatHche KunsthaUe, Karlsruhe
1867. 3
 V FRANCE

frantic quest for

In 19th-century France, painting entered on a
thi

meaning of the age -an age which from the end of the Monarch) 'I the

Commune consisted of an unending series of upheavals. And in pui suil 1

A thi

Romantic painters called on all their feverish, sharpened em< oality, all

While 18th-century painters such a I h

love of new pictorial techniques.
the poliucal events of
Watteau and Fragonard had attached little importance to
Courhet and Xuimtcr.
Europe their Romantic counterparts, from David to
I 1

seismographs to the undercurrents disturbing both

society
with the of
sensitivity
painter was deeply rooted in his own age;
every-
and individuals. The Romantic
him an echo, sympathetic resonance. It
thing happening round him awoke in a

in isolation from*
would be entirely erroneous to consider the R...
were they strongly 'committed' artists but they derived subjects
period- not only
Napoleonic mis.
of a touching grandeur and variety from the
attention to the artistic currents of the
day than Louis XIV
If Napoleon paid less
many novel
his exploits, the nobility
of his campaigns and battles, contributed
steered artists' activities m
<",k s.
themes to the pictorial repertoire and
his Neo-Classicism to a sort of
aub
David himself toned down
Lou, > a
to portray contemporary events, and his Ozonation (.805,
history. But basically 1

magnificent illustration from contemporary

generated
historical document, but ,1, ig It
Romantic; for him it was not the swell
enough to transngu, 1 id
often strong
Which counted. This feeling is 1

more than the poets

proportions. It was the pauiters, even
to almost myth-like
it but
uyth with strange
the NapoK
its
who contributed to the formation of

'T^d^rr artists shared ,n this hero-w

jofdyj
bo can really be
them, the only 0.
man but the most remarkable of ah
"emus was Baron Gros (177,-1835).
foZrtrav battle scenes with such
Xo ^them
7 ^T
Gros' distincti .
documentary accuracy that
information as to the uniforms of
for
hut also in his evocation of
th
irit stimulating
a

the military ardour

1 J.
™ y

for "Stance, bun

J-^ff^ MM * ,„
whieb u |
.
the pathetic-
,
130
f

Jd jU »f 4. eta" ^ »h» he oocte to ~ d

&&, to di»«.

"twtifSn-. .ho ^-sfjsijcwt

tataco
k<™ hi. P»P-V.r """""ii iS : S to D.»iai.n S cho„l. Hi,

S^SSS Sffl -V » "to I— f,», —

^^
their documentation. myth-and indeed
reality into
was interested in tr njjmg
^,-J-rinw /eahty J
But most of all he

the spirit
Delacroix hit the
of the Napoleonic
nad on
^J^M^Zncc^
the head
™* wh n he
in 'raismg a
ht we]1 be
of the ideal , id P
modern subject to the stature h that

applied to Delacroix
himself.
^V^^^Xnl^
the fall of the
Empire, the return of
he
^ B ou
f
him a baron but
tion of

chroniclers, almost
anecdotists.
A^^^^SS^, viiL).^
used theEgyptian
campaign
«^^^^Wh«Gco.' pci« b
this hardly bears

filled
comparison with
with the sinister smell of
^'^j^^if^
poverty. he ch ™1 nous infccte d deathbeds,
hatone

Malma^on, entered the ranks ot the p >

^ j scene;
<
Tk shades f

2SSJ3S3 1 *. wLke dsts ofFin^l mi his DesM THEODORE PIERRE ET1ENNE ROUSSEAU
set f

decorate the ceding of Napoleon s

Wr
hieu-had
hunseun
Ingres turned Romantic in order to
^ more
^^ ^^^ fe much visionary Marshy Landscape

^"^ ™™ *^
i

room in the
f J^ masterpieces; it is at least in
Charcoal and bistre with touches
of white and green
on

r&^v^t^rLbadoi'-tvpe P.,

^
pictures such as
oiuic
the spirit
chantillv) and the 'Classical'
subjects of Francois ^ buff paper. 59- S
Muscc Fabre, MontpcllR
X 8 9 foi X
i
35)

!K£S3£KtaSSL*, c— * *» (i8i d es

inspiration and lyrical execution. VICTOR HUGO 1802-X5

for its authentically Romantic Hugo, also had a g. t tor
his account The poet and dramatist, Vietor
at a paradox, mamtained in
A hough Baudelaire, perhaps aiming inspiration, he used
v.
.,1 art. When seized by
Girodet it is not dtmcult to discern CWeAe*
ofAeiS Exhibition that in Guerin and , hb were at his disposa.-includuig
«P<c »'On rf te
sinister but intngumg symptoms
of the Ro- grounds arid soot. His drawings are a ttect
w
a f smaU germs of mfect.on, a few preddection for the macabre
ana

L
works. questing spirit,
hard to justify from any of Guerin s
restless
on
of the o.d eastles
namicsm which was to come', this is I"pen,;.utal and fascinated .ove
which varied only between cold formalism
H himself to a Neo-Classicism the Rhine.

and declamatory melodrama.

Much more interestmg than this painter, whose
2 The Mouse-Tower

1840. Pen, wash and pastel. 28x44 (" X17*)

an adcimcmterest,,^ Collections dc la Maison de
Victor Hugo, Paris
admirable The Retreatfrom Russia,
now in the museum of Rouen.
in 183 5 parted his
 <s>

*—

\
\\

L
 1

133
France

Another picture of the retreat from Russia, painted by Nicolas Toussaint Charlet
mentioned hi
(1792-1845) in 1836 (Musee des Beaux-Arts, Lyons), must be
AugusteRaffct (i 804-1 860), another apostle of Napoleonism m led

the Beranger of painting; he was the humorist, the gossip columnist of

the Napo-
and oil of
leonic legend, the painter who had shared the military hardships
the Emperor's Old Guard— not an 'officer's 1 1 1 Inter like Gros but the chronicler

of the private hagiographer of the fioretti of the Grande Armee.

soldier, the

Is it possible to associate the word

'Romanticism' with Jean Auguste Dominique

Ingres (1780-1867)? The critics of his own day and David's

fanatic supporters I

came near to doing so when in 1806 they declared his portrait of M. Riviere
would
(Louvre, Paris), to be 'extraordinary, revolutionary, Gothic'.
I

a work. In reality
hardly apply such epithets to so well-behaved, so unrcvolutionary
one thing at least-the be there was nig
Ingres was probably closer in I

superior forces of the mind -to

'animal' in colour, while line alone represented the
the Nazarenes. Nevertheless he did yield, in
very Romantic fashion, to the tempta-
Gallery, Baltimore; Metropolitan
tion of exoticism in his Odalisques (Walters Art
Museum of Art, York; Musee des Beaux-Arts, Lyons) and Turkish Bath
New
(1852-1863, Louvre, Pans) but this was merely a result of his own sen ra-

ment and had nothing in common with the scholarly researches oi the real

Manllut and
Orientalists or even of minor members of the fraternity such as
interesting; he himseli ked
Frpmentin. His taste for nature is, however,
that 'nature is style' and Amaury
Duval rightly said of him thai bi a
although this was by no
enemy of the ideal and had declared his love for nature',
means in the manner of the Barbizon School or even of
lilt. <

critics
Baudelaire, who, was more perceptive than purely Q<
as a poet,
would have astoni ihed loth
EUGENE DELACROIX see p. 176 divmed affinities between Ingres and Courbet winch
viewer the most striking quality of
Romantics and Neo-Classics; to an unbiased
'Liberty Leading the People' for Raphaelcsque, Roman form and ms
3 Study for Ingres is the contrast between his desire
obliged to
Romanticism, a Romanticism of temperame
ll

from nature for the main figure ... his interior

One of many sketches
nations
Uberty Leading a conflict between hi J art*
composition of 1830 entitled July 28, 1S30: tame and suppress. Tins involved
the People which was no less violent, and even perhaps painful,
and Ins desire for Classicism
1830. Drawing
Cabinet des Dessins, Mus«Jc du Louvre,
Paris for being suppressed.
to fling himself wholeheartedly into
Gothic
He was too attached to Antiquity ever
Romantic (in both senses of the word) themes as I

but for a time he indulged in

and Paolo Malatesta and a to R umm (1813,
instance Rinaldo Rescuing Angelica,
reproducing Dante sombre tut-
Conde, Chantilly); however, instead of
s
PAUL HUET 1803-69 Musee
Huct's bold but tumultuous temperament,
dramatic feeling
or Anosto's tragic power, he
endowed these dramatic episodes with such frigid
he had learned from the 1824
Lionello V- * ri]
»
for nature, and the lessons
formality that one sympathises with
'

in all his works,

exhibition of English painters, show clearly
u hose savoury juices are covered With
'concealed Romanticism' -a Romanticism
particularly his 'Shakespearian' landscapes.
Raphaelcsque memories. Perhaps * Wd
the cold white fat of Roman and
aesthetic juc at
4 The Beach at Villiers the same time, precision in our ;

a greater freedom and, at

opposition be. be unaware
Pencil and watercolour. 19.8 x 32.5 (7i x 12$) k£c we have long ceased to see an absolute mos frui ful
...ticism to shighest and
Romantic, and Delacroix who brought
Li
Mus6e du Louvre, Paris I

never amounted to more than a hos 1

ity
Classicalperiod. In reality this opposition

(personal as much as artistic) between the two paint* h ™*S&™™™

JULES ROBERT AUGUSTE,
poisoned by the
Lent much
activities

further than the

of their partisan pupils an,!

two men
*~
hewigged
known* I
ieur AUGUSTE 1789-1850
Delacroix' red-waistcoated supporters
who wore their own hair and the
a minor artist, tlus sculptor, painter.
Although only
was one of the
rider
o dlector and crack a
t^Th^
1

Orieni
picturesque and characteristic figures of French Romanticism
his lively imagination
and "C
in the 1830's. In addition, opunon was unprepared for its r »^.
wasexhibited in 1819, artistic
brilliant palette put him, it has been thought, on a
par
care for the objective
^ of
truth \"" Vc
details
l
(GencaultJrSSi
with De-lac although painted with enormous
attained an epic,
1

horrifying ship it
smdied everything written on this (,

Study of Arab Horses the twenty^>ne-year^ld

Ddacrcux
5
i^rnSSoJcal grandeur. After seeing it

and for other artists the work acquired

Watercolour. 20.2x25.3 (8x10) 1 honTe'in a sfate of extreme exaltation,

Maurice Pcrrct-Camot Collection. France

 and wrcc ^P
of mad scenes, executions ^ with the great Baroque
Gencault one feels,
realists, with
-f^XTad m Tb
Caravaggio or Fen. And he
had. e e en struck by Caravaggio
.

d ^ o/

„d Michelangelo) during
a
J^^^^Sd^ BaLore), one of

^^
(a
m *«»< < l8l 7. W»
Riderless

the more
Hones on
sensational
the Corse
«"^o «*
features of the Roman
othe /Mt i st had such a
love

ffS^taaK^S^ A*
Ward
Stuhhs,

and

^^.^^ J
Fuscli.
oal a ains, Valkyries and
Tames - ,. i
J
the *
The Romantics' 'magic horse',
» Gencaul work han V Lr
with
more often s
enchanted huntsmen, recurs

reVolt
his Raft of the 'Medusa'
which
'
, i
•
t ^n in t 8->o-he went with

horror, insanity and cruelty- n^d no

diabohcal insouciance but
pnmanly interested
^»^ ^ErlcunKnury value,
m them o^
^ ^
thC11
^CrSs^forX^nS^ of the human mmd

^ed SZ3S5S*. - P1 ^ J- the depths of the unconscious;

££3££tnmg but pamt and pictorial values,

colour inflamed by an interna

of a severed head beginning to

decompose (Muse* d^Art et
wT^is representation

tS head (t8l
severed he'ads y
,
Nat.onalmuseum, Stockhohn) and the
madman with military
Collection, Wmterthur) are of the
same

Kf^Si C<*
brand * rccrea ted
Pans)-reahsm raised to the level of a
(Louvre,
by imagination, everyday things endowed with a

bhndmg genius, w« one ofthe few to achieve it.

asm ndCencault, with his sombre,

;

an illuminating.description of himself
hi m
EuSne Delacroix (.798-1863) gave my personal
people mean the free display of
jJS"f by my Romanticism
 1JJ

France
servile cop.es repeated ad MU*m n i a d mes
im pre S sions, my remoteness from the
then am indeed '*»«»
my extreme distaste for academic formulae
I

of art and
those which the pur,
He
" also said that "the
Tt
finest works of art are

main contributions
,

to the concept of Romant,asm j»

th st.' Delacroix'
for picto, aiques. bis behef m
horror of hard-and-fast recipes
I
i

mdeed his
of the immedute impression. To
"Xetic Lpiration, in freedom of imagination,
for ,„,, was not
ZZ
WW
hese

li
be added his quest for musicality
on thelntrary, become pure
could,
he emotions by mcreastng the
importance
in colour (wh,ch
spirituality), his method of
stimu-

g-n<o contemporary draman

^M«0
ZL firing *>*-*£>
and the
(as in his
fact that
uJcres at Chios,
of the discoveries and art of
he made
the O. at
full use
Greece
^ u Moreover

emotio by poetry and muste; he

Z ia tfltleted, both intellectually and
for instance, and attempted
admired both Berlioz and Byron,

eS£S£3S£3w a
r
was then twenty-four -it was
receivca /
painting of a

tipsy scavenger , so in 822 Ueiacroix r

anJ
Naturally enough, Paul
Debroche
stick'.
£^*££Stf**r pefemble.
once .romcaUy called 'a prince
I^lacroixproducedaClassKalRomanocBm.pe^broclK.thoig f^^^X^*^ ^ without talent

orskill.suLdedmconvertmgRo.^^ m
Rom ntic Mov men 1
account of the .

be excluded from an
ahistorypamterofaviolentlytheatr.calnature,^
Paris),B^K>«e/I<dyJ^G^^^^^

that
•
Monsieur Delaroche pam

m
all th c dec a, u «
^^
months ot 1832 spent
and six olrhoueh he resolved
Delacroix hardly ever left
*-*£^£* S faS.
^
the flashing
several times to go there and see

were not simply

MfJ-J^^.E QU ing of
colour
his soul, his
Of his palette,
joy in letting his native
"-jfj^
mu, mg. He^ to culturcd an artist,

^^
too

*»«^
free of all

contrary his instinct led

judgment was
J
means of a rigorous
sectarianism to use his

concentration
infallible. Instinctively
"^J™* quartcr
Wm. towards gemusmwhte^qu

-^f
he

^^^S^ecrives
a X
it

h ns of the curves in
^
lay

his
and

converging
fa

LoU ™'
Death of Sardanapalus (1827, *™\^J?JuJEntry of the Crusaders

awards the centre of the most

iBto (MM. (.840.
•^*J32K*Sa
oh
Louvre Pans .th cehn
d' Apollo,, in the
p^ rf
Louvre, where he ^' °' ^^ untiring lntc is revealed as the e
ll cc tual activity.
MaumertsAandTiepolo-^Aeseb^^^^g
™ by
This is further demonstrated by
the

ed the landscape
^the«^to*£* £»
u,
, c L,
°*( (l 824 Louvre,
*
,

^^ Par.s);

Constable, he
4a, of the J.
re P .

I
retffe* * * pkmmsm
gJlJjSfi- cuUcU «he Barbizon School,
is a piece of pure
Delacroix was
towards the fa„
naturalism, of a
a man rf^^S^S
f™*™"^
—
Not content with of , sword which
-,
^ ^
t intense and
136

removed he was fro.

Though excited
the beaten track, the
by the sensuality of colour
™*°«J*^£^
extraordinarily sens.tiv
idylls

dcgr e of brilliance of /tone, the glinting

spangles of light
which frightened Ingres
on
*£*££
did not see in colour the animal voluptuousness
Delacroix and
the senses, the emotions
h m 2 -in motion a process belonging at once to
perhaps even to outdo him
for
£ mX I aUowed him to challenge the musician
Certain colour-harmonies
produce sensation
'Colours are the music of the eyes
. . .

.') Never has the

analogy between the pic ona
vWch even >c cannot rival
.
. .

tones to paraDel^the
complete as in Delacroix use of
been so

^^g"^
,

nd mus. al palette
and the cor
char^tcnsti/sonorines of the horn, the oboe
m
a marvellous concord
Without loss ot
others
vidual but combining with the
.the biowledge
one key to the next secure
laV ^ °r ^tensity he modulates from Handling
hfe and richness^
.

born of colour, from which it derives

its
that form is
he manipu-
1 and what could be called 'the light
of shade' with sovereign ease,
sunshine the quick flash of a
aL his ultra-sensitive colour to produce a streak of flesh. He makes the object
efl ction, the warm
ambers and pale ivories of living
the resultant complex
Z ts refaction reflect each
other and blend together so that
waking and dreaming^The true.ubs
an
"nty -mbles a halfway state between because
only material to be panned, probably
of objects becomes of small interest,
to him than his mental
things was of less importance
the objective existence of
reality-of objects and
that he fled before the cruel
picture' of them. He once said
in opposition, the higher
it was from them that he set up his own creation
to escape DAVID PIERRE GIOTTINO HUMBERT
DE
the right to be
reality of the work of art
winch may lean on nature but masts on SUPERVILLE, known as GIOTTINO 1770-1849
was a bridge between the mind of the was bom and
independent of it. He said, too, that panning Though of French descent. Supervise
a bridge between objective, educated in HoUand. He was one of the first to admire the
it is also, of course
painter and that of the spectator; Italian primitives, who had until then been either
unknown
painter borrows his forms, and the
new substance, standpoint was closely bound up wtth
natural reality, from which the or despised. His artistic

mind, of which communication and

communion are his religious feeling, so
that in many respects be resembled
a distillation of the soul and
the Nazarenes.

and made several admirable copies Old Man

"^Delacroix was particularly fond of Rubens 6 Angel and Devil Struggling for the Soul of an

him, particularly where the rhythm

of
from his works. He learned much from brown ink and wash. 30.2 x 25.2 (Hi X i°)
Versailles Pen,
(The Battle of Taillebourg, I 37,
large compositions was concerned Rijksmuseum. Amsterdam
Nancy, 1834, Musee des Beaux-Arts, Nancy;
The Entombment The subject may be taken from the legend of
Michael
Museum; The Battle of body.
he already knew how much Devil from carrying off Moses'
preventing the
,848, of Fuie Art, Boston), but at twenty-four
Museum
of Rubens he should keep and how
much he should discard. This is Rubens
of the Dante and Virgil m Hell in 1822.
improved,' said Baron Gros, a good judge,
Rubens, Delacroix sometimes even
With greater richness, variety and depth than
he ventures into the kingdom of night EUGENE DELACROIX
approaches Rembrandt, in particular when
in pursuit of the troubled spirits
of Medea and Hamlet. Study for Apollo's Chariot
7
Romantics', eluded by celebrity and
There were, of course, a host of 'minor large allegorical
Romanticism into their lives rather This drawing was a sketch for Delacroix'
genius possibly because they put their
alike, painted in 1851
composition in the Galerie d'ApoUon,
Of these the onefollowed most closely in Delacroix foot-
who X 44 (10 J X 17*)
than their works. Black chalk. 27.2
Pans
steps was the strange man known as Monsieur Auguste. The son of a rich jeweller, Cabinet des Dcssins, Musee du Louvre,

horse-lover and connoisseur of 18th-century painting (rare an age m

a sculptor
detested all things Rococo), Jules
which, reacting against the previous century,
mysterious. Few finished paintings by
Robert Auguste (c. 1789-1850) remains rather
strange genius. Like Decamps PIERRE PAUL PRUD'HON 1758-1823
him are known but his designs and studies seethe with a transition between
the
media, with rich and seductive paints, Prud'hon's career coincided with the
he was constantly experimenting with new philosophical 18th century and the Romantic l 9 th. His choi
important to him than the studio. To hiin
and the laboratory was almost more of subjects and way of treating then reveal
the complexity

Gcricault,-who made him give up sculpture receptive nature, both sensual

and dreamy.
goes the honour of havmg discovered of a sensitive,

to the spread of Orientalism by his genero-

for painting,-and of having contributed and Divine Vengeance Pursuing
Crime
8 Justice
lending friends the magnificent costumes he
had brought back from his visits
sity in
Louvre commissioned
Study for the large painting in the
to Africa. «.,,,. . ,
had been
, , ,
in the previous in 1804 by the Prefect of the
Seine
fashion
Orientalism was not the transient, superficial
it
bluish paper.
Black chalk heightened with white on
demands made of Asia had been for picturesque knick-
century, when the chief 40x50.5 (15JX19X)

oddities to out chinoiscrie decors a la Boucher. In the 19th Musee du Louvre, Paris
knacks, amusing fill
 19
17
 141
France

THEODORE GERICAULT sec p. 170

ANTOINE LOUIS BARYE 1796-1*75

15 Tlie Retreat from Russia, or the Wounded Cuirassier

y Lion and Snake

Pen over pencil. 19.1 X 145 (7i*5i)

Watercolour. 30x48 (uixao) c. 1813.
Ecolc des Beaux-Arts, Paris
Musee Fabrc, Montpcllicr

JEAN-FRANCOIS MILLET 1814-75

himself to evoking the
With deep tenderness Millet devoted
toil of wood
sad grandeur of the winter landscape, the hard
of everyday tasks. His respect FRANCOIS MARIUS GRANET 1775-1849
and 6dd, the private poetry
Although bom in Provence. Granct spent most of his lift
often gives his pictures in
and love for peasants at work
to express the In Rome he met Ingres, who
main concern painted his portrait.
sociological overtones, but his
is

ucr nobility of humble people,

without brilliance
His chief delight was Italy, which he saw through a

Romantic haze, with its picturesque monks, churches and

or even great happiness.
watcrcolourist mark
gardens. His sensitivity and talent as a
'minor painter' he is
10 The Wild Geese him out as something more than the

often considered to be.

Charcoal
Louvre, Pans
Cabinet des Dessins, Musee du 16 Louis Philippe Visiting the Galleries of the
Louvre at h

Pen and wash. 32x31 (i2$xi2i)

ADRIEN DAUZATS 1804-68 Musee du Louvre, Paris

Dauzats worked with Delacroix

who appointed him executor
travels in Spain, Portugal, Egypt and Asia.
of his will. His
provided him with material for an enormous number
Minor
prized by the
fidelity to local colour, so
of paintings, whose
perhaps their chief merit. With his brilliant
Romantics, is

and charm. Dauzats is one of the

JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE INGRES
use of colour, luminosity sec p. 158
Romanoc School.
more remarkable members of the French
17 Study for The Dream ofOssian
II Orleans Cathedral

1866. Black and white chalk

and wash. 25.6x20.3 (10x8)
1832. Watercolour. 38.5x27.5
(isixioj) Montauban
Music Ingres,
Musde du Petit Palais, Paris

LOUIS BOULANGER 1808-67

whose plays he designed the
A friend of Victor Hugo, for

many of whose books he illustrated,

first decors and
atmosphere; ALFRED JOHANNOT 1800-37
Boulanger most at home in a supernatural was a
felt
Like lus brother Tony (1803-52). Alfred johannot
a certain affinity between
him and
in tins respect, there is
particularly d.M.nguishcd
for his
certain extent the influence well known illustrator,
Goya. His work also reveals to a of
and -cathedral frontispieces', characteristic
nettes'
of Delacroix, another friend of his.
He became famous principally for his
Romantic taste.
of Byron. Cowper and Scott.
illustrations to translations
12 Sire de Gyac

18 Esmeralda Abducted by Quasimodo

Watercolour.
Collections de la Maison de Victor Hugo, Pans Notre Dame
Drawing for Victor Hugo's
white chalk.
Charcoal heightened with
17x13 (6jx5i)
GUSTAVE DORE Collections de la Maison de Victor Hugo, Pans

a Cemetery
13 The Wandering Jew Crossing

Lithograph
Nationale, Pans
Cabinet des Estampes. Bibliotheque

GUSTAVE DORE 1832-83

imagination, powerful vision
and
With his inexhaustible
CHARLES MERYON 1821-68
fantastic temperament, his talent as a draughtsman and his

Mcryon had ample opportunities for

techniques and means
oppression.Do*
As B naval officer quest after new
ranging the world, but at twenty-seven
he devoted himscli members of the French Romantic
I one of the most eminent
engraving, for which he showed won him immense
to art, and principally to movement. His book illustrations

life was shortened

by want,
great talent. Unfortunately his
popularity.
tending towards
sickness and the strain of an imagination
the gloomy and fantastic I lis best etchings ™»B le a
The Witches Sabbath or the Witches from 'Macbeth'
19
landscape with
documentary treatment of the Parisian
creatures. pictures,
startling evocations of monsters
and fabulous
taken, as in so many Romantic
The subject is

from Shakespeare
Indian ink
Unfinished. Pen and wash
in
14 The Ghoul
x 58 (30* x 22J)
with some body colour. 78
X x Strasbourg
1853. Etching. 16.5 13 (6i 5?) Musee des Beaux-Arts.
Grosjean-Maupin Collection, France
 j\.vmarmc /in

142

*^
^^*%£££%£
century the influence of
Morocco Algeria
the spirit o£th
to forms

"^^^^
and colours; it transformed

acst^Kjttw ssu'— -d
for psychological as weU as aesthetic
£
t0 I
! extent ,
'different'

-son ru ed by he
instincts allowed free reign, Je
3th wondrous advantages:

infinity and offering no petty

African life and Africa's wide spaces stretchmg to

the
t^^S^t SSE-
nT-GoL fashion) was an
,

how much Onentahsm

essentially psychological,
'interior* Orient,
rather than aes het c
comparable w lt
(hke

h an
nhenomenon Decamps created his own
nnag~otld.
for
One" short visit to

L enormous crop of Orientalist pictures;

keptfreshby y ahuge
stock of costumes and
Smyrna proved him with enough
his memories

accessories, produced a weal

h of peWr-
matenal
of things «^ m
the Orient
they were painted from nature,
Ze episo des which look as though
of a work as fine as his Defeat of
the
nem is so vivid and alive. Though capable products of French
cl 1833, Louvre, Paris),
one of the most moving
anecdotal pictures ofa
generally satisfied with amusing
Romntcism Decamps P was
which still fiUed his J-ms and bs art.
Turkeywlnchhehadonly once ghmpsed but history
marks him out as one of the finest
Nevertheless The Defeat of the Cimbri
Paul Delaroche (1797-1856 .Franco*
nam
£5
!
£
of an age which blindly considered
M7-X865), Ary'scheffer ( I795 -x8,8) and Eugene
Devena(i8o 5 -

^jrS^tS'c^^
indicates that Sigalon (1787^,837). might also
Musee des Beaux-Arts, Nantes)
have become one o fRoman tic.m s

history painters, if throughout

1*,bfeh» ambitions had notbeen
most successful
fortune In the Salon of
frustrated and his efforts stultified by poverty and _

unparaUeled success and Delaroche s Death

ofEhza-
,827 where his picture had an
genius, Delacroix Death of
Sardanapalus passed com-
fc/k was hailed as a work of
revealed the dazzhng
a powerfully original picture
pletely unnoticed. But Mazeppa,
painter, Louis Boulanger (1806-1867).
ttlent of a twenty-one-year-old
of the rebel's hfe-the scene where
He had not selected the most dramatic episode
stallion who gallops off with him
across the forests
he is tied on to the back of a fiery
For Gericault the horse was much more
im-
of the steppes, painted by Gericault.
horse, with its roots in ancient Germanic
my-
portant than the rider; indeed, the
static phase of
thology, was the Romantic animal par excellence. Boulanger took a
moment when the rebel is tied to his horse
the Mazeppa story for his picture-the
hate-filled enemies. Mazeppa (c. 1827,
Rouen Mu-
before the eyes of his implacable,
cramped and confined, ready to explode. It shows
seum) is full of sustained violence,
equivalent
a Boulanger quite unlike the
wild breathless Romantic-a sort of artistic
ofPetrusBorehNapolorAloysiusBertrand-oftheHc// Hunt (1835) or the W.tches
Ml828),thefamouslithographwliichharmomzedperfectlywiththe
S.6i» a (f1 m a C/1H rC
,
Gothick'novelsEnglandhadbroughtintofashion,ortheSc f » C ofmiO (i866,Musee
W
 143
France

des Beaux-Arts, Dijon) inspired by his friend VictorHugo. He remained a constant

favourite with the writers, probably because there was always some literary refer-
Ciceri,
ence in his works; he was, however, equally influenced by the stage-designer
who had divined instinctively how to present such Romantic dramas and operas as
Hernani and Robert k Diable. Something of Ciceri's style fdtcrs not only into con-
such
temporary history painters and genre painters but even certain landscapists,
as Huet who, perhaps unconsciously, took over the spirit of
the famous designer's

backcloths.
Theodore Chasseriau (1819-1856) is a good example of the multiplicity of ways
a position diametrically
in which Romanticism could be interpreted. Occupying
almost to merit
opposed to that of Boulanger, Gericault and Delacroix he seems
must have experienced unusual difficulties (and
the epithet Classical. Indeed he
Classicism; seeing a
deserved proportionate merit) in throwing off the shackles of
that he would be 'the
sketch made by him at the age of twelve, Ingres declared
he had
Napoleon of In fact he ceased to be a disciple of Ingres once
painting'.
became fully associated with any other school.
attained his majority, but he never
Throughout his short life-he died at thirty-seven -he remained
isolated, a solitary

figure. Moreover, his most important work,

the great decorations for the Cour des
fated to be destroyed by
Comptes, Paris (executed between 1844 and 1848) were
fire during the troubles of the
Commune; the few vestiges which were saved were
it is impossible to know
the real
badly damaged by flood in 1909 so that today
Chasseriau at his best. His Sleeping Bather (1850,
Musec Calvet, Avignon), Tepidanum
and Toilet of Esther (1842). all in the Louvre,
(1853), Venus Anadyomene (1839)
monument positions must have been. 1 hese can only
give no idea of what his
with great
be deduced from his drawings and designs and a few fragments saved
suffused by the Hel-
difficulty. Chasseriau was a Creole (born in St Domingo)
Chavannes and Gustave
lenism which contmued from Thomas Couture to Puvis de

even definitive, the influence and consequences of Constable's

However great,
landscape-painting
Paris in .824, French Romantic
pictures exhibited in the Salon at
origins go back as far as Watteau Frago-
did not begin with the tpth century;
its
established, how-
nard, Moreau the Younger,
perhaps even Hubert Robert Once
nature but
not only ways of seeing and recognizing
ever the new attitude affected
universe and his
individual's position within the
the whole conception of the
had
relation to objects and elements.
Even with Watteau and Fragonard landscape
mere decoration; it had become a mood
a state of
ceased to be objective fact or
^holy, d.quiet or
in the same way as
poetry and music. But while

S
bemg
nostalgia were invading nature,

£ta of emotions and feeling.

desire for realism
artists also

that conscientious objectivity

A
became
became more

mystique of landscape'
and breathed into it a new spirit.
More
interested in truth cxact,-

associated with an intense subject,

-k pje^.on °
truthful, m the lit era

Watteau and Fragonard. painting what they

A as I

sen e of the word, than

Tuch , what the saw, giving sight

the stature of vision *£»£»»£
facts They abandoned
efforts to remain very close to
the 10th centurv made great
previous ideas to
mdio u "rder to pamt from nature, threw off the bonds of
n
aesthetic, an increasingly
supple and rich technique
dev^e and laborate a^icw
144

and Paul Huet (1803-1869), had found

precedents for

nature in Dutch painters such as Everdingen,

Ruisdael, Seghers and, most
spontaneous, primordial lyricism
importantt
was also
a
^^^^J
of all, Rembrandt. Their instinctive, the 19th
they lived; in the first half of
stimulated by the poets among whom
of influence between poets and
painters m
century there were frequent exchanges
Shakespeare,
were, of course, great readers of
the artistic coteries of the day. They
re-create
Macbeth and King Lear and eager to
steeped in the tragic splendours of
disposal
the country they had at their
them far from Scotland or Cornwall, out of
tragic grandeur There is^some-
when the play of light, storms, or clouds gave it a exhibited
Setting behind an Old Abbey (183 i).
thing veryShakespearian in Huet's Sun
under Snow.
is in Friedrich's Ruins ofEldena
in the Salon in 1831, just as there
predilection for places in harmony
By their choice of scenes they show their
feelings -desolate
with own temperament and acting as a stimulus to their
their
storms, thunder clouds dark forests
and
marshes, deserted shores, seas tossed by
naked rocks. Theodore Rousseau (1812-1867)
summed up the ideal shared by the
first landscapists in the following
uncompromising way: 'Our art can achieve pathos
a question of a pathos furnished by
the
only through sincerity.' It was no longer
background, but of an elemental pathos,
figures to which the landscape served as a
that is, a pathos created by contemplation
of the elements and smcere that it was m
involuntary and immediate— pathetic fallacy, in fact.

so incomprehensible to the critics of

the day that
The whole outlook was
Mesdag Museum, The Hague) was
Rousseau's Descent of Cattle from Pasture (1835,
Hell'. Rousseau s sober
nicknamed by an inane wit 'Descent of Cattle into
painted
grandeur and pathos owed much to the fact that, as the years passed, he

without polishing his sketches in the studio. He had a

more and more from life,

great gift for pinning down a place or moment, strongly individualizing it and
with the emotional force at his command, as for instance in his Gorges
charging it all
DENIS AUGUSTE MARIE RAFFET 1804-60

ofAspremont Noon fond of the forest of Fontainebleau with

(1857)- Particularly Napoleonic cult,
at Raffet was an eloquent supporter of the

its variety of wild beauty,

Rousseau settled in the village of Barbizon where having worshipped at the Emperoi ever since his
Charlct and Gros. From
Consequently this group of Romantic earliest years, when studying with
several of his friends came to join him. exclusively to lithography,
1831 he devoted himself almost
landscapists, including Charles Daubigny (1817-1878),
Jules Dupre (1811-1889) Senefelder'sinvention, which had become the most
known popular method of reproduction in the Romantic
era.
Pena (1807-1876), came to be as the Barbizon School.
and Diaz de la

However, the influence of the English landscape-painters must not be under-

20 La Revue Nocturne 1834
Salon in 1824, had touched off
estimated. Constable's pictures, exhibited in the
friendship with several French painters This drawing, which may have served as a sketch for the
a real aesthetic revolution and Bonington's de
on the same subject now in the Chateau
large picture
had created a between English and French art. Rousseau was,
number of links
Compiegne, illustrates the famous ballad by Sedhtz
finest genius' of the whole group, but
in Focillon's words, 'the noblest spirit and Lithograph
long before the term was Cabinet des Estampes, Bibliothcquc Nation
several of the others attained to a sort of Impressionism
ever coined, an original, highly personal way of feeling
and representing nature,
exchanges
not with cold scholarly objectivity, but with a wealth of rich and fertile
taking place, during the very act of artistic creation, between the thing seen, the ANNE-LOUIS GERODET DE ROUCY-TRIOSON
see p. 168
artist's mind and the thing created. All this is to be found in Daubigny's pictures,

bathed in a silvery, transparent light where every drop of humidity glistens and
21 The Funeral of Atala
scintillates, in the vast skies of Dupre, who recaptured the spirit of Constable and
painted in 1808, now
Sketch for the picture of the same title

the early Turner in his Around Southampton (1835), in the

warm, brilliant impasto wcre
in the Louvre. Innumerable pictures by
of Auguste Ravier (18 14-1895) and the simultaneously dazzling and mellow greens inspiredby Chateaubriand's Romantic novel Atala
1808. Black chalk heightened with white on
brown paper
of Antoine Chintreuil (18 16-1873).
24.8x40 (9ixi5i)
Even when Gustave Courbet (1819-1877) imagined that he was being eminently Mus6e du Louvre, Paris
realistic and showing objects exactly as they are,
without any idealization, in fact

he was dominated by a typically Romantic subjectivity. His presence is perfectly

visible in his smallest sketch, even when it is merely an objective representation of

HONORS DAUMIER see p. 182

a rocky cliff overlooking a river, or a leaf-shaded pond where deer are drinking.
The picture is only as it is because he sees it in that way; he alone was able to express 22 Don Quixote and Sancho Panza

this 'received experience'of nature in a state of intimate communion winch has

1865. Oil on canvas. 100 x 81 (39$ x 32)
nothing forced or 'literary' but is merely an effusion of the sensibility, a total Couxtauld Institute of Art, London
France 147

apprehension of the object by the individual who for the moment is one with the
object itself.

The subject and idea behind Courbet's big compositions like A Burial at Ornans

(1850, Louvre, Paris) and The Painter's and the

Studio (1855, Louvre, Paris),

social protest activatingThe Stone-Breakers (1850, Gemaldcgalcrie, Dresden) make

them difficult to discuss at the present day. But the landscapes themselves, having
no such overtones, live with that deep and secret life of things which seem to blossom
more of man, unless of course man is, like Courbet, an
freely in the absence
element of nature, vibrating in sympathy with animals, rocks, trees and water. His
only aim is truth in its deepest sense, the total truth obtained when the object is

perceived by all the senses. (Courbet's tactile and olfactory faculties were particu-
larly acute.) At the same time it is transmitted through a splendidly developed
sensibility, a heart sharing fully in the mysterious essence of nature above and
beyond its forms and appearances. And so Courbet's 'socialism' takes on a much
deeper meaning and, going beyond a concern with the human condition, becomes
communication on a cosmic scale.
Few of his contemporaries could have understood the message of this artist who,
in his Dame de Francfort (1858, Kunsthaus, Ziirich), expressed Romantic melancholy as

nobody had ever done before him. In tins picture the nostalgic sadness of the land-
scape harmonizes exactly with the wistful, sickly face of the wo ind her
despairing expression reflects the death-struggles of the setting sun. Yet, as always,
there were insensitive reactionaries to reproach him with being a mere 'crafts-

man', 'realistic out of sheer ignorance' or to declare that he was 'making fun
himself, others and his Germans understood him better and, after the exhi-
art'; the
bition of 1856 in Munich, recognised in him the master of a Romantic realism
which was to enrich, later on, the realism of Hayden, Triibncr and Lcibl.
The same Romantic realism, perhaps here even social realism, dominates the

work of Jean Francois Millet (18 14-1875), who worshipped at the twin shrines of

nature and Poussin. With deep humility he devoted himself to portraying the life

of the fields and the woods, aiming always to raise them to a style comparable
with that of the painter of The Funeral ofPhocion. Even if the sentimentality of the
over-famed Angelus (1 857-1 859, Louvre, Paris) now alienates us, there can be no doubt
that he has no rival in the way in which he makes us smell the log-fire at the verge

of the forest in the dim autumn twilight, the damp paths, die sodden wood, the
unconscious, unstressed poetry of things in their humble, everyday reality. Never-
theless the secret of his immense power is that he is really depicting what lies behind
tins visible truth, its hidden interior, its innermost, passionate, pure vibrations.
This is equally true of Honord Daumier (1808-1879)— not Da the satirist,

whose wit lashed out at foolishness, baseness and narrow-mindedness, the genius
of the Charivari and Caricature, but the Daumier who painted The Washerwoman,
and Don Quixote (1865, Courtauld Institute of Art, London)
(1861, Louvre, Paris)
riding alone through the plains and gullies of La Mancha. Few figures are as essen-
tially Romantic as Don Quixote and it is not surprising that he so often
inspired

THEODORE GliRICAULT Daumier, with his bitter contempt for human mediocrity, his pessimism verging

on melancholia, misanthropy counterbalanced by loving contemplation of the

his
23 The Murder ofFualdes
mysterious life of inanimate objects. Banville said of him, with justice, that 'he
22.5x29(8^x11!)
Sepia. was the first to jerk nature and material objects out of their indifference and oblige
them to play their part in the Comedy of Man, making trees join in ridicule of
Muscc Wicar, Lille

their owner or the bronzes on a family table creak with an ironic rage.' This
turning of things against man, which Grandville pushed to the point of exasperated
Despite the
delirium, remains always within the bounds of reality with Daumier.
HONORS DAUMLER variety of tone in his reddish-brown and gold colouring, which,
though almost
strangely
24 Rue Transnonain on April 15, 1834
monochrome, permits him to express all the nuances of the pathetic, he is
his
indifferent to of colours to heighten the emotional content in
the use
Lithograph. 29x44 (nix 17$)
pictures. Only Daumier, apart from Rembrandt whom he almost equals in
Antoine de Halasz Collection, France
 romantic Art

148

mortal clay and how much

the -at to *««££ l

kture by
At the Ny Carlsberg
Glyptothek in Copenhagen
«*« J .
a curious
J^, ^
space, probably dates
from l85 5, ten years
before
^ ^ J^ of

whether Corot was in fact a ^~ J^j£Xig^n*

T
in their excess
not, as do the French
landscapes
^J*^*™*' fi

^^ptrtST in Romantic pammig, as mature,

^ ^SOT^tt^i
S^SSiS £a OpM talented painter whose
oTCi: sthespetl;
h
phantom-
has sometlnng in common with
Wagner s
mTs"asbourg Museum
Hamburg). A true vismn-
the 'Hope (l8zi, KunsthaUe,
^psor Friedrich's Wreck of
his great skill as a
and engraver serve his mexhausnble
painter
a^Dore made
Bresdin itaj-iM,) whose
imlion. Anothef such visionary was Rodolphe
3£ evoke nightmare scenes set in luxunant
the depths of despair and
landscapes. He knew only too

was dominated by a sinister feeling which

well
as in the 16th-
mto
centnr^ Swiss engravers, led
hnn to transform the branches of dead trees
spectral figures and portray
demon faces peering out from the folds in the bark.
Charles Meryon (1821-1868),
who died insane at the age of forty-six, was a
gymnastics made possible by etching. By means
ot
virtuoso in the black-white
shade he was able to express the mysterious
vigorous accentuation of light and
buildings, which he depicted with the care
and
presences haunting Paris' older
architect-dragons flying round the spires of Notre
Dame, spectres
exactitude of an
with Bresdin and Meryon mention must be
creeping along walls. In connection
of the extraordinary and abnormal who
made of Grandville (1803-1847), a master
Ingenious in his mventions of
may well be called an ancestor of the Surrealists.
deformity, he metamorphoses men into
monsters with every kind of disquieting
his fierce, demonic depiction of the most
animals and vice versa and brings to
imagination of a Hieronymus Bosch.
innocent objects the morbid, tainted
engravers revived all the past techniques, restored wood-
The Romantic
cuts to favour and explored the possibilities of lithography, recently invented
beginning of the century but the
by Senefelder. It had been known since the
book-illustrations enlarged its sphere of
outcrop of new newspapers, reviews and
considerably. The Romantic age produced a number of
talented illustrators
action
frontispieces' of Celestin Nanteuil are among
in every country and the 'cathedral
expressions of the spirit of the age. Edouard
the most interesting and characteristic
May, Camille Rogier, Jean Gigoux, the two Johannot brothers, Tony and Alfred,
Achille and Eugene Deverin and, at a later date, Bertall, probably give a more
complete and accurate idea of Romanticism than the painters —because, in engraving,
all peculiarities are underlined
and exaggerated. And finally, few painters conveyed
the fantastic atmosphere of the Rhine castles
dear to Romantic imaginations with

such gusto as Victor Hugo who, in his moments of inspiration, drew with whatever
France
»«

came to hand: with a cigar dipped in coffee dregs or ash he could create diabolical
figures, medieval towns bathed in moonlight and dream landscapes plunged in

the deepest, most Romantic, gloom.

150

XLII THEODORE CHASS^RIAU 1815-56

Chasseriau was led to become a Romantic by his admiration of Delacroix and a

visit to Algeria, to which he was invited by the Caliph of Constantine in 1846. If
he had not died at the early age of forty he would undoubtedly have developed a

very personal idiom of his own, less of Courbet and Delacroix,

pathetic than that
nearer to reality, more subtle in feeling and ideas. The tragic fate of Mazeppa
inspired a number of Romantic pictures, but for Chasseriau it may well have had an
added attraction, the fatal ride being almost a symbol of his own dramatically
shortened life.

Cossack Girl Finding the Body ofMazeppa

1851. 55.5 x 37 (22 x 14*) Mus^e des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg
~f
-/

agggggegaam
152

XLIII JEAN DfiSIRls GUSTAVE COURBET 1819-77

From childhood years spent in Franche-Comte Courbet retained memories of

his

a landscape filled with a wild intensity and mysterious solemnity, in which the
animals appeared like nature-gods or wood-sprites. His pictures almost smell of
dead leaves, damp stones, warm fur, appealing to other senses besides that of sight.
He is too aware of the 'spirit' of objects to embrace purj, superficial naturalism.
The figures in The Painter's Studio have an extraordinary feeling of 'presence', which

almost makes them resemble the characters in dreams or hallucinations. Whether

or not Courbet ever met them in reality, they still posses this 'super-real' quality.

The picturewas refused by the Salon of 1855, because the jury found it 'incompre-
hensible', but Courbet showed it in a hut which he set up in the grounds of the
Universal Exhibition. Painted at Ornans between November 1854 and March 1855,
it was called 'a Real Allegory summarizing a seven-year Phase of my Life' by the

artist. 'The picture is divided into two parts,' he wrote to Champfleury. 'I am in the

middle painting; on the right are the shareholders, that is my friends, fellow-

workers and art-lovers. On the left, the other side of life —the proletariat, poverty,
penury, capitalism, exploitation, the men who live on death'. In 1897 the picture

was bought by Victor Desfosses who adapted it into a curtain for his private theatre.
It is a strange, complex work in which Courbet tries to show the figures, both real

and symbolical, who had made up part of his own life as allegories of human
destiny; it is, as it were, a manifesto of his aesthetic and social ideals. Certain details
have great naturalistic beauty —for example, the naked model by the easel —but the
whole is inspired by a truly Romantic feeling, expressing the tragedy of the
everyday world, although it is not merely the 'slice of beloved of the
Life'

systematic Realists, for the whole composition is dominated by a tragic conception

of human destiny.

Detail from The Painter's Studio

1855- 359 x 596 (1411x234$) Musee du Louvre, Paris

154

XLIV JEAN DESIRE GUSTAVE COURBET

a 'man
a peaceful nature-lover,
Courbet presents the animal with the approach of In
inhabitants of his native region.
of the soil' who has made friends with all the
the Jura
the stag-f.ghts in the forests of
other pictures he shows the wild grandeur of
total solitude of the waterholes
where Uiey
in the rutting season and the almost
night. The deep resonance of the greens,
browns and greys used in these
drink at
pictures gives them solidity together with a certain grace.

The Roebuck in the Forest

1867. 94X 131 (37 x 5i|) Musee du Louvre, Paris

 <

' t I .
•

if

•*

'
156

XLV JEAN BAPTISTE CAMILLE COROT

1796-1875

generally thought in the

Corofs Romanticism not principally revealed as is
is

with their nymphs and dancmg

shepherd bum
nnsty landscapes of hi, later years,
female portraits, his studies of women
who eem to have
his pensive dreaming
oppressive
he himself was unaware of the
dhec ed "heir gaze inward. Probably
wkch paralyzes
kL weighing down these gracious heads, the secret emotion
nosta g
moment
Im tums fhenfto stone for a moment, and gives that
thinking before an easel his
one h* ~^ffi
Some of these figures hold guitars, others sit

letter which she has stopped

readmg. In every case the beauty
let fall on to her lap the
with the
of the flesh provide a striking contrast
of the painting and the warm hues to be
towards which each woman seems
withdrawn quality of the inner spirit
The serenity, with which the young woman m
The Letter readmg »
is
turning.
heightened by the strong, but delicate
and sober, background m which she is set^
distract the eye from what is essential to what is mere accessory
There is nothing to
emanating from the work. The
colour-harmony
or to weaken the immense power that
tones peculiar to Corot so
made up of a discrete mixture of grey and brown
stands out wUh
is
it is the smallest detail,
anything brighter or more lively, even if
same atmosphere as his landscapes
tremendous effect. His figure-studies have the
homely yet silent, suffused with a feeling of modest simplicity and intimacy.

The Letter

54X 38 (21J x 15) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

158

XLVI JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE INGRES 1780-1867

Ingres would have been annoyedhave been called a Romantic, but his Classicism
to
of his tempera-
was always an arbitrarily adopted manner rather than the product
ment. Nevertheless his vigour brings him very close to the
avowed Romantics
manner with
whose excesses he condemned. He even entered into the 'troubadour'
Ossian at Napoleon's
Paolo and Francesca and paid homage to the Romantic idol
request. At twenty-seven, when he painted this portrait of
Granet, a painter friend

of his, Ingres laid stress, rather strikingly on the sympathy between the Roman
landscape behind the sitter and the interior landscape expressed in his eyes. The

formal perfection of the work is only a means of revealing with

modesty and
discretion, its tender, moving nostalgia. The tactile sensitivity
with which he
Various objects— the leather of the book, the material
of
indicates the texture of the
reality but to add
the cloak, etc.—is not intended primarily to create an illusion of
besides sight.
depth to the allure of colour and subject by appealing to other senses
sitter
It is interesting that the landscape of the Trinita dei Monti behind the is

painted in a style very like that of Granet himself who, unlike Ingres,
was princi-
Granet paint
pally a landscape artist; this has given rise to the theory that Ingres let
in his own background. Whether or not this is the case, Ingres produced
few other
works so beautiful and satisfying.

Portrait of Granet

1807. 73 x6i (28^x24) Musee Granet, Aix-en-Provence

160

XLVII CHARLES FRANQOIS DAUBIGNY 1817-78

of French Romanticism at a time when the

Daubigny entered on to the scene
giving place to a more simple
almost idealized conception of landscape was
lyrical,

approach, and direct communion with nature.

The dramatic landscape painted in the
version, often painted from nature
The
studio was giving way to a more objective
after studying with Delaroche
and
whole transition can be seen in Daubigny who,
first and the Italianism of the
second, in
Granet, rejected the academicism of the
Barbizon School and perfected by the
favour of the 'return to nature' begun by the
were familiar places,
Impressionists. Sincere and sensitive, his favourite subjects
of Evening suggests that it was
woods, ponds reflecting the setting sun. The colour
'first rapture*, or at least
completed
painted from nature, with all the intensity of the
in the studio when the forms and colours
were still fresh in the painter s mind. 1 he
suggests the weight and depth
01
impasto is thick and warm, with a density which
earth.
the things shown, the actual consistency of
the wet grass, the heaviness of the
remained one of the richest
This 'poetry of reality', in which Daubigny excelled,
successors, the Impressionists.
sources of beauty for the Barbizon painters and their

Evening

58 x 93 (22J x 36i) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

162

XLVIII THEODORE PIERRE ETIENNE ROUSSEAU 1812-67

unknown little village of

settled in the
When Rousseau at the age of twenty-four m the
Barbizon in the forest of Fontainebleau, he unwittingly opened a new chapter
desire
were indeed revolutionary, for in his
history of painting. His new methods
modifications
to preserve the closest contact
with nature and to avoid the subjective
easel out of °°°rs-an unheard-of
which are inevitable in the studio, he set up his
attitude towards nature typical of
Romanticism
act of temerity. To the 'pathetic'
aspects.
humblest as well as its most impressive
he added a desire to penetrate to its -
the various regions of France
He had already made a study of the peculiarities of
Auvergne, the Landes, Normandy, etc.
The rough reception accorded to bis
art
Descent of Cattle by the Salon in 1835
showed how much his rigorous energetic
he
For fourteen years after this failure
was out of tune with contemporary taste.
Salons, and
lived in obscurity, which enabled him to mature, untroubled by
a
Academies, in almost total solitude. He himself summed up his essential virtues as
the theatrical qualities often
present in
painter in a phrase which condemns
Romanticism: 'Our art can reach true pathos only through sincerity'.

Sunset at Arbonne

64 x 99 (25* x 39) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

*
>*•

'-<

•
164

XLIX ANTOINEJEAN GROS 1771-1835

Italian
In this picture showing one of the
young Napoleon's exploits during the
hero*
campaign, Gros presents us with a 'portrait
of a hero rather than a great
,

He had met Napoleon m

epic' as in The Field of Battle at Eylau, for instance.
of the Areola episode,
Milan in 1796 and at Josephine's request began a study
ms
up the flag a dying soldier had dropped and spurred on
when the general picked
covered by the enemy artillery.
regiment to attack the bridge which was well
snor
long sittings, and even
Napoleon was too busy and impatient to give Gros
picture, 1
restrain him forcibly. This
snatches bored him so that Josephine had to
tn
definitive conversion from
of youthful ardour and dynamism, marks Gros'
form stiU echoes
Davidian Classical ideal to Romanticism, at least in spirit; in it

the sketches made in

Mia
Davidian precepts. It was finished at Versailles from
is very
contrary its documentation
and, without being an idealized portrait-on the
exact—it has a fascinating 'super-reality'.

Napoleon Crossing the Bridge at Areola

1796. 72 x 59 (28} x 23i) Musee du Louvre, Paris

166

L ANTOINE JEAN GROS

Gros was commanded by 'the master', after he had been
One of David's pupils,
which was to develop truly 'Classical
exiled to Brussels, to take charge of his school
However, he himself turned from themes taken from
Classical subjects to
painters.
epic stature in the choice of his
the Revolution or the Imperial wars. He reaches
subjects and the force of his treatment of dramatic scenes.
The fidelity of his realistic
detail, the care he takes to produce a composition
which is both 'modern' and
traditional, and which would go to make up local
to assemble all the elements

colour, ensure that his pictures are reliable historical

documents. Although he
was restored
almost 'deified' Napoleon in his pictures, it was not until the monarchy
later years and die
that he was created a baron. However his lack of success in his
onset of a mental illness, which he feared would be fatal, drove him
to suicide.
deep,
Although less dramatic than his large compositions his portraits establish a
secret relationship between the sitter and the background against which he is set.

Portrait of Christina Boyer

1800. 214 x 134 (84i x 52$) Musee du Louvre, Paris

168

LI ANNE-LOUIS GIRODET de ROUCY,

known as GIRODET de ROUCY-TRIOSON 1767-1824

David and Gros and much influenced by the Italians during a stay in
A pupil of
Rome, Girodet remained filled with theof the 18th century; his Romanticism
spirit
of the century up to
resembles that of the Jin de siecle rather than the beginning
1830. He has been compared with Correggio
and Prud'hon, but in fact his imagi-
time. He
nation was fired by Celtic legends and Ossian, so popular in France at the
painted several fine portraits, religious pictures and
mythological scenes. The

subject of his most popular picture, The Funeral

oj Atala, is taken from

Chateaubriand's intensely Romantic novel about the NewWorld, with its wide
open spaces and noble savages'. Reflecting the sentimentality of a whole era, it was
of Louis
exhibited in the Salon of 1808 and belonged to the private collection
XVIII. A replica painted in 181 3 is in the museum at Amiens. The work lacks all

local colour; perhaps Girodet should have accompanied

Chateaubriand to the land
theories on
of the Natchez. His Atala and Red Indians seem to belong to Rousseau's
the basic goodness of man, but the picture has a calm, modest beauty having more
America,
in common with the elegiac sentimentality of the day than with the real
as later revealed by Catlin to the great delight of Baudelaire, among others.

The Funeral of Atala

1808. 210 x 267 (82$ x 105 f) Musee du Louvre, Paris
170

LII THEODORE G^RICAULT 1791-1824

many of the French Romantic painters, Gericault was a product of David's

Like so
studio and although he studied for a time with Guerin,
he learned the basic
Unlike Delacroix,
principles of his art and his rich technique from the old masters.
who refused to visit Italy, he made several visits to Rome and Florence, familiarizing
whose works he had already
himself with Michelangelo and Raphael (some of
was a mixture
copied in the Louvre), Titian, Rubens and Rembrandt. His character
of numerous opposites: a brilliant horseman, to whom life was full
of excitement,
of melancholy and often took as the subjects for
he was nevertheless subject to fits
nature. He
his paintings the dramatic, even melodramatic aspects of human
more
seems to
was passionately fond of the animals in whom
the nobility of nature still
As wit
reign untamed, such as horses, and these inspired some of his finest pictures.
magic. The
Stubbs and Fuseli, his horses seem to be charged with mystery and
1821; it is
picture illustrated was painted in England, probably between 1820 and
character;
one of the best examples of Gericault's deep intimacy with the equine
simply*
he does not strain after Romantic picturesqueness but portrays, quite
ultra-sensitive creature, capable of emotions which man either does
not know o
remarka e
interprets clumsily. The daring and sureness of the execution are equally
Theta J
and the picture may be compared with certain paintings by James Ward,
Phaeton in the Lord Camrose Collection, Attacked by a Boa
for instance, or his Horse
Constrictor refused by the Royal Academy in 1803.

Horse Frightened by Thunder and Lightning

1820-21. 49 x 60 (19^ x 25!) National Gallery, London
172

LIU THEODORE G^RICAULT

The Romantics specialized in the macabre, the extraordinary, the least-known and
most astounding aspects of reality. Gericault carried this taste to the extreme of
painting severed heads and portraits of madmen and criminals. In many of Ins

portraits he made a conscious effort to capture the particular shade of peculiarity or

madness of the sitter. La Folk (The Madwoman) in the Lyons Museum was painted

between 1821 and 1824, probably in 1822, for Dr Georget, the doctor in charge of
the mental cases at the Salpetriere hospital. This patient was nicknamed 'the Hyena
and her obsession was a form of pathological jealousy carried to the extreme of
monomania and complete insanity. It is interesting to note how closely the portrait

corresponds with Dr Georget's clinical notes; these describe the disease as causing

an increase of circulation, violent pulsation of the arteries in the head and bloodshot
eyes shining with a wild fury. Realistic accuracy here reaches an almost unbearable
intensity.

La Folle (The Madwoman)

c. 1822. 72 x 58 (28±X22j) Musee des Beaux- Arts, Lyons
174

LIV THEODORE G^RICAULT

When it was exhibited in the Salon in 1819 the Raft of the 'Medusa caused a great

scandal, shocking academic critics and visitors with the 'repulsive realism' of its

details. On the other hand it was a revelation to young painters, particularly

Delacroix, who found it a magnificent expression of all that Romanticism was

art— true feeling for nature, emotion elevated to
trying to achieve in the sphere of
highest degree, an exact and faithful representation of details taken from
nature.
its
composition,
In accordance with this ideal, Gericault, before beginning the large
collected all possible documents and oral testimonies about the shipwreck
of the
hospital in
frigate Medusa, lost at sea in July 18 16. He even set up a studio opposite a
order to be able to study sick, dying and dead men with greater ease. Because of

violent opposition from official sources the picture was not bought for the state,

and he was awarded only a gold medal instead of first prize. From 12th June to

31st December, 1820, however, an enterprizing Englishman called Bullock

exhibited the enormous canvas in London he also took it to Dublin and showed
;

it from 5th February to 31st March, 1821. In both places he was

rewarded with an
immense success, probably more from curiosity than from artistic interest.

Raft of the 'Medusa

1 8 19. 491 x 716 (193 x 282) Musee du Louvre, Paris
 -* ^
1

»> t

/i

V-
V*- L
&-
176

LV EUGfeNE DELACROIX 1798-1863

After seeing the Raft of the 'Medusa Delacroix

was inspired to adopt artistic
principles very like, if not identical with, those of
Gericault. A
man of wide culture,
nevertheless,
he added every possible additional layer of meaning to painting;
and literary subjects as the basis for his compositions
though he often took historical
His largest compositions,
he never forgot that a picture is, above all, 'painting'.
reveal a
which bear comparison with the Venetians and Rubens, and his landscapes
new sensitivity to nature, a new conception of it, while his crowded,
forceful,

historical pictures display all the resources of his art. He

was, too, one of the first
which was to
and most important artists to become enthusiastic about the Orient,
figure so largely in French Romanticism. Many of his themes
were taken from the
works of Byron, Shakespeare and Walter Scott, all of whom he read
with great
to
avidity. And, was deeply influenced by Constable; his ideas as
in addition, he
landscape painting were transformed after he had studied the
Englishman's works.
one who
As the most complex and complete of the early 19th-century painters, the
was perhaps the first to throw off the shackles of Neo-Classicism, he
may be
considered the father of modern painting in every respect.
scene of Greek insurrection and Turkish cruelty
is
The tragic intensity of this

brought out by many evocative details: the naked woman tied to the rider's saddle,

the dying man breathing his last, and the unforgettable 'old Greek Woman
Each
symbolizing the pride and misery of a noble country oppressed by foreigners.
object comes alive by means of vivid colour, the exciting gleam
of metal,
individual
silk or leather. ThisRomantic picture par excellence, in the pathos of the subject
is a
fires
its distant
itself and the communion established between the landscape with

flaming up and the figures devoured by an 'interior fire'.

Detail from Scenes of the Massacre at Chios

1822. 422 x 352 (i66i x 138!) Musee du Louvre, Paris

178

LVI EUGENE DELACROIX

This famous painting depicts the of the July uprisings of 1830 in both realistic
spirit

and symbolical fashion. An ardent liberal, the young Delacroix attempted to show
the way in which all classes of society were brought together at the barricades,

middle-classes and working-classes, children and grown men. The very figure of

'Liberty' is almost a manifesto of Romanticism in itself; instead of contenting

Neo-Classicists would have done, the artist has
himself with a feeble allegory as the

made this vigorous woman, shown with bosom bared, spurring men into battle by
her warlike fury, into a living creature. The 'olfactory values' are almost as striking
as the tactile ones; the smell burning cloth, metal and
of blood, sweat, bare flesh,

powder, so dear to the Romantics (e.g. Gericault, Courbet), after having been
ignored or shown only with repugnance throughout the whole of the Neo-
classical period, figure largely in this picture.

Liberty Leading the People

1830. 260 x 325 (i02i x 128) Musee du Louvre, Paris

180

LVII EUGENE DELACROIX

depiction
Romantics for their lively, individualistic
Scott's novels appealed to the
Delacroix
for a number of paintings.
of history, and they provided the inspiration most
versions of one ot its
was particularly fond of Ivanhoe and made several
one dating from 1858 which is
in
dramatic episodes, the abduction of Rebecca. The
invested
the Louvre shows vast differences
from the version illustrated here, being
with a certain Classical balance which is entirely lacking in the New York version.
daring, almost Expressionists
The velvety colour, at once brilliant and rich, the
are sub-
in which all the elements
treatment of the burning castle, and the way
representative
the works most
ordinated to the dramatic feeling, make this one of
tragic vein in particular.
In tru
of French Romanticism in general and Delacroix'
power.
picture his fiery brushwork and freedom in colouring attain their highest

The Abduction of Rebecca

1846. 100 x 82 (39i x 32i) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
182

LVIII HONORS DAUMIER 1808-79

In the eyes of his contemporaries Daumier was chiefly a graphic artist and

caricaturist. Today recognized— the sumptuousness of Ins

his talent as a painter is

treatment, the effects of the lights gleaming mysteriously out of his (usually
monochrome) colour, the dramatic realism of his subject-matter, taken from the
amusing or touching incidents of everyday life, the 'small ironies of the humdrum .

It has been said that he was a sort of amalgam of Michelangelo and

Goya, but in
fact he owes little to either artist. In all his work— in the political cartoons he did for
opposition newspapers of the day, in his pathetic pictures of laundresses carrying
washing, in his equally touching depiction of the lofty Don Quixote riding across
the plains of La Mancha— Daumier always shows himself to be a man of great
generosity, an enemy to injustice and stupidity who rebelled against all forms of
oppression. To him art itself was yet another weapon to be used by liberalism

against despotism. With his 'sombre manner', he exerted a great influence on the

early works of Cezanne who, like him, came from Southern France.

The Print Collector

Oil on panel. 34 x 26 (13! x ioj) Philadelphia Museum of Art
VI OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

SPAIN

Most biographies of Francisco Goya (i 746-1 828) attribute his transformation

from a manof the 18th-century Rococo into a Romantic to Ins serious illness in
1792. But for whatever reason, Goya certainly became a
Romantic, almost Romanti-

cism incarnate, in whom painful, passionate anguish attained its maximum

intensity. In 1792 the painter was forty-six, at the height of his fame; for twelve

acknowledged by Spanish society to be a portrait painter of

years he had been
genius for whom it was a distinction to pose— the Court had taken him up and
named him Chamber in
Painter of the 1789. The Tapestry Manufactory of Madrid
which he depicted, with the verve of
had commissioned from him the 'series' in
the Spanish pco ork and
a Tiepolo and the chromatic richness of a Fragonard,
health, and succeed. eilously
play. He exuded joie de vivre, innocent wit and
with tumultuous colour and almost 'folk' liveliness, to this
in giving expression,
superabundance of vigour.
brilliant palette, rich in enamel-like colours
A superb draughtsman, he possessed a
and shifting iridescences;from Velasquez he had inherited the very Spanish gift
(it has passed to Picasso) of
making tones attain their highest frequency and combine
surrounding them by very rich and delicate
in their most subtle melodies, merely by
out the sumptuousness of black.
greys and browns. He was also skilled in bringing
work out form; this once established it
The drawing merely helped him
<
to
receiving and giving out light.
to fruition through colour, simultaneously
and never solid bodies. But where arc these lines in nature? I see
'Always lines

up and bodies winch arc not, planes which approach and

only bodies which are lit

objects in relief and objects in 1792 he lived

recession.' Until
planes which recede,
pictures and himself equally In his
joyously
m a blaze of sunlight which lit up his
he remained plebeian, although capable
greedy and vulgar way of gobbling up life
took over from Rococo elegant sensuality and
of aristocratic refinement. He its

son of his austere, grave

taste for hedonism but otherwise he remained a true
his instincts, he seems to have
been fairly
country. Passionate and governed by
indiifer'ent to currents of thought,

mism, surrendered wholly to night and

and, after lus illness plunged into
the devil with the same
extreme pessi-

absolute beauty in a woman s body

bathed
Ute
with which in happier days he had seen
points to a man primidve in his instincts,
in pearl-white light. Everything
in him
186

him deaf caused a complete meta-

this was probably why the illness which left

only the ugliness and trage-

morphosis, so that he became melancholic, bitter, seeing
palette of Ins early days for the
dome
dies of life. Although he turned back to the
emerge and are sub-
of S Antonio de la Florida at Madrid where the forms
the same year saw
merged at one and the same time in a ripple of satin and pearl,
the engraving of the Caprichos, that dansc macabre in
which a disquieting troop or
monsters, frightening in that they are too human, rises
out of a shadowy night

Baudelaire, as usual, summed him up accurately. 'Goya's great achievement is

harmonic. No other
that he makes the monstrous credible. His monsters arc very
artist has ventured so far in the direction of
believable absurdity. All his contortions,

bestial faces and diabolical grimaces are permeated

with humanity.'

It almost seems as though during his early

period of peace, happiness and eupho-

ria, Goya had only seen the artificial facade and

surface graces of humanity. Only

when his deafness with its allied annoyance, shame and inhibitions caused him to

discover yawning chasms

cut himself off, did he see through the outer husk and
picturesque
beneath the outward appearances. Once he had rejoiced in portraying
and joyous scenes, the most beautiful women and distinguished men
of the age.

Now, isolated from the public, clients and even his friends, no longer working on
commissions, he deliberately chose to chronicle the most dramatic
and painful
cannibal
aspectsof life. Lunatic asylums, where naked madmen tear at each other,
Red Indians devouring Canadian priests; the plague-hospital beneath whose roof
the dusty shafts
the plague-germs joyfully dance out their murderous ballet in
of
of sunlight; the Inquisition tribunal before winch die unfortunates convicted
blind men,
heresy crumble, humiliated and defeated; processions of screaming
drunken beggars and sufferers from convulsions miming a demoniac, lunatic dance;
the platform on which the man sentenced to death, with Ins head
already in the

noose, still clutches at the crucifix which has failed to save him: all thesemake up
Goya's world, a world without pardon, redemption or salvation.
new The Christ
of The Betrayal of Judas (1798, Cathedral of Toledo) and Christ in the Garden of
Olives (1818, S Antonio, Madrid) has lost his halo of divinity, indeed every
spark of spirituality: he is merely a man like any other, condemned to suffering,

despair and death.

Goya's palette becomes progressively dimmer and darker; the sharp dissonances
of his sullen blacks, acid greens, greys and livid whites make themselves felt. Like
out-of-tune instruments, although played with the sure instinct of the master, the
colours grate against each other, shriek, mingle their fellow miseries. Not that he
became careless as a craftsman; he was never so skilled as when the task itself had
become hateful to him. Always eager to learn, he had himself taught lithography
at the age of seventy-three; this new technique, which he used for the Tauromachia,
gave him of execution and suppleness, opened up new possibilities in
a simplicity

light and shade. All this had been impossible with etching, the medium he had used
FRANCISCO DE GOYA Y LUCIENTES sec p. 208
for the nightmarish Disparates (also called the Proverbs), engraved between 1816 and
1824, and the Disasters of War inspired by the horrors of the French invasion, the
1 Man Walking among Phantoms
Spanish resistance and the ensuing reprisals.

Goya's national feeling and patriotic hate of the French must not be exaggerated; Engraving from the Proverbios
Etching, aquatint and drypoint. 24 X 35-5 (9i X x 4)

it was in France that he found a refuge when he had to leave Spain and he died at Tonus Harris Collection. England
Bordeaux. His attachment to his country was that of the Aragon peasant who re-
gards any stranger as an intruder or enemy. He puts side by side the cold, nocturnal 2 The Carnivorous Vulture

execution of the Spanish prisoners in the Third of May (18 14, Prado, Madrid) and the From The Disasters of War, plate 76
swift, joyous revolt of the Madrid people ripping open the Mamelukes' horses the c. and aquatint. 17.5x21.5 (6}x8J)
1820. Etching
Tomas Harris Collection. England
previous day in the Second of May (18 14, Prado, Madrid) and in doing so he displays
the same plebeian brutality, perfectly sincere and unaffected, with winch he sets 3 The Dream of Reason Produces Monsters
himself in opposition, as a proletarian to the aristocrats, as a Spaniard to the French.
From the Caprichos, plate 43
This fondness for fighting scenes reflects the attraction which tragedy, ugliness, (8fXSW
c. 1810-15. Etching and aquatint. 21.5X15
everything which reveals human foolishness, cruelty or wickedness, had for this Philadelphia Museum of Art.
 ,

1 p.
Utner European uoiwrno
I £
pessimist held prisoner by his deafness. Most of his time was spent at his country •

house winch he decorated with ghastly scenes as though his real nightmares were
not enough and he must always have before his eyes the terrifying figures of Saturn
eating his children, giants fighting in a marsh, men flying as one flies in a dream
into nothingness, sorcerers snaking with laughter as they stir their hell-brews and

men twisted by the joy of unpardonable vices.

His neighbours called this temple of nightmare 'the deaf mans house' (La Quinta

del Sordo) and wondered how he could find pleasure in living with these terrifying

forms seen as though in distorting mirrors; what they did not understand was that

no longer entered into it. Goya now belonged entirely to the powers of
pleasure
who appeared, in the form of a buck, to rs meeting
darkness, to the devil I

of Aquelarc. His only pleasure was his joy in painting, for his grey-green
in the plain
his virtu \$ a
LEONARDO ALENZA 1807-45 compositions are prodigies of refinement; one might say that
AknzapaJ was never so great as when he rejected all the bright colours and kept 01
A pupil of Juan Rozcra and Josd de Madrazo. colourist
scenes of Spanish low life in a style resembling Goya's.
work the dull, flat, ones-the colours of Seville, of Burnt Siena ... To restrict
sober, sad
portraitist and his graphic
He was also a respected acts of supreme daring,
won him great fame. himself to such an austere gamut was to force his genius into
resulting in magnificent successes, more difficult
(though less immediately attractive)
4 Study of Heads than the dewy, sun-lit iridescences of the Naked
Maya (1800-1802, Prado, Madrid).
lent
Etching. 13-6 X 10 (5* X 3$) Baudelaire spoke of Goya's 'love of things difficult to gra
human physiognomies Strang/ zed
British Museum, London contrasts, for the terrors of nature and
the main elements o! ind
by circumstances' and these had, in fact, become
I

ho,
painting. They can be seen to perfection in the beggars o( the R.
ADAM WOLFGANG TOEPFFER 1766-1847
with their grimaces like masks in a tragic, demoniai cai

Toepffcr began his an engraver at Lausanne

working life as '1 haunted
contracted, flattened, swollen by the fire of a furious hatred. iO
he turned to
but during a visit to Paris (ended in 1789) int like
utmost to sec, think
painting. He visited England in 1816 and greatly admired
Spanish artists of the day that they did their

work which influenced his own from that date and genius permitted.
him as the difference between talent
Hogarth's
Goya to come as close to
Leonardo
chief virtue of the few Spanish Romantics-
onward.
It must be admitted that the
Padilla (1824-1870), and his son Eugenic
5
Girl with Bowed Head Alenza (1807-1845), Eugenio Lucas y
(born 1840) -is their sincerely, s
Lucas y Villaamil and Jose Parcerisa
Drawing. 25.5 x 19.9 ("> X 7J) .followed
naively, imitative Goyism. Others, such as the Madrazo father
British Museum, London
respectively, and their disciplcship was a
in the footsteps of David and Delaroche
spiritless, unoriginal affair. whole generation Madrid *
For a
very indolent,
on a lifeless Classicism which mly to destroy
HENRY FUSELI 1741-1825 occupied by 'Davidians' carrying
London moved left to Spain. One exception
was Alenza who created
the heritage which Tiepolo had
to
Although bom in Zurich. Fuscli early
of Blake and won immense
atmosphere
where he made the acquaintance
dramatic etchings steeped in Goya's
.

becoming Professor of Painting, and later

some
popularity,
enough humour to satirize Romanticism m the two
Principal of the Royal Academy. He
was an excellent teacher. and crime. Nevertheless, he had
His ruling passions were Michelangelo,
whose dramatic
versions of his Romantic Suicide
(the better of the two i
Mj«*
dynamism he attempted to imitate, and, in

All these
the sphere of
Madrid), rather similar in tone to the
English skits on G
Dante. Shakespeare and Milton.
literature. 'Ossian'. restraint
teachings, hurling themselves
without
Lucases further exaggerated Goya's
compositions
provided him with material for strange
of
combining tragedy and humour, nightmare
Herder said of him mat
and satirical
'his laughter stung like
the £te»d and reUnquishmg all perspective or b
absufdity
The monsters of Goya's pupils and
imitators are
1

Devil's mockery, and his love

destructive lightning*.

6
lit up its object like

The Body of Buonconte da Monlefeltre being

a flash of

Carried off by
£
forms tnatleem born of Zsick mind.
unconvincing and seem to belong to
become a convention. In reality
a stock of figures winch

Romanticism in Spam began and

have

merely prolonged his

Goya
pe so-
«h
Lucases, Alenza and Parcerisa
the Devil alone and such men as the of

The taken from Dante's Pufgatorio

scene is

Buonconte describes
the Virgin's
how he fell

name on
dead from
where
his wounds with

his lips and his body was swept down

«^^
naCrather than being truly personal and
ffE
Co^uZcncc
original ere,

the expressionism of Solatia,

should be considered as a form

H beyond th
so strongly marked by

of Post-Roman bat
as
least, it must be acknowlede,
tlu
Pen
Arno
iito the
h. 47X35-2 (i8ixi3i)
lZ Dah's Goyism'? At the very
foreign to Spain but rooted in
an ancient tradition capable
of
British Museum, London RomanSm wa/not
constant fruitful renewals.

HENRY FUSELI

7 Odin Foreseeing Balder 's Death

,ng and wash.28x40(11x15*)

British Museum, London
190

SWITZERLAND

IT WA s T hb ACE when ^*^S+£ffZ

Albert

^
von Haller was
much as^Youn g

IM. /- «— /*"« W^S

sensibihty as
which was to stir up Romantic dom
clhi of the
Rousseau's
including physicians, P™^^yT
geologists

W™*^"'?*^*?^*
for scientific rather
dun
'
and »1
the fir t

Allton Koch, from

Alps hi the wilder-
Ty'rol, was remarking, for almost the first
^£™»**££L discovering

rusuc god u
Renaissance was a hybrid
creature part ammah p ^

of
elanrini, the her,nit of la
Maloja-the haughty istant beauty
not o s y

wrote Karl Albert Kasthofe,

h pre"en c of our fellow-creatures,'
suburbs donated by the Saleve
iSlnted
P
the httle gardens of Geneva's
himself and, perhaps in order to add
of
b« only as an adjunct to his portrait
dou ncn-ry value to his own garden.
son (,763-1840 and 1784-1846)
Although the two
johann Ludwig
of Berne and
f^^^\^ Abcrh (^3-^6)
torrents with almost saenufic exacutude
ZilL nature of rocks, waterfaUs and
of the wildest localities a sort of idylhc grace which
hey brought to their pictures
intimidating austerity of the mountains.
They also
lessenedboth the majesty and the
in each
theism and, hke Klopstock, discerned
added a admixture ofRousseauesque
Creator'. Their sensibilities were
not directly touched
waterfall an 'inspiration of the
into mere bucolicism.
and they tended at times to subside
with j. j. Hurhmann (1793-1850) from R.e-
The true Romantic sp.nt appears
of Winterthur, and P. Btrmann (1758-1844)
dikon, 1. J. Biedermami (1763-1830)
Birmann's Devil's Bridge the Spluge,, Pass of J. J.
of Basle, Aberl.'s best pupil.
Meyer (1787-1858), and Gorges of la
Douame of Donker (1 746-1 807) are filed
singing of waterfalls; in them the high wind
of the
with the rustling of trees and
than the picturesque Alpine horn but,
even so, these
peaks sounds more loudly
lag behind the poets of the
day. None of them succeeds in making us
painters still
ice-domes is 'dark-hcaving-bouiidless
aware as did Byron, that beneath these
This achievement was reserved, though
endless and sublime, the image of eternity'.
were a common-
still in miserly measure, for the Swiss artists to whom mountains
in which there was almost
nothing more to discover, but only to feel
place of life

possibly be called true Romantics -Leopold

"certain of the Swiss painters cannot
painting truculent theatrical brigands,
Robert (1794-183 5) despite his taste for
the anecdotal Friedrich Rudolf
Simon (1828-1862), Jacques Laurent Agasse
 191

Other European Countries

Enghsh >n
(1767-1849) who, like his
compatriot Fuseli, became a favounte of the
craftsmanship, Wolf-
his solid, but rigorous and elegant
his later years on account of
gave way to sentimental or comically
gang Adam Toepffer (1766-1847) who readily
Mayden (1818-1898), imprisoned by a
rather
banal genre scenes, Alfred van

"^StSSd-. Hans Hemrich FUssh (x^s), who made his home

produced, like some German ecle^cjc
in England and changed his name to Fuseh
German epic
painters, work which was an
amalgam of equal parts of the old
In
covered by an overlay of Shakespeare
poTm and the Greek tragedies all master
Michelangelo and Rubens of the old
pacing he was mostly influenced by the darker
SLlds of the 'moderns', but his
imagination led him to investigate
macabre apparitions and nightmares,
and
fflfr he was frequently visited by
like that of a sleepwalker
groping.his way
Wmself s d of his progress, that it was
shores or bottom
SEsiTofJUy^^thatheadvanced'thronghaseawithout
.

Maxinnhen de painting are

Meuron
The s" of S w iss Romantic landscape
nlghmom-
( I7 8 5
V86
f°omNeuchatel,whosetuphiseaselatthelake-side,b
Lsandsktchedinthemidstofavalanches,andthesincere,
vigorous.Francois Diday
P.ssevache {liS2
separate his Cascade e
XT1877T Only thirty or forty years
Lory (the younger) but m
1/77; eid'rfotohe Geneva) from that by Gabriel

influence
But
scape
on Ferdinand Hodler (1853-1918)-
the greatest
which no longer held
of this generation, the

^f^ZTvroZdT^y
»^P^|
"J^ comrminion with a land-
Calamc ( i8io_
&°m what it had
1K4). Although he
was very fond of
not allow it to
^
^^e duality. Eclectic in
his

to offer him, he did

tastes, fond of

the
working in the
Nature of the cantons over
wh ch he
century to portray^ar
^g^J^
^^
levery y
"timatel
,
eJugh
-bound up with
of the
SwitzerLd, both v
idyllic

tradition of the previous fa

and weU-kept. However

portraying the sweet,
Calamc
careless pleasur
s
notto

^JP*™^ J
^genuKW*
real

tt
^
ties. It

held for
is the tragic
him the same fasananon
^^ J ^^^
power of mountan,
tef™*>™
as
b
kis splr ,t;

th
sto,

acknow -
tcmpes ts, torrents
ledged it or not, and
bursting their banks,
his universe

grey glaciers a cross

is
^^SnZJLi
"^ !£^
throw
roire>&nm )is his most
tl,

characteristic

aW are ^V^^^^f^^S^s
work, at least with regard to k « ^ ^^
mythological figure
„

m0
excluded from these-^
haunts o gods
stage costumes
,
d bc entircly out f place her.
incongruous nudity or
their saturated with

^^hlr We
Calame's Romanticism
remains
do not need to see gods
^C
supemtnralqnaH^strangdy^^^^^
depicted to sense how much they cast then aura
o
^
wr „
^
lhe Plaill {

Qr

modest reserve.
 Romantic Art

192

RUSSIA

Romantic literature, with its Pushkin

Russia's
and ^ntov^r
Compared with Brullov
least two artists however
notorial art seems of much less significance. At

varying
meted out to them and, to
ess patromzing attitude than that normally
poverty of
£^
£E
and for different reasons, deserve
Romantiasm compared
to be remembered. The

with that of France, Eng and

.ndG^yw
While re gious
tradition rather than its absence.
due to the tyranny of esthetic «toby
established centuries
art voluntaSy confined itself to repeating forms ,

from Byzan
the schools of Pskov, Moscow
and Novgorod, themselves deriving
Berlin fashion, as
obediently at the heels of Paris and
tm secular art followed
Verification its ultima* aim;
3£by Russian high society which considered
for countryfolk was more
or less static and
fl art, produced bfcountryfolk
themes with unchanging means.
merely repeated ad nauseam unchanging Andrevitch
(1780-1847) and Paul
The eenre painting of Alexis Venetsianov
humorous, documentary -never reaching
Fedotov (1815-1852) is skilful, theatrical, Brullov s
unexceptionable academism. Consequently,
aWe the level of a careful,
something lacking in
moving in that they at least possess
large canvases are almost HENRY FUSELI see p. 210
'petit-bourgeois' or, rather -aU-town nob ility
VeLtsianovs and Fedotov s
Michelangelo and the Raphael of the Starve. Hi 8 Dante Meeting Ugolino in the Frozen Cocytus
works. His ideal painters were
Day of Pompeii (1833,
Tretyakov GaUery Moscow) is the best show episodes from Dante's
well-know Last This drawing and Plate 6
example of how far he lags behind them. Divine Comedy and were executed
in Rome between
(that is to say, the worst)
had had ample opportunities of seeing 1774 and 1777
Although painted in 1833. when the artist Drawing and wash. 47X35 (i8iXi3i)
picture is pathetically bombastic and
does not show
the horrors of the war, this British Museum, London
grandeur.
even if it is not entirely without
any of the realities of a catastrophe,
town of the campagna
However the of this catastrophe overtaking a charming
mood
all academic, and although the
scene is
now buried under lava and ashes is not at ALEXANDRE CALAME 1810-64
with under
history, the tragic episodes are treated and lithographer. Calame studied
Classical and the 'plot' taken from
Painter, engraver
Holland and Italy,
got the idea for the picture Diday in 1829. He made many visits to

real feeling hardly important whether Brullov

It is but remained faithful to the scenery of his native
Pompeii, as tradition
Naples to an opera on the subject of which he immortalized in so many of
its aspects.
Switzerland
when listening in
enough that the Romantic character of the
work reaches a height
would have it;
Landscape with Two Figures
exciting rhythm and gives unity to the various 9
of tragic feeling which lends it an
elements of the story. , Watercolour. 16.2x24.3 (6±X9i)

Ivanov (1806-1858) is quite different.

Turgenev summed up the British Museum, London
Alexander
contrast between these two widely
opposed but equally famed personalities when
able to express all he wanted to but he had
he said- 'Brullov had the gift of being
but an impediment in his speech. At Rome, ALEXANDRE CALAME
nothing to say. Ivanov had much to say,
Nazarenes and became particularly friendly
Ivanov had frequented the circle of the 10 Mountain Landscape
while adopting the aesthetics and ideals
with Overbeck whom he much admired
temperament a philosopher and mystic, he Sepia. 36.8x26.5 (Hi xioi)
of the Brotherhood generally. By British Museum, London
painting showing Jesus appearing to the
devoted almost his entire energies to a
Christ before the People (Roumanziev
Tews on the banks of the Jordan, Appearance of
ofhis whole religious thought.
Museum, Moscow) which was to be the fine distillation CARL BRULLOV 1800-52

This self-imposed project was so

important to him that he felt himself unready, This Russian painter, specializing in portraits and historical

tragic works, but

artistically and spiritually, to express
the religious feeling bound up with it; he scenes, had a particular feeling for large
pomposity.
he did not completely escape extravagance and
sketches. Only practical
literally devoted his whole life to it, piling up studies and Along with the virtues of Romanticism he also
suffered

prevented him from going to Palestine to imbibe the atmosphere and from its defects. His genre scenes show greater simplicity.
difficulties

local colour which might give added life to his picture. As might be expected,
11 Design for a Fountain
constantly worked over by an
however, the picture, born with such labour pains,
artist impossible to satisfy, emerged
cold, lifeless, with a certain undeniable nobility Watercolour. 52.6x36.3 (20*xi4i)
Museum, London
altogether lacking in the spirit Ivanov had meant
to express. British
but
 *

^,-

•*•

*.> *
'•

'V c^>
H

<*»
«»
p i

~ »».
 197
Countries
Other European
N1COLAI ABRAHAM ABILDGAARD 1743-1809
AUGUST FREDERICK AHLGRENSSON
1838-1902
Danish. Abildgaard's work reveals the influence of both
as a scenic designer in
Sivcdish.
Ahlgrcnssons early training whom
number of dcs.gns for stage Fuscli and the 1 6th- and 17th-century Italian painters
fruit in a large
Stockholm bore he studied during his visit to Rome from 1772 to 1777.
considerable periods in Pans and
decors After spending For the subjects of his paintings and drawings he
technique he was engaged
Vienna where he perfected bis
frequently went to Nordic mythology, Milton, Shakespeare,
of Copenhagen, for wh.ch he
by the State Theatre Macphcrson's Ossian and the theatre generally.
carried out many stage decorations.
designed and

17 Fingal's Ancestors Appearing to him by Moonlight

12 Grotto ^
Pen, Indian ink, and wash. 22.1 X 22.3 (8Jx8J)
Gouache. 20.4x30 (Six n J) Statcns Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen
Bibliotck, Copenhagen
Kgl. Tcaters

THOMAS BRUUN 1742-1800

Danish. After studying

at the Academy in
Copenhagen he
JENS CHRISTIAN CLAUSEN DAHL 1788-1857
specialized in stage designs
and created decors for several Norwegian. DM, who worked in Copenhagen
and Dresden,

Danish plays and Italian operas. He was attached to the learnedmuch from the Germans and in return influenced
as stage designer for
eighteen
North German landscape painters. He succeeds
in
State Theatre. Copenhagen
years,from 1782 to i8oq. bringing out the spirit of a landscape with remarkable

force and intensity.

13 Grotto
18 Landscape
Decor for the play Balders Dod by J. Ewald
Pencil. Indian ink and watercolour. 38.5 X45-8 (IS* * Hi) 1826. Watercolour. 172x24.5 (7*X9J)
Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen. BUlcdgalleri, Bergen

SVEND LUDVIG VALDEMAR GYLLICH

i8 3 7-95

the Realistic strain of Scandinavian

Danish. Gyllich represents AUGUST CAPPELEN 1827-52
century,
which, in the second half of the 19th remarkable
stage decoration Although he died at twenty-five, this
He went so Norwegian.
fairy-tale idealism.
began to usurp the place of and original Norwegian artist
painter was the most gifted
attempt illusionist effects, following the theories with Gude in Oslo
worked
the Romance Age. He
far as to had
France. of
then current in Austria, Germany and Diisseldorf School. His landscapes
and with Schirmer in the
region where he lived at the
are taken from the Telcmark
14 The Valkyries end of his life.

Dtcor for a ballet

19 Brook in a Forest
1 x 25.7 (6$X ioi)
86 1. Gouache. 17.5
Kgl. Tcaters Bibliotck. Copenhagen.
Watercolour. 34.8x51 (i3*X20 t )
Nasjonalgallerict, Oslo

JENS PETERSEN LUND 1730-after 1793

Copenhagen, but
Danish. Lund began as a house painter in
entered the Academy, paid visits to
Pans and Rome
later
was appointed landscape painter to the CARL WAHLBOM 1810-58
and. iu bis last years, Sweden ran
The flowering of Romanticism
in
compositions, Swedish.
Danish Court. He also painted allegorical Wahlbom
vogue for "Swedish drill .

high fashion) and roughly parallel to the

panoramas (which were then in
Institute of Gymnastics m
was a Pressor at the Ling
stage decors.
a painter. His
most striking works
Ttockholm as well as being legends
!" hislustrations for history books and Nordic
15 Punch in Prison
and mythology.

Pen and watercolour. 27.6x41 -4 (io}xi6|)

Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen 20 Braga the Ancient
Statens

Pencil. 22.4x146 X5i) (81

Nationalmuscum. Stockholm

PETER CRAMER 1726-82

Danish. Cramer was nicknamed 'the Danish Tenicrs' because

genre scenes in the Netherlandish
of his predilection for
known as a stage designer
and
manner. He was also well

devoted a large part of his S to the theatre. His LOUIS GALLAIT 1810-87
Hennepin and,
Igns arc mostly for plays in the repertoire
theatres during the second half of the 18th
of Danish
century.
A fter studying with
GaUait turned to
histories
^jZ
*r*?"££ a
" CCpUO
afulversio, u Inn
the Spanish occupation.
history, especially
16 Death of Balder N blandish

Study, showing the scene of the play Balders

Dod by
last
21 Two Children
name also in the
J. Ewald. for the painting of the same
Statens Museum for Kunst Drawing. 16.8x12.6 (6JX 5)

Pencil drawing. 38x46.9 (15x18}) British Museum. London

Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen
 Romantic Art
198

to each figure every slight

move-
By attempting to give a particular significance
composition both static and emphatic
ment having something to say, he produced a
In a sense he improves on the excessively
and cluttered up with anecdotal details.
his background landscape and
the moral
medievalist Nazarenes in the beauty of
the
advancing towards the crowd of John
grandeur of the tiny figure of Christ
treated with a certain vigour and
the faces are
Baptist's disciples; the nudes are
faults, resulting from the
superabundance of
expressive. Despite its undeniable
fai ure; it has
in, the work is not a complete
qualities which the artist tried to squeeze
years
nobility and, if the heat of inspiration
has cooled somewhat through the long
least reveals a more gifted ^d original
of execution, the distribution of the masses at
painter than Brullov. Perhaps Ivanov
would have shown his true measure it he had
compositions for a monumental Temple ot
ever carried out the colossal decorative
excess of zeal caused him to
Humanity of which he dreamed. But here too an
protract his preparations for years, studying
not only Palestinian but Egyptian and

Assyrian archaeology, until at last he was hamstrung by his own scrupulousness. It

he had lived twenty years longer perhaps the
Temple of Humanity would have
Slav Romanticism; even so, Russian
been one of the most grandiose manifestations of
art would still have lacked a genius
of the stature of Gogol and Tchaikovsky.
Other European Countries 199

SCANDINAVIA

Asmus Jacob Cabstens (1754-1798) is often compared with Blake, Fuscli and
Flaxman, and not without reason. He achieved the apparently impossible: a synthe-

sisof Romanticism and Classicism. Passionately devoted to Italy and Michelangelo,

he nevertheless exercised a tremendous influence on German Romanticism, more
in fact than on that of his own country. It is unfortunate that he died at forty-four, one
of those Friihvollendcten who hardly emerge from their apprentice years and are
thus never able to complete their oeuvre and give the final measure of their genius.
His principle originality lies in his deliberate repudiation of colour, whether because
his largedrawings were only sketches or because he thought (which is more likely)
that a great artist can model in black and white or in colour with equal ease.
For him drawing was sufficient to embrace form and express it in all its fullness;
he would have agreed with Ingres that 'drawing is the better part of art'. Forced to
take up commerce for a living, it was not until late in life and in his spare time that

he could work with Abildgaard in Copenhagen. Abildgaard introduced him to Fuscli's

work and he himself turned instinctively toHomer, Klopstock, Shakespeare and
'Ossian'. A plaster cast of the Apollo Belvedere moved him to tears when he saw
it for the first time. His ambition was to attain the pathos inherent in the grandeur
had
and simplicity of Antiquity which Neo-Classicism, with its mistaken attitudes,
overlooked. Although he had never seen the Sistine Chapel-on
Ins visit to Italy

lack of money— he understood

in 1783 he was forced to turn back at Mantua for
only knew Giulio
Michelangelo's genius better dian any of his contemporaries. He
however re-
Romano's work from the Palazzo del Te but he saw in his frescoes,
his own artistic ideals, an indication of the route
he should follow; it
moved from
return to Italy and this
was not 1792 that a patron's generosity enabled him to
until
his days. Yet, far from break-
time to reach Rome, where he had determined to end
ing with Scandinavian traditions as such, he
wrote mythological dramas with
imitations of 'Ossian'
Wotan and Baldur for heroes, Scaldic poems and fervent
everything which violently
His genius was eclectic enough for him to absorb
Aeschylus. Through drawing alone he
excited his imagination, from Milton to
figures. Only the vast walls of a palace
gave tremendous animation and life to his
allowed his tumultuous vision full scope.
or the dome of a great church could have
unnatural to him, he
When, he took up colour, a medium strange and
finally,

used it with a rare, imposing strength.

for his coldness meaning a certain
The present fashion of reproaching Carstens ,

nudes, is unjust to the anguish and passion

of these gigantic figures.
formalism in his
have the patience to modcl-this
him to
His imagination pushed him on too fast for
full of spirit and vio-
is the principle defect
of his sculptures, although they too are
launched by each new book into new
experiments
lence. An avid reader, he was
the Bible,
in which a less hardy talent
would have exhausted itself and died: Dante,
a new image
the Edda, the Nibelungenlied,
Goethe and Plato, each providedhim with
in his mind.
and the immediately took on gigantic dimensions
poets' inventions

because he had an exceptional

knowledge and mastery of black-and-white,
And
each drawing was a complete and
perfect whole. ...
Light or Night and her ChtUre
^
space, as in The Birth of
His giant figures floating in
three-d.mens.onal
(sLLeKuLsamnilungen, Weimar)are massively v.bran, y >

space where atmosphere itself is

form and turn m
hey evolve in a sort of concrete

to appreciate
of cosmic energy. Goethe was
able
thllv materia] intensity, sources

offornTwJway^
 n.omannc sin
200
imagina-
blurs with Carstens it from the portrayed object. Despite his great
leaps out
excesses of his dreams
close to Nature and even in the
tion he always remained very
it this
there is a strict concordance
between movement and form, a temperance,
paradoxical, for such an essentially Romantic
artist
word is not too
individual to attract disciples in the
Apparently Carstens was too consistently
have looked for the natural heirs to his
Scandinavian countries where one might
found in Germany. But one aspect of his
work
genius; these, however, are to be
was developed by the Scandinavian painters
who contmued to take their mspiration
with the deepest characteristics of these
from the old Nordic literature, bound up
for 'Ossian' or Wotan had disappeared
from England
peoples. Long after the fashion
tins mythology originated, the
sagas and old
and France and even Germany, where
trolls and
popularity in Denmark and Norway, and
religious poems retain all their
ciants continued to hold their sway.
one of the
Of the sculptors, the Swede Bengt Erland Fogclberg (1786-1854) was
portrayers of Wotan, the solemn and terrible.
Of the painters. Nils
most assiduous
treatment to the gods of
TohanOlssonBlommcr 816-1853) gave idyllic or tragic
(1

the Edda or the Scaldic heroes, but

one senses that this mythology was no longer
for historical
as living, as real to
Carstens or Rungc; it had become matter
him as to
LU1GI SABATELLI 1772-1850
touch of formalism although his Water Sprue and Daughters of
painting', with even a
He painted frescoes in Mjlan and Florence, his
birthplace,

bears witness to a real talent which deserves later in Rome and Venice. An
acquaintance of Ingres, he
Ann (i8jo,National Museum, Stockholm) and
Romantic temperament
Dane Nicolaj Abraham Abildgaard blended the Classical Style with a
wider appreciation. The same is true of
the
which distinguished by its temperance and balance.
the large historical scenes in the castle of
is

(1743-1800), another eclectic who painted

Early influenced by Italy and the Venetians
Christianborg, later destroyed by fire. 22 Scene with a Doge
transplant their colour into the Northern
coun-
in particular-his ambition was to Charcoal on yellow paper. 18.7x20 (7* X7I)
Antiquity; like Carstens he dreamed ot
tries-he was obsessed by Michelangelo and Gabinctto Disegni e Stampe, Florence

blending ideal Classical beauty with the dark,

dreamy power of Nordic mythology.
his compositions with 'Ossian and
Despite their qualities of force and sincerity,
Kunst, Copenhagen) still breathe a certain
Fingal as heroes (Statens Museum for FRANCESCO MORELLI c. 1768-1830
Italian-trained Dane was more at home with
sub- Bom in Franchc-Comte. Morclli nevertheless spent most of
air of academicism. Perhaps this and landscapes
Philoctews in Copenhagen is the best examp
e-or his life at Rome, engraving religious pictures
jects from Greek mythology-his after Claude, Carracci, etc.

favourite comic illustrations after plays by

Holberg, half farce, half comedies of
lus
Old Porta Pia ?
23 View of the Ponte Lamentano, outside the
manners. x - , ,

Sonne (1801-1890), who worked Rome

Another eclectic is the Dane Jorgen Valentin
in Italian and Bavarian academies
before establishing himself m his own country. Engraving. 9X5(3 iX2i)
painted battle pictures, compositions on
contemporary subjects (the Tyrolean Victoria and Albert Museum, London
He
as well as religious
revolt against Napoleon I, the war of Schlcswig-Holstein),
revival of religious art,
scenes to be called the father of the
which caused him
very forceful or very original. FELICE GIANI 1758-1823
although they are not, if the truth be told, either
nghtly This painter was always interested in politics and, although
He had been the best pupil of Christoffcr Wilhelm Eckcrsberg (1783-1853). a Jacobin at the time of the Revolution, became Napoleon's

considered the founder of modern Danish painting. favourite painter, in which he worked in several
cliaractcr

the fact that Eckcrs- him Romantic ardour is

An idea of what this new art was to be can be glimpsed from Italian and French palaces. In

combmed with a Nco-Classical subtlety.

in Paris and in Rome with Thor-
berg studied for three years in David's studio
he cast aside the shackles of
waldsen, or at least under his influence. Fortunately 24 The Sorcerer

Crossing the Red Sea (1816

Davidian academicism, still visible in his Israelites Ink and watercolour. 22.6 X 17.6 (9x7)
to become in his last years a poetic and
Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen), Gabinctto Disegni c Stampe, Florence

subtle interpreter of Danish landscape.

It is whereas the Nordic sagas and mythology became less and less
interesting that,
of inspiration for illustrators
important to painters, they remained a fruitful source TOMMASO MINARDI 1787-1871

and, unlikely as it may seem, stage-designers. A

book could be written on Romanti- Minardi, a professor .it the Academy of St Luke in Rome
from 1821 worked principally on restorations of
for instance, Blcchcn came to true
to 1858,
cism's influence on stage decor; in Germany, religious pictures m various churches. He also produced a
for Sturm und Drang dramas
Romanticism through having painted back-cloths number of drawings.
before covering Berlin with
under the direction of Schinkcl. Schinkel himself,
25 Trojan Women Lamenting over the Body of Hector
won him approbation, had given free rein
Greek imitation temples which official

gigantism in his stage-designs and paintings.

to his passion for a certain Gothic Engraving after a drawing of 1823. 48x23 (i8JX9t)

In France too, it was a stage-designer, Ciccri, who had a very recognizable influence British Museum, London
 -^t *M

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iA'/ifr ^zartiejtfiut*
S.
23
26

~
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U* "l-l*1 ~r ' "", * •TT*->^ -T-O *••
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28
 203
Other European Countries

on most of his colleagues such as the Johannots, Nanteuil and the Deveria, as well
as on a number of painters whose main contact with Gothic was through the decors

of operas and melodramas.

In Denmark the work of at least five stage-designers, preserved in the Statens

Museum, Copenhagen, may be placed among this country's best and most

European Romanticism. Two of them, Thomas Bruun

significant contributions to
decors, at once
(1742-1800) and Peter Cramer (1726-1782), composed striking
tragic and mysterious, for one of the most dramatic episodes of the
Edda, the

death of Baldur, the White God, killed by Loki, the God of Fire.
The grottos of
appearance
Frederik August Ahlgrensson (183 8-1902) have a strange, mysterious
well the shades of Scandinavian mythology and Svcnd
Valdcmar
which reflects

7-1 filled his designs for the Valkyries with all the fire
and bril-
Gyllich (18 3 895)
hovers on
of Wagnerian orchestration. Jens Petersen Lund (1730 1793) -after
liance
the boundary between Rococo and Romanticism. In
time he belongs purely to the

1 8th century and his work has overtones

of the great Italian Baroque artists, Buorna-
particularly important as
cini and Galli-Bibiena, together with Servandoni. He is
certain elements of the commedia dell* arte,
a link between two periods, and introduced
interpreted by the two Tiepolos, into the art of the
Nordiern countries.
as
the portrait painters can be called
Romantics: they tend to be Realists,
Few of
but always doggedly concerned with truth. The
only
sometimes in the grand style
Juel (1745-1802), a pupil of
Abildgaard
one who perhaps merits the epithet Jens is

best known for having

who afterwards studied at Hamburg and Rome and is
painted the finest portrait of the young
Goethe. He took as Ins motto a sentence
academicism: 'Paint what you ike
which may have saved him from the tyranny of
portraits are full of
GIACINTO GIG ANTE 1806-76
as you hie.' This is what he
did, and with great success, for his
manner of Corot, m.
Gigante always worked from Nature in the graceful humour and a delicate, elegan
Rome 1826. He spirit and his genre scenes of
whom he may perhaps have met in in
Norwegian who had
produced many thousands of watercolours and drawings Among Caspar David Friedrich's successors was a young
by visitors to Naples, at Dresden, Johan Christian
Clausen Dahl
which were avidly competed for
studied a? Copenhagen before settling
and
where he lived. With his great facility, sensitivity
of (1788-1857). The remembered beauties
of his native country, its wdd mountains,
generosity he characterizes the Romanticism
their tormented white
Southern Italy. primeval storm-tossed fjords and glaciers turning up
forests,

towards Infinity, introduced into his sensitive work a dramatic d«tti»

26 Fountain of the
1 841. Watercolour.
Museo Nazionale di
GIUSEPPE BERNADINO BISON 1762-1844
Best known as an engraver. Bison acquired a
for the frescoes with
faces
Temple ofSerapis, Pozzuoli had heard Fnedrich say
landscapes of the period. No doubt he
in the Scandinavian m
but what he sees
paint only what he sees outside
37X57 (14**22*) that 'the painter should not
paint what he sees
San Martino, Naples himself then he should cease to
himself- if he sees nothing in
the terrible dictum of the
master of
oZt\ Probably he had'also been struck by
eye are like screens behind
which one
Staid, that these pictures of the interior
£/MGemaldegalerie
corpses. His Views of the
great reputation exp cts to find only sick men or
which he covered palaces and villas in Dresden Stonns in the Forest (1835)
-d Shipwreck (c. 1822 both Nasjoiia gaUeriet
with Nature. DaM wa> not
,

the Venice area. Heir to the style and imagination of

visionary feeling
the
O Mar animated by a genuine and forceful empathy
great Venetian painters, he transposed their
into fantastic compositions which reveal the
sensed therein, winch later would haun
was halted by the tragic presences to be
stage designer.

27 Temptation of St Anthony
SXSs
SepdoiTto the
landscapes- In this he represents
main body of Scandinavian
a noble and quite

landscapes who m
general suffer
remar^k
from

Gouache on paper. 34-5*30 (13* X

Alcssandro Morandotti Collection, Italy
11 J)
a
XXSLae Elias Martin ( W x8,8) constitute an
exception to

FORTUNATO DURANTI 1786-1863

Duranti lived in a fantastic world peopled with strange

figures, demons, monsters and angels moving in a tragic

world of chiaroscuro. The influence of Giani and Camuccuu

Museum, Stockholm Marstrand (1810-1873) or
docs not sufficiently explain the strangeness of his
personality and art, both of which show curious
affinities with Goya.

28 Two Saints and an Angel

Watercolour. 25.5x18.5 (i0X7i)

Gabinctto Nazionale dcllc Stampc c Discgni, Rome
 -
204
distinguished by any strong Ro-
fitov-HUS) nor Christen Kobke
(1810-1848) is
respec
Se reity theretouching naivete inspiring
is a

Z^X aecent In their love for

TeneSlyUng
but the interior life which
Friedrich considered

from their picture, Far from

^spe-ble
being the home of *e gods
the.

l*^^ ^^^^ for his use and pleasure.

landscapes are made to man's measure, arranged
1
^tfKnstian Skovgaard
Sandberg
Thomas Lundbye
r.Kriel Wickenberg (1812-1846) almost
^J^Dutl
(1818-1848). Johan Gustaf
seem to belong to 17th-century
Dutch

p "atrta?
S and
Lprising
to the Romanticism of the
century
thought-provoking that the Scandinavians
**
should so often have
^"£^ way of m«>
Romanticism and then-
timidity to their concept of
bought such
preting it, the more so in view of the
strong linksbetween
^^m^nj^d
of the latter aty, where so
many
Copenhagen and the artistic pre-eminence *am.
tune was second only to that of
Germans came to study; its importance at the
is that the excesses of
the Scandinavian and
A possible reason for this inadequacy
though acting as a stimulus to ahl,
paralyzed D
especially the Norwegian, landscape,
with such awe-
and even completely vanquished artists less capable of copuig
not
inspiring all-powerful elements.
Moreover the existing artistic tradition had
material for a truly effective new
movement.
been rich or complex enough to afford
few great artists, Scandinavian Romantx-
Consequently, with the exception of its

a local variant of the Romantic

phenomenon.
cism remains a provincial art,
 205
Countries
Other European
ITALY

What is the reason for almost total absence from the picture of Romantic
Italy's
for during the 19th century Romantic
music
art' Not political circumstances alone,
literature flourished in the peninsula
-K>ne has only to think of Verdi and Boito,
and
Leopardi, Carducci and Foscolo. There
must be another reason why Italy, alter
into near-sterility until with the
six centuriesof incomparable artistic genius, sank
of its earlier position.
advent of Realism she regained a semblance
Italy Romanticism did not answer
The first thin* to be bome in mind is that in
as it did in England and
Germany. Again,
an irresistible necessity, a racial-hunger,
elaborated and completed her
Romanticism in the
Italy had in a sense already
been
do it all again, to say what had already
Baroque Age, and had no need to
a good deal of
said Theophile Gautier's
remark, though too absolute, contains
museums.
resting on her Her schools of art are nothing but
laurels.
truth: 'Italy is
continually
proved a disadvantage rather than the contrary for it
Her opulent past
P
masterpieces; as a result gemus
oknied upo n artists' notice eminently 'copiable' dunngthe
were many men of talent at work
was at a premium although there
no means insignificant even ,f none
Romanti/penod. Their productions are by
of them are,properly speaking, Romantic. .

of Delacroix, Constable an Fn rjh

Who were'the Jlian contemporaries
more or less directly from Pompeo B «o»
There were the painters deriving
Menes such
^ re were
Gaspare Landi (1756-1830) or
as

Neo-ClaLcal painters such as Andrea

Appian. ( i«4*) W
Vincenzo Camuccn. ('773 7 i844).
Giuse pe
f

SlSS of Modem Art. If the David-imitators looked to France

Jeir ^^~ ^^i cSdt «W

Nazarenes, tncy
of medieval, almost
Casino. Like the
monastic, purity; their aim was tc.revive
truly
g-nm
rlj: a : .
art
rt accor
^ ^^
according to Wacken-

pa
?£^:r:h?;3
as their leader,
wlththe
«^
although he was the
greatest

££ff^&g^^-*
youngest •

The Verists are

themselves
I; deliberately confmedinteresting
more » ever, ^^SSS^
^^"J^
the main-
dudn
stream of Italian genius,

reahty, they reacted

strongly,
always
"f^**™^
^^|S«»andCavallini.nad
cver iUKe °
idealism, tainted with
always
Purists. Itahan pamtmg, Vensm
artificiahty, of the u Unfort unately
derived new
produced hardly more
^Realism
strength

directed
from its
P^^^tula.
creative genius*

P^?£^tt£S ^Moreo
than^Pur
^^
least these
supporters

of ReaUsm are altogether

Nazarenepamters were stuck
last.
<u

m0 recomplex and subde ^^7^^(i!3«M.F««»

 i\i/iiiuina SiTl

206
reality of
of stage than truthful portrayal of the
reality rather
specialize in a sort
they treat banal subjects taken
from history, literature or the
very day; that is,

Se wkh of affected naturalism.

a sort
Gaetano G.gante s Fes.adclk Madonna
Gabnele Smargiassi s (1798-18S2 )StF,
anas
dell'Arco (c. .811, Naples Museum),
Collection, Naples) and Bernardo
Celentano s (1 83 5-1 ««3)
Vision ofthe Cross (Private
m.ght be compared
Death ofTasso derive from an arbitrary aesthettc scheme which
in music.
with those of Verdi and Puccini
in the austere sim-
Perhaps there is easy emotion than true Romanticism
more
declamatory rhetoric of the Vensts. The
mfluence
plicity of the Purists and slightly
Daughter ofjairus (1874) is also mterestmg
of Delacroix on Morelli, particularly in his
fascmat.on
Algiers, Morelli had discovered the
to note; like the pamter of Women of
Orientalism which for a while enjoyed a
of Africa and touched off a trend of
certain success. , «.
lead, the Italians
However, Massimo d'Azeglio (1798-1866) gave them a
after
landscape which had aroused the passion
and
turned, for preference, to their own
nostalgia of so many English, French,
German and Scandinavian painters The
collectively as the Posillipo School (Edoardo
Dalbono
Neapolitan painters known
818-1899) etc.) made a sincere attempt to portray the
(1841-1915), Filippo Pahzzi (1
their tenderness
appearance and of these southern landscapes faithfully. In
spirit
animating their interpretation, they are
and care for Nature and the poetic feeling
indeed Romantics of a sort.
the Macchiaioli (literally Tachistes ) of the
second
Is there anythmg Romantic in

among whom figure many minor masters of considerable

half of the 19th century,
originality and interest? This can only be gauged one appreciates the true nature
if

distinguishing it from the Romanti-

of Italian Romanticism and the characteristics
of folk art with literary
cism of other countries. At its best it combines the
spirit

wielded between 1850 and 1900

themes, theatrical realism and plain reality and is
Giacomo Favretto
by Romantic naturalists like Tranquillo Cremona (1837-1878),
(i849-i887),PaoloMichetti (1851-1929) and Tclemaco Cremono, who
enjoyed tre-

success during their own lifetimes, for they

provided Italian society with
mendous
appreciated by the middle class and the
exactly what it wanted. They were equally
the theatre, opera,
working class, who found in them something of the aesthetics of
universally) preferred. They
music— the pleasures most generally (indeed almost
to be discussed in a history of artistic taste rather than a pure history
ought perhaps
of art, can be drawn. Nevertheless they and Italy's other leading
if such a distinction

Romantic artists have a very real charm and outstanding pictorial qualities, even
Italy than to other countries.
if as a whole Romanticism was less natural to
 207
Countries
Other European

THE NETHERLANDS

Belgium's contribution to European

Romanticism can be summed up quite
the traditional virtues of the Netherlands
briefly: a few history painters combining
care for the objective truth of the objects
painting with a sincere lyricism and realistic
portrayed; one painter of genius,
Wiertz-paradoxical, morbid, unequal, hes.tanng
visionary imagination not unlike
between social-naturalistic sentimentality and a
Belgians, stimulated by the ideas of
liberty,
that of his successor, James Ensor. The
the generation of 1830, made a
pomt
independence and social progress animating
country's artistic past. Long hve
Belgium,
of re-establishing their links with the
portray the
of the painters as they rushed to
long live Rubens', was the rallying cry
or, alternatively, continued m
the trad.t.ona
great moments of national history
desire for novelty or even
or.gmahty. The height of
style without, apparently, any

L ambition 1
to demonstrate their antipathy

the 18th century and to proclaim

towards the ideas and form of
their patnotism-almost the I"*""""*
century, owing to the course
of political
ment in every social class in the 19th

painters such as Louis Gallait {rjto-

"claiming kinship with Rubens, historical ait hfu
)andGustaveWappers (1803-1874) remained
1887) HennLeys(i8i5-i86 9 BarthM de
'fine work of art
« the resoemble healthy ideals of the traditional .

by Henri Leys, The Us, Mo^tsof

Mfeȣ
cZttmnt
[Musi
(1 58
Royaux, Brussels)

National-Galerie, Berlin) by Gallait,

and Episode fro,,,, he Belgm
all in effect, tributes »
th
R 2: Musi Royaux, Brussels) by Wappers are
but their 19th-century feeling shoul not beignored,
here wc
Asters of the past,

morc unfortunate
flights
that the

of caprice of Ins extravagant

«^
madness of Antoine JosephW.

r&£*^T£^ **
fact

The
his great talent and

trompe-l'oeil effects
^f^.^^SZ
of ™™
^-booths, the
his
horrors of his Buried
Brussels), of whose
Alive (1854) and Woman Eatmg her
Chid (18
«.M«f J^ cd by then primitive

SS^tlaSSS our curiosity and

sympathy.
Serous and incomplete gemuses

^^
who attract

^^^f£^S
In Holland the great ofW. J-
after

Nuyen

-r
I
I ).
'Z^£S£*
5T5-. was *. a remarkably
(.303-^.aud J.

fine portrait-painter.
WUlem
J-
P.eneman
208

LIX FRANCISCO DE GOYA Y LUCIENTES 1746-1828

In their way, Goya's portraits are as Romantic as his tragic, almost

monochrome
pictures in the 'Quinta del Sordo' —
the scenes of torture, madness, and halluci-

nation emanating from the world of darkness and misery in which he

lived in his

later years— and as his engravings showing the 'dream of reason

giving free rein to
the
monstrous creatures of the brain'. Implacably he draws to the surface of each face
dramatic conflicts taking place in the sitter, who is forced, willynilly, to display all

the
his inmost personality. The pictorial beauty, the gleam of the grey material,
powerful
tremor and crackle of the striped, flowered silk— all these provide a
contrast with the rock-like hardness of the face, lofty and stern as a landscape
of Old
Castile. Although he could take a delight in succulent feminine beauty, Goya was
also the painter of the more severe, unattractive qualities— arrogance, and scorn.

In its sober colouring, economy of form and concentration of emotion

this

portrait is one of the best Goya ever painted. The figure of Dr Peral, a friend of the
painter, occupies the picture with almost provoking authority and sculptural
solidity; it impresses the spectator as a 'thing in itself', quite
independent of its
meaning or provenance, born of the painter's mind but charged with a forceful,

almost painful, humanity.

Portrait of Dr Peral

c. 1795. Panel. 95 x 66 (37$ x 25 i) National Gallery, London

 210

LX HENRY FUSELI 1741-1825

was honoured by
Although a native of Zurich, Fuseli made England his home, and
had theunusua^
London society as one of the most illustrious artists of the day. He
teacher with an imagi-
gift of being able to reconcile his position as an academic
and macabre,
native temperament which tended towards the supernatural
exaltation. It was sai
fantastic visions were expressed with a sombre, earnest
he were per-
he went on the wings of the wind', and he himself felt as though r

was altogether too humdrum

petually hovering over abysses. Certainly solid earth
and lived in a wor
for this painter, who, in his imagination rode on griffins
Shakespeare.
peopled by nightmarish figures and characters from his beloved

Lady Macbeth Grasping the Daggers

c. 1801. 102 x 127 (40 x 50) Mrs J. Stanley-Clarke Collection, England

;
 VII THE UNITED STATES

few out-
In the romantic period America had some remarkable painters but
(1791-1858), William Rush (1756-1833). John
standing sculptors. Hezekiah Augur
Browere (1792-1834) (who produced several energetic portraits m a in),

TohnRogers(l829-l904),andHorarioGreenough(i805-i8 5 2)areunimportant
1 i,

Nor can Wgh claims be made for

history ofthree-dimensional art.

Romantic, despite the Classical style of his work. The

Powers who is in a sense

sculptors in wood, anonymous or otherwise, who made figureheads

arc much m
whether born of simplicity or extre.
interesting in their originality, their freedom,
belongs more
or their refinement. This figurehead-sculpture
still
skill their rusticity
American
to the sphere of craft than of art but nevertheless it reflects the true
that
period. The spirit
spirit much more accurately than
the more academic works of the
magnificent craftsman than
m question continues until the present day: what more much in common
Calder! Wax models, too, had a great vogue; this art-form had
with figurehead-sculpture. •_•.„„.
American painters continued to derive from, if not imitate,
Curiously enough,
artists, during the end of
the 8th and early
famoTs European (EngUsh or French)
part of the 19th century. It
die bonds of the Old World
was a long time before a truly
and looked with new eyes and a
f^^T
fresh sensibility°f
at

Z American landscape and its inhabitants

One of the most »»"£»»
Indian, both as a
of the aesthetic value of the Red
1™
in this respect is the discovery
fgur and as possessing the sort
Ctive" Thislf course
of Romantic glamour
proper to

from persecutmg them when-

did" not deter the settlers
hunting grounds. ,v-
ever they coveted their ancient .
nHe
He
Red Indians into fashion.
t r „. r,f1in l*i<70,i-i872) who brought

the
cfm e.httogmohe,, and collected
»d method '''^^'""^L.t
 Romantic Art

214

In other word
fathers in the setting sun
•before they go to join the shades of their
7 informal, value o bs
importance to the documentary, or
h ^attached Lre
wort ta; to the, artistic character as such.
Abandoning
at the beginning of his
career, he left ashing ton
P"^]^
W
_

had practised with some success

West, where lived his beloved
and Ss mS behind him and set out for the
clients
paintings and drawings
Red tXrF he returned with a multitude of
ive years later
clothes, weapons and everyday
Ld the component of his Indian Museum' -tents,accuracy and documentary pre-
objects which were to
demonstrate the complete

d f
not a
over-careful effect to his compositions
thes e pto'ctpttSns give a cold,
He would have been an excellent illus
Jfe k ritt^Kl a sfripe of war-pain,
who in 1830 settled in Minnesou and
L tor, as was s'eth Eastman (1808-1875)
he
became both
had bet-
the friend
fortune than John
danger of being assassinated by
and 'portraitist'

Mix
his
of the Sioux and Chippewas.
Stanley (1814-1872) who an one
models. Of the other
In

^™»
^chan-pamters the best
this

Alfred
Charles Bird King M5/6-1862),
te James Otufuwi. (dates unknown),
(1811-1879). The.last, however,
Sler (died 1874) and George Caleb Bingham them-
subjects as in the Red Indians
vTas much mterested in frontier and river ROBERT HAVELL died 1878

for him was limited to the

savage atmosphere of their hfe^In
selves; their interest
New York, Fur Trade, Pagoda
£ famous genre scene in the Metropolitan
Museum,
direct truth is combined with a
feeling
1 Niagara Falls Seen from the Chinese

Descending^ Missouri (c. 1845), intense and 1845. Watercolour. 45x69.5 (i7*X27i)
the limits of the nominal subject New York Public Library
for Nature which goes far beyond Phelps Stokes Collection,

Many artists were inspired by the American

landscape and n^thfU po« I

'Hudson River School with Thomas Doughty

of it in the Romantic idiom. The
,

so called by Sydney Keller. It

was united THOMAS DOUGHTY 1793-1856
Asher Durand and Thomas Cole, was commissioned by Colonel
of the
going in for discussions on the nature Doughty was one of the painters
by a sort of 'Hudson Romanticism', Emer- Stevens of Hoboken to decorate
his steamship Albany.

'picturesque' and the 'sublime' in

which writers of the day also took a part. Originally a leather mcrcham. he
abandoned this trade
that they he devoted himself
son's theories about nature
encouraged this Romantic inchnation in in 1820 and went to Philadelphia where
Although he was entirely self-taught, his
and transfigured by the spirit, rather entirely to art.
demanded that landscape should be illuminated landscapes axe remarkable for their
depiction of light and tue
realism.
than painted in a spirit of strict poetic feeling they express.
of American landscape painting could
Before a truly authentic native school
over from Europe, including Crome, 2 River Landscape
emerge the whole body of traditions taken
to be repudiated. On the other hand,
Wilson Claude and even Salvator Rosa had Penal. 14x19 (5* *7*).

either Romantic in feeling or embryo

Romantics, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
since these Continental artists were
they had some favourable influence
on American painting. Dutch painting of the
artists such as John Kensett (1818-72)
and George
17th century had some effect on
Washington Allston (1779-1843). ASHER B. DURAND see p. 228
Durrie, while Poussin inspired
painter whose work is a
Thomas Cole (1 801-1848) was basically an instinctive 3 Sketch from Nature

direct though emotionalized reflection

of the landscape of the White Mountains.
English Romantics and admired Pencil on grey paper. 36x25 (14X 10).
'

He was however, an enthusiastic reader of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
him to Claude because he felt closer tn him
Salvator Rosa; indeed he preferred
more at home with the wild and tormented.' The
both as man and as artist: 'I feel
as wild and primeval is accurate enough.
poet Bryant's description of his vision THOMAS COLE see p. 224

His Oxbow of the Connecticut (1836, Metropolitan

Museum of Art, New York), with
between the harmonious distant background and the storm
wind tossing 4 Landscape with Tower
its contrasts

the foreground trees and cloud, is a

good example of this art of the immediate Pencil. 22x16.5 (8*x6i)
the anecdotic details and inner Museum of Art, New York
impression, this way of seizing at one blow both Metropolitan

spirit of nature. Cole's landscapes are

always animated by a passion which adds
9 Landscape
reality was very like
drama to each shower of rain or stormy squall. His vision of
that of the German Romantics, and Caspar
David Friedrich in particular, whose Pencil. 10x13 (3*X5l)
In addition to New York Historical Society, New York
works he must have studied during his three-year stay in Europe.
 V
fl

. i if-.
7**

'
 r— .
- *w

~^x

y*>
BE

W •'

>*.hi
,. SH
• il
***?

-^ •
*«*l-^
S&JS*
J
-

-,>'
 14
11

12
 219
The United States

REMBRANDT PEALE 1778-1860 MARY CUSHMAN early 19th century

Rembrandt Mary Cushman was a member of the Cushman family of

pcalc was one of three sons christened Raphael,
I. attained distinction chiefly as a Attleboro i>ett>. Her prcscntativc of the
nnd , Ulbl ,

popular folk art of the time, in which embroidery and

ortT luenced sometimes by David's dryness,
His needlework were used for pictoml purposes. Today she
sometimes by the mellower qualities of Reynolds.
would be classified amongst the 'N " belong to one
portrait of Jefferson,
painted in 1806, won him considerable
of the most characteristic and fertile strains of American art,
and many commissions. With his father, Charles
renown
'Gallery of Famous Men* which also produced Hick* and Erastus Field.
Wilson Pcalc. he worked on a
the celebrities, both American and
which was to include all

the day. II Mourning Picture—Jacob Cushman

European, of

c. 1810. Needlework on silk. 47-5 X46.5 ( ,8 J x i8i)

Harpers Ferry in 1812
5
Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Collection,
Williamsburg. Virginia
1812. Watercolour. 25x33 (10x13)
Municipal Museum of the City of Baltimore,

Baltimore, Maryland
JOHN TRUMBULL 1756-1843

Trumbull first studied drawing at Harvard and later worked

in the studio of Benjamin West. Ai to both France

and England he turned to history painting, in which field

WASHINGTON ALLSTON see p. 226
he acquired an immense reputation. His portraits have
life

and originality and he had sufficient imaginative power to be

6 Romantic Landscap His ambition
able to treat epic subjects with great brilliance.
was to free American art from the shackles and
Sepia. 17x17 (61 x6i)
Art Gallery, Charleston, mentorship of Europe.
Carolina Art Association, Gibbcs
South Carolina
12 Death of Hotspur

Sepia and brush drawing. 22 x 18 (8J x 7)

Vassar College Museum, Poughkecpsic,
N.Y.
THOMAS SULLY 1783-1872
the picturesque milieu
This painter's childhood was spent
in

company in the southern states.

of a travelling theatrical ALFRED MILLER 1810-74
Later he studied for four years
with Gilbert Stuart, a famous J.
'Indian' pictures and scenes
Miller was much admired for his
afterwards becoming a pupil of Lawrence
in
portraitist,
the far West; collectors vied with each other to
rather dry real.sm of of life in
London. In England he abandoned the He was able to study his
more supple, generous and obtain copies of the
the American school for the
subjects in the flesh he visited the Sioux with Captain
when
pictures.
lyrical manner of his best endowed with a quite
William Stewart. His landscapes arc
suggestion.
exceptional force of expression and
7 Woman and Chili Reading

13 The Trapper's Bride

Pencil and wash. 21 X 18 (8^x7)
New York Historical Society, New York
Drawing. 31x24(12x9*)
Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore

SAMUEL F. B. MORSE 1791-1872

REMBRANDT PEALE
he was, for instance,
Morse was gifted in many different fields;
telegraphy and
interested in scientific inventions, particularly Death
14 Study for The Court of
the
photography. His expressed wish was to advance
aim which seemed to
progress of humanity, an
scientific X 37 (81 X I4i)
Sepia, pen and wash. 21
the progress of art. Nevertheless he Pennsylvania
him more worthy than Charles Coleman Sellers Collection, Carlisle.
copies of
had studied the early Romantics in Paris and made
of Gra
the Classics. He founded the National Academy
growth of truly American
Arts, which was to encourage the
WASHINGTON ALLSTON
painting.

15 Ships at Sea
8 Romantic Scene
X
Chalk on canvas. 121 x 151 (47* 59*)
Pencil. 7x12 X4i) Cambridge,
(2$
Fogg Museum of Art, Harvard Unwers.ty.
New York Historical Society, New York
Massachusetts

KARL BODMER 1809-93

THOMAS MORAN 1 837-1926 painters ro be attracted by the 'Indians as a
One of the first P Neuwied
Moran was a hugely successful artist and Congress paid Bodmer accompanied Prince M
*
1

fub^
$10,000 (an enormous sum at the time) for his
picture of the
o his travels to Yd **f*
Grand Canyon. He was both a good landscape pamter, ,r co collect tb
"nous Indian
sensitive to the picturesque gr jualities of the
l
.tions of these \

American scene, and a skilful engraver.

16 Indians Hunting Bison

10 Solitude
X
1843. Watercolour. 30 44
(" I * x 7±)

1869. Lithograph. 52x41 (20$ x 16) New York Public Library

Prints Division, New York Public Library
 wmantic Art
220

» use of the pathetic fallacy

John Martin, an artist
he shared the
he much admired. This
-^^^t^b^
«?*?**£ £„ '

strongest and most magnificent "vihzations. of Martin,

came more and more to rese mo
Cole's Romanticism, which
tookcmatngjcnavourml^
and Ifc Cri
scane here is
Sme
a
W
sort of
the
code
World
message
Brooklyn
(c. 1847,
in the manner of

Lotions are used to convey allegory.

M
R ^Y^™^*™*
Phihpp Otto Kunge,
p
^^- ™^
in

adapt
into the United State
Cole introduced the symbolic landscape
from reality,
primitive character he so much
E it to t£ nature of the
country, whose wild and
man had domesneated the elements.
admired In Europe, he was wont to say,
An^
which appealed, of course, to their taste
for objective reality, and
they came on
always en_
almost camera-like eye while
occasion!* look at landscape with an
qualities. None of them went
so ar
dowing it with their very individual emotional
naturalism. John
as to eliminate all feeling or
thought from their photographic
extremely naturalistic details in
Nea.le (1799-1865) is a representative example:
a pathetic, musical whole. His
well-known View on
his pictures are combined to form
as is
the Schulkill (1 827, Art Institute of
Chicago) is typically American in this respect,
of Thomas Doughty (i 7 93-i«56) (1836,
Anderson Gal-
the celebrated In the Catskills
English landscapes these
lery of Arts, Andover, Mass.). Although possibly inspired by
different conception of space, more vast, more
dynamic:
paintings display an entirely
distance is no longer equivalent with nostalgia for the inaccessible, as m the German
Romantics, but calm assured taking-possession of the
a
scene. Man is no longer
The
intoxicated by the infinite any more than he is hemmed
in by irksome limits.

day of the 'topographers' is past; artists like Vanderlyn,

who painted a view
documentary copy of
of Niagara in 1802, content with merely making a detailed,
a landscape and unconcerned as to its grandeur
and majesty, had passed out of
fashion. Vanderlyn, born in 1776 and thus only about
twenty years older than
Doughty, had hardly been touched by the growing Romantic contagion. The
vogue for panoramas, very strong in the first third of the 19th century, laid more
emphasis on the documentary interest of a landscape than its emotional qualities.

The best known panorama-painters (many of them began their careers as scenic

designers and were solid craftsmen rather than artists) included Frederick Cather-
wood, John Banvard and Henry Lewis whose works astonish by their extraordi-
nary size even more than by their real aesthetic value. The panorama is a Romantic
phenomenon in that it indicates a desire (often unconscious) to escape from the
prison of the finite, a desire for 'wide open spaces' expressed with a sort of external
illusionism instead of by exploring the mind within. Although in itself a Baroque
phenomenon, trompe-Voeil was a feature of the Romantic period in America; there
was a considerable market for Harnett's and Peto's illusionist still-lifes. As for the
panoramas, Lewis' 1200-yard canvas showing the Mississippi and Banvard's prodigy,
three miles in length deserve attention only in so far as they are symptomatic
of the very American taste for hugeness as such, for the colossal, the super-colossal,

evidenced also in skyscrapers, and in the sculptures of various United States presidents

carved out of a mountainside.

Illusionism in still-life answered a need for absolute objective reality, another of
the abiding American characteristics. John Peto's (1 854-1905) virtuosity resides
chiefly in his way of giving a striking spatial value to the various objects he portrays

hanging on the wall, of the 18th century. Peto was not so

in the favourite tradition

naive or puerile as to be content with merely hoodwinking spectators into (almost)

 221
The United States

believing his painted objects real. Whereas the true Romantic painter tries to establish
the individual's place in the space he occupies, his relation to it, his physical and
moral position in the universe, Peto tries to detach each object from its surroundings
and background, thus emphasizing autonomy, the independence of each element
its

Chardin
of a still-life. Again, whereas a 17th-century Dutch still-life, for instance, or a
still-life is constructed symphonically, the volumes
and colours related like the
various subjects of a first movement, Peto's objects stand alone in a kind of isolation
of
which may be, perhaps, indicative of the artist's own interior solitude.
Instead
unequalled
being amusing or charming, his visual and tactile illusionism, probably
together of individually
within its own limits, is almost tragic, a fortuitous coming
isolated elements grimly associated by chance.
Born in
William Harnett (c. 1 848-1 892) is equally complex, equally enigmatic.
1 848 he would seem to be a late
Romantic but is, at the same time, very archaic. His
pictu'res call to mind even Flegel or Baschenis, although he is less
Kalf, Chardin,

lyrical than the last-named. Larkin defined

the nature of his illusionism exactly:
heat, and when he
'When he painted the glowing embers of a pipe one felt their
a five-dollar bill in his pictures the
Treasury Department began to get
included
The
worried.' But he also addssomething which suggests greater artistic scope:
saw but
Harnett did not merely reproduce what he
in-
critic of today realizes that
cupboards
skeletons behind the closed doors of Ins
.

tensified it: he divined imagined

This is what makes Harnett a Romantic
among still-life painters, as opposed to
intensification
the 17th-century Dutch and Germans,
and 18th-century Frcnch-his
power emanating from Ins closed doors with
their
of reality, the strange suggestive
possible contents. A composition like
Old Models (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston),
rigorous as
geometric sub-structure almost as
stronaly and subtly built up with a
only be under stood m the context
of the old tradition
that tfl Mondnanpicture, can
of the WW still-life. What does
this cupboard with its
medieval ironwork and

musical instruments hanging on

its doo s
broken planks contam? What do these
objects suggest, if not the
elements of a vamtas
Le sad hopeless, abandoned
incurable sadness about the violin
and trumpc
Zn ? There is a heavy

St £
or" neTento
to silence, the books winch will never again be
opened the inexorable

ScSy
eLd
rf the closed door whose
all attempts at a forced
key has been lost and
entry. Despite its acknowledged
f*J»"^
theme which
has an
work
really to suggest nothing
more than objective realism, this
oueht
plane from the trotnpe-
i^atmospEc which puts it on quite a different

r early American precursors

l^rtoS^d Hicks and Erastus Field, two

vided the texts for his

sermons.

His favourite text and

the one which
^^ ^
inspired tus d
I
from

Isaiah heralding a
established for the
future heaven on earth
benefit of all creatures.
»wJ4 J^£J ^.^
™**£<
The
T/(e PeaceMe
 Romantic Art
222

territory.lftliisshouldhappenAmericawouldrcaUybccomea'kingdomofpeace'and
newcomers and ancient owners of the continent would
cease.
all quarrels between the

In this Eden the lion would he down

with the lamb, the prowling wild beast with the
lions and tigers fix their large,
proud
cow, the deer and the sheep. In vain do Hicks'
air of command; we know that
they can no
eyes on the spectator, with an impressive
between their paws or scramble over
longer harm us, that children can he down
their backs in safety.
on to canvas of his own honest
Hicks' Peaceable Kingdoms are the projection
longing for universal reconciliation. For him triumph could come only through
the joint forces of truth and love; and so
he has the typically 'Naive' attachment to
lyricism. His picture of Washington
Realism, alongside the Halves' childlike
is the best and most
harmonious
painted in 1846, three years before his death,
synthesis of all the aesthetic and moral preoccupations which had filled his hte.

more important, more successfully arranged, more musical. The

The landscape is

of the 'Naive' but the feelings inspiring the work belong to

technique is still that

the purest and most moving Romanticism.

805-1 900) lacks Hicks* piquant clumsiness and
has childlike
Erastus Salisbury Field (i

scholarly preoccupations, by memories of

grand,
spirit; he seems to be haunted by

mysterious architecture culled from old books. He

had been greatly struck by Egypt s

gigantic monuments and also by her relations with the Hebrews, as recounted in

the Bible. Apart from painting

and landscapes he also reproduced his
portraits
Martin's Old Testament and Paradise
architectural visions which breathe the spirit of
Lost At the same time he aimed at a
monumental syncretism in which were
the work of a true visionary,
mingled reality and invention, and which, at its best, is
a true descendant of Monsu Desiderio
with his tragic 'fancies'.
extraordinary Historical Monument
His most remarkable work in this field is his
of the American Republic (c. 1876, Coll.
Mrs H. S. Williams, Springfield, Mass),
country. It certainly has no fellow
painted about 1876 for the glorification of his
in the art of Europe. On an enormous
in American art, and is probably unequalled
canvas he painted an extraordinary famUy of Towers of Babel linked at the top by
mingles the
aerial bridges, swarming with sculptures, bas-reliefs and colonnades; he
styles of India, Egypt, Greece, Mesopotamia
and Rome with the quiet, imperturbable
are not only real but within
daring of a man perfectly confident that his dreams
his grasp. . , . ,
madman nor an archaeologist s nightmare
The picture is neither the raving of a
of impressive majesty, mag-
but a harmonious, well-built decorative arrangement,
Classical vision, and only the feeling
nificent in its very excess. Significantly, it is a
Romantic; here Neo-Gothic has no place. With his
inexhaustible
inspiring it is

imagination, Field crams the huge structure with

an infinity of architectural and
way the picture is a masterpiece, although a paradoxical
decorative details. In its

allowed free play within the limits of a logical con-

one in which impossibiliry is

more attention from the Surrealists; they should

struction. Erastus Field deserves
ancestor whose strange genius is probably unequalled.
recognize in him an early
">i

LXI GEORGE C. BINGHAM 1811-70

he was still a child the fanuly moved to

Bingham was born in Virguua but when
portrans w.th a
Missouri. He began by painting
Franklin, a small town in
detailed realismwinch earned himagreatsuccess^During
a visit to WUj£»
painting and he devoted
the possibtUt.es of genre
18,7 his eves were opened to
n mself ^portraying the
picturesque f.gnres of Indians,
trappers, «*t*~»

visit
the reputation of the
town's painters, and the
attracted by
last years of his hfe.
and style of painting in the
I

Xence on" his esthetic ideas

American scene.
art shows the warmth
of his feeling for the

the Missouri
Fur Traders Descending
Museum of Art, New York
c. 1845. 74X93 (29x36,) Metropolitan
224

LXII THOMAS COLE 1801-48

18 19. Although he
Born in Lancashire, Cole emigrated to Ohio with his parents in
of the American
was attracted at first by Salvator Rosa and Claude, the gods
of Ins own
Romantics, he later returned to a faithful portrayal of the landscape
were eclectic enough to embrace
country which had been his first love. His tastes
for his visionary
both Caspar David Friedrich and John Martin, whom he admired
realism and charming
mysticism. In the later part of his life he abandoned his delicate
the rums he na
depictions of idyllic landscapes for large symbolical evocations of
seen in Europe. These 'programme-pictures' bear allusive titles:
The Cross and tic

World, The Voyage of Life, etc. To present-day eyes, Cole's best

works are his fresn,
unaffected landscapes of Connecticut.

In the Catskills

99 x 160 (39 x 63) Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

 :

226

LXIII WASHINGTON ALLSTON 1779-1843

for a certata
came under the of Italy, where he lived
spell
In his early years Allston
I

caught a ta^e t
Poussin from whom he
period, and professed admiration for
Lance andWhsm. Later he attempted to rival
sombre manner and tragic subjects. At a time
work in England, Allston too dreamed of
Salvator
when the Pre ^^^
"^P™ J
***£&
knights-at-arms and tal
< vaby .

pes
his idyllic lands c
He was a friend of the poet Coleridge and, with
tradition of Claude and Turner,
transplanted the comp lete
Jto J
A^»* as
In the United State
European legend and history to his native Boston. space
distance-in tunc and
Europe, Romanticism often meant a flight into
nostalgia and seco
Allston was typical of this trend; his work is full of escapist
hand memories.

The Flight ofFlorimel

Arts
91 x 72 (35* x 28i) Detroit Institute of
i 1 1 1 1 1 rmnrflfltti
228

LXIV ASHER B. DURAND 1796-1886

Until he was Airty-five

Durand had
up paintmg he was
^^S^^SSC
"^^fV
that when he took
American landscapists who
of the New World
took a,
itself, even though
^^^Z^
then« ^ vmon
richneS s and variety
«**"* *?

memories of England and ^^./^^b.ndaned this formalist

derived their inspiration

esthetic traditions.
and technique to a
^ "^^
Even when taking his subjects
from *£W> ^ uran d.
still

which
saw

Bjdj-Jg-^ ££££***»-
Sm tlnough
ignores much
a
that
haze of English or
is
m
extravagant and na'uraUyRo
manttc
^
*—. ~C
character of
-1 Amprinn Romanticism.
American

Kindred Spirits

1849. H7X9I (44X36) New York Public Library

CONCLUSION

our own, not so

u » Wn oc unsusceptible to Romanticism as

»b»d o .dvoce . '»-. » Rom,»acism' for ,h«

"foo.T.. wo„ld b.

to
aXc aSy
souses of our sensibility; it

invigorating, precisely because

fasbon but is eternally valid
owes nothing to

it expresses profound
emotion with
the genius of any artist
capable of feehng
TwarmTwhlcl has never detracted from have become the mos
abstract art seems to
VZ our period, parricularly, when
of the dramatic anguish at the
very root of our
variedTnd moving expression
one might imagine that Romantic
painting
inception of exisLce and growth, anguish. It .s no para
that it deals with a similar
would have a profound appeal, in might be a late
seems to be something which
lo to say di in abstract art there
subjectivism
Romanticism, with its desixe for a stormy
f0rm a distant echo of
fact that, in abstract
painting subject , completely
ThT'is not contradicted by the
importance, as aforesaid, m Romantic
art; perhaps
Ibsen whereas it was of great the m
in a form unforeseeable
tto^ure represents Pater's 'musical state'
abstraction represents a real fully
Romantic acbeve-
roth century Perhaps" again,
its outward forms.
The cosmic feehng inspiring Marc,
m nt in it7essence if not in
Friedr.ch, even if the
to the ideals of Cams and
Klee and Kandinsky corresponds
communion with Nature are entirely different.
^eans adopted by them to attain this
must be judged by its power to unite h e
Che fill analysis, the work of art
spirit of the world it reflects
its faitbubess to the
individual and the universe, by
Klee statemen
German Romantics would have agreed with
s
Tnd tne roth-century
down into the depths, the unfathomable depths of
Sat 'our heart beats to carry us
reflected
The actual processes of Romantic sensibility are
the primordial Breath'.
 231
Romantic Art

painting is strongly impregnated

in the 'philosophy of Nature' with which Klcc's
visible; it renders
and which leads him to say that 'art does not reproduce the
the con-
visible'.Obviously his idea of infinitely 'open' space is an extension of
by Constable, Turner, Huct and Fticdrich, and all of
ception of landscape shared
them though they may express it differently, to go beyond the
aspire equally,

perceptible, to blend experience and

imagination; all consider that they have faded

do not arrive, via nature, at a point 'beyond nature'.

if they
great innovators of the end of
A close examination of the aesthetic ideals of the
the 19th and beginning of the
20th centuries reveals strong links with the Roman-
century, even if they repudiated all relationship
with an
tics of the first half of this
more
art which seemed to them remote from their own aspirations. What could be
lives of Gauguin, Van Gogh or
Edvard Munch? And certainly
Romantic than the
very animating the generation of 1800-1850.
like those
their works betray longings
fruitful: we have already idenn-
The less obvious comparisons are often the most
the post-Romantics,
fied true Romantics among the Baroque masters, and among
school, or accepting
too there are many artists who, without belonging to any
to describe then
categorizations which would certainly have been inadequate
centuries and
talents, come of the same
stock-a family extending through the
about the relationship of man to the out-
characterized by a common uncertainty
analogous with that of
for instance, follows a process
side world. Cezanne's art,
the landscapists and Turner in particular.
Romantic
For what were the ^tP™*
Gardannc
long development from the tectonic constructions of the
in S Cezanne's
Mont Sainte-Victoires where matter is transcended by spirit
period to the last
pure irra-
cancelled out and at the same time sublimated into
and where form is
vibration, so that the weight
diation? Whatbut to convert painting into pure
else
ob cca
war with the atmosphere, to transform
and opacity of matter should not space with a
light they receive-to fill
Z> bght-the light they give out and the
distinction between

ob ™
profound empathetic feeling for
and thing
At the other extreme of the
Nature, to abolish finally, all
observed, finite humanity and the
infinity of the averse

post-Romantic artistic gamut stands the

Douam
called yet another
naive, who surely must be
Ron ss au a painter both skilful and
to Infinity, to the super-
Isc ndant of lc Romantics. Rousseau's escape-routes
fairy tales and y Richter
the sniaU m
JSSgS oy Moritz von Schwind in

barrier and the 'head-in-the-air

tavern with poets and
W^Jj S^Ti
musicians equafly intent on
"-"«
evi
g^
Ages,

Current opinion, in any case

of inferiority, but such
hostde to

judgments can only be based, in

the K^S-^* °n ""

V
preferences
dividual taste and aesthetic man .
Nobody can deny
deism or the deep resonances
the importance
which it ^J^TffiZg
^^.^^..itowof
it to
power-
the

usspon*me
language of the soul. It is this
we should hear
recollected m
tl
^
feehngs' that should be
fid
in intimate
.«J*J£«2L canvas had been
are merged once again
in thatflash of divine
^f*}"*?^^^.
illumination out of winch
work
the was
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

, FORERUNNERS OF ROMANTICISM
REMBRANDT HARMBNSZ VAN RYN
22
VI
facing page
DOMENICOTHBOTOCOPOULlfcriOWnOS
1V ^ Landscape with Obelisk
known OS Museum, Boston
, GIORGIO DA CASTELFRANCO 12 EL GRECO Isabella Stewart Gardner
GIORGIONB Ltfwiscdpe 0/ Toledo

La Tempesta Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 24

Venice VII JACOB VAN RUISDABL
Gallerie dell'Accademia,
The Jewish Cemetery
H Detroit Institute of Arts
H ALBRECHT ALTDORFER
Alexander
MICHELANGELO MERISI knoum
OS
Detail from The Battle of V 20 26
Alte Pinakothek,
Munich CARAVAGGIO ANTOINB WATTBAU
VIII

16 The Supper at Emmaus t n~\U+, L'Embarquement pour Cythere

ALBRECHT DURER of the Nattonal Gallery,
HI By courtesy of the Trustees Musee du Louvre, Paris
Virgin with Animals London
Albertina, Vienna

II ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

34-39
facing page 33 19 JOHN NASH
10 JAMES WYATT Diamond Cottage, Blaise Hamlet,
near Bristol
30
I ETIENNE-LOU1S BOULLEB Fonthill Abbey National Buildings Record,
London
of British Architects,
London
Entrance to a Cemetery Royal Institute
(Cabinet des Estampes},
Bibliotheque Nationale
34 39
33 20 DAVIS
Paris
II KARL FR1EDR1CH SCHINKEL A. J.
Park, West Orange N.J.
Rustic Lodge, Llewellyn
30 Schloss Babclsberg New York
CLAUDE-NICOLAS LEDOUX Prinz Wilhelm Metropolitan Museum of Art,
2 Arbeiten fiir

in Honour of
Womankind
Memorial
rapport de I art, des
V Architecture consider^ sous le

12 LEOPOLD EIDLITZ
34
KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL
34-39
de la Ugislation (Paris, 1804) 21
moeurs et Connecticut
Iranistan, near Bridgeport, View of the Castle at Muskau
Schirmer: Andeutungen
THOMAS) VAUDOYER 30 K. F. Schinkel and W.
3 LAUBENT (A. L.
(Stuttgart, 1834)
Rome 34 uber Landschaftsgartnerei
Design for the house of a Cosmopolitan, 13 JEAN LOUIS DESPREZ
Annales du Musee, VoL II, 1802 Design for a Tomb
Us Gravures de Desprez
N. Wollin: DAVIS
34-39
22 A.
LEQUEU 3° J.
NY.
Estate, Fishkill,
4 JEAN JACQUES An I de Blithewood, Robert Donaldson
Monument to the Sovereignty of
the People,
14 WILLIAM PORDEN and JOHN NASH 34
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
la Republique .
Brighton Pavilion
(Cabinet des Estampes), London
Bibliotheque Nationale Architectural Review, "
34 39
Paris 23 UNKNOWN ARCHITECT
Knights, near Reading
patricola 34 'Round Seat' from White
DBLBPINE 30 15 Probably by giuseppb Account of the Mansions
PIERRE-JULES DELESPINE
Of Descriptive
Mrs Hofland:
5
Newton Palazzo Cinese, near Palermo (London, 1819)
Design for the Tomb of Isaac
Rome and Gardens of White Knights
Georgina Masson,
Prix d" Architecture 1779-87

34-39
30 mauro TESI 34 CHARLES HAMILTON
6 CLAUDE-NICOLAS
LEDOUX 16 24
the Loue Sepulchral Chamber Pains Hill, Cobham, Surrey
House of the Surveyor of Mauro Test
sous le rapport de I art, des Raccolta di Disegni Originali de
L' Architecture consider^
(Paris, 1804) (Bologna, 1787) 34-39
moeurs et de la Ugislation
between pages 25 WILLIAM CHAMBERS
Chinese Pagoda, Kew Gardens
33 34-39 ^jp^ecHve
7 JAMES WYATT 17 M DE MONVILLE W.Chambers:P/ in5,E/e^^,S^,o«5WP^^
<

Ashridge, Staircase Hall Interior of the House ofM de Monville at Kew m Surrey
London Views of the Gardens and Buildings
Architects,
Royal Institute of British Le De'sert de Retz
(London, 1763)
G. L. le Rouge: Jardins Anglo-Chinois (Paris,
RIEDEL, GBORG 33
8 CHRISTIAN JANK, EDUARD 1774-89)
34-39
DOLMAN and JULIUS HOFFMAN 26 F. J- BELANGER
Schloss Neuschwanstein 34-39 Folie de Saint-James
18 M DB MONVILLE
German Tourist Office
Exterior oftlxe House ofM de Monville facing page

Le De'sert de Retz 39
HORACB WALPOLB and WILLIAM ROBINSON 33 27 GIOVANNI BATTISTA PIRANESI
9 G. L. le Rouge: Jardins Anglo-Chinois (Paris,
Strawberry Hill Etching from the 'Carceri
1774-89)
Architectural Review, London
 233

facing page
THOMAS BANKS 40 37 BENCT ERLAND POGELBERC 43
33
28 KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL 39
The God That
Thetis and her Nymphs Consoling Achilles
Stage Design for 'Katchen von Heilbronn Na, Stockho'
Courtesy Victoria and Albert Museum, London
l,

Sammlung von Theater-Dekoratiotun erfitnden von

Schinkel (Potsdam, 1849)
38 WILLIAM RIMMER 43

Female Head
29 M. GANDY 39
34 JEAN BERNARD DUSEICNEUR known OS
J.
Corcoran Gallery of Arts.V
Design for an Imperial
Palace THAN 40
J

Royal Institute of British Architects, London Orlando Furioso

Musee du Louvre, Paris 39 FRANCOIS RUDB 43

attributed to 39 The Imperial Eagle Watching over Napoleon

30 Hubert ROBERT,
Musc\ ax Arts, Dijon
Ruins in a Landscape
London
Royal Institute of British Architects, HIRAM POWERS 40
35
40 ANTOINE AUGUSTIN (AUGUSTB) PRBAULT 43
Proserpine

31 H. CUTHBERT 39
Collection of The Newark Museum, Newark, Massacre
Muscc de Chartrcs
Stage Design for 'Hamlet' New Jersey
Courtesy Victoria and Albert
Museum, London

41 FELICIB DE FAUVEAU 43
39 Spare Her
32 KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL 40 Queen Christine of Sweden Refusing to

36 WILLIAM WETMORE STORY

Stage Design for 'Ondine* Equerry Monaldeschi
erfuuden von Venus
Sammlung von Theater-Dekorationen Music de Louviers
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston
Schinkel (Potsdam, 1849)

III ENGLAND
RICHARD I'ARKES BONINCTON 52-57
49 17
46 9 JOHN FLAXMAN The
GEORGE ROMNEY Bowl of Poison from
<
I
Thomas Chatterton Taking the
and Art Gallery, Nottingham
Nature Unveiling Herself to
Shakespeare Museum
the Spirit of Despair
Royal Institution of Cornwall, Truro England page
Iolo Williams Collection,
!

RICHARD WILSON 57
18

46 Grotto
49
2 ALEXANDER RUNCIMAN 10 JOHN SELL COTMAN courtesy of the Trustees of the
British Mi.
By
Fingal Engaging the Spirit
ofLoda Subject from Ossian
Edinburgh the British Museum, London
National Gallery of Scotland, By courtesy of the Trustees of
London
57
19 JOHN CONST A
46 "'"
3 SIR JOHN EVERETT MILLAIS 52 Night So
II JOHN MARTIN Courtesy Vict.
a, London
Study for The Flood
the British Museum, Detail from The Last Mm
By courtesy of the Trustees of
Laing Art Gallery and Museum,
London FRANCIS DANBY
57
Newcastle-upon-Tyne 20
Romantic Woodlmd
46 L. T. Oppc and Miss A. L. T. Opp6
52 D.
4 WILLIAM BLAKE 12 JOHN MARTIN Collection, England
Study (or America Manfred on the Jimgfrau
the British Museum,
By courtesy of the Trustees of City Museum and Art Gallery, Birmingham
60
London between pages 21 SAMUEL :

»<«
nlighl win.
52-57 Cot
13 THOMAS GIRTIN Sir Kenneth Clark Collection,
England
46
5 DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI Subject from Ossian
Oppc
Edgar Allan Poe's The Raven
Illustration to D. L. P. Oppe and Miss
A. L. T.
60
Collection. England 22 SAMUhL PALMER
Charles Alexander Monro Collection, England
The Valley of Vision

L. G. Duke Collection, England

52-57
49 14 ALEXANDER COZENS
6 WILLIAM BLAKB
The Cloud 63
The Ancient of Days T. OppC 23 GEORCE STUBBS
Art Gallery, University
or D. L. T. Oppc and Miss A. L.
The Whitworth ° wl
Collection, England Worcester, Mass.
Manchester Free Public Library,

TURNER 2"57
JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM
5 63
49 15 24 GEORGE STUBBS
EDWARD CALVERT with Blair s Hut
7
Ploughing the Last The 'Ma de Glace, Chamonix
The Ploughman, or the Christian of the British Museum, I'L',
By courtesy of the Trustees London
Royal Academy of Arts,
Furrow of Life .
Museum, London London
Courtesy Victoria and Albert
63
25 JOHN HAMILTON MORTI
16 JOHN SELL COTMAN
49
8 RICHARD WESTALL
Detail from The Death of Ophelia London
of the British Museum,
By courtesy of the Trustees London
London
 page
234
facing page 7* XX JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 8a

XTV JOHN MARTIN The Shipwreck

26 JOHN VARLEY tin -Waters of Oblivion
courtesy of the Trustees of the Tate
Sadak in Search of Gallery,
By
Coder Uris Southampton Art Gallery London
City Museum and Art Gallery, Hereford

page
63 74
27 THOMAS GIRTIN XV WILLIAM BLAKE XXI JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 83
Paradise
Bolton Abbey Dantt Meeting Beatrice in The Parting of Hi ro and Leander
Trustees of die Tate Gallery,
City Art Gallery, Leeds By courtesy of the By courtesy of the Trustees of the
Tate Gallery,
London London
64
IX JAMES WARD
page
Regent's Park: Cattle Piece 76
the Tate Gallery, SAMUEL PALMER
By courtesy of the Trustees of XVI
XXII JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 84

London Coming from Evening Church Houses of Parliament

Tate Gallery, Burning of the
By courtesy of the Trustees of the Philadelphia Museum of Art
66 London
X JOSEPH WRIGHT page
Experiment with an Air-pump
By courtesy of the Trustees
of the Tate Gallery. 78 XXIII JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER 85
XVII JOHN CONSTABLB
London met in a Snowstorm
Dedham Mill Tate Gallery,
page Tate Gallery, By courtesy of the Trustees of the
By courtesy of the Trustees of the
68 London
XI GEORGE STUBBS London
Macaque Monkey
A Baboon and an Albino page
England (Huntemn page
Royal CoUege of Surgeons of 86
London 8° XXIV DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI
Collection), XVIII JOHN CONSTABLE Princess Sabra
The Wedding of St George and
page Weymouth Bay Tate Gallery,
National Gallery, By courtesy of the Trustees of the
69 By courtesy of the Trustees of the
XII GEORGE STUBBS London
Lion London
White Horse frightened by a
Walker Art Gallery, Liverpool page
page
facing page
81 XXV WILLIAM HOLMAN HUNT 87

70 XIX JOHN CONSTABLE

THOMAS GAINSBOROUGH Claudio and Isabella
XIII
Marine Parade and Chain Pier, Brighton
courtesy of the Trustees of the
Tate Gallery,
The Morning Walk Tate Gallery, By
By courtesy of the Trustees of the
the National Gallery, London
By courtesy of the Trustees of London
London

IV GERMANY 94-99
94 17 CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH
facing page 9 FRANZ HORNY
Rocky Gorge in Saxony
90 View ofOlevano
LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER Folkwang Museum, Essen
I
Martin von Wagner Museum, Wiirzburg
Genevieve of Brabant
Museum, London 18 JULIUS SCHNORR VON CAROLSFELD 94^9
Courtesy Victoria and Albert 94
10 CARL ROTTMANN Johann Scheffer von LeonhartshoB
Portrait of the Painter
Kiinste,
90 Italian Landscape Bibliothek der Akademie dcr Bildcnden
2 MORITZ VON SCHWIND Museum, London
Courtesy Victoria and Albert Vienna
The Spirit of tlxe Mountain
Folkwang Museum, Essen 94-99
II LUDWIG VOGEL 94 19 JOHANN WOLPGANG VON GOETHE
CAROLSFELD 90 Overbeck Study of Rocks
3 JULIUS SCHNORR VON Portrait of
Munich
Kunsthaus, Zurich Winterstein Collection,
Siegfried and Kriemhild facing
Courtesy Victoria and Albert
Museum, London
99
LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER 94 20 FERDINAND VON OLIVIER
12
SCHWIND 90 Landscape near Castclgandolfo View of Salzburg
4 MORITZ VON Italian
Son and Albert Museum, London Albertina, Vienna
The Faithful Sister and Kings Courtesy Victoria
Historischcs Stadtmuseum, Munich between pages 99
21 CARL GUSTAV CARUS
CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH 94"99 Ruins
90 13 Gothic Cathedral Seen through
JOSEPH ANTON KOCH the Beach, Riigen
5 Setting Sun on Folkwang Museum, Essen
Crossroads
Landscape with Hercules at tlie Nathan Collection, Zurich
Dr Fritz
99
Folkwang Museum, Essen
22 JOHANN ANTON RAMBOUX
the South-West
14 LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER 94~99 The Choir of Cologne Cathedral from
93
6 PETER VON CORNELIUS Roiving Boat on the Lake of St Wolfgang Stadtmuseum, Cologne
Walk on Easter Day
Faust's
Winterstein Collection, Munich 100
Historischcs Stadtmuseum,
Munich
23 FRIEDRICH OVERBECK

EDWARD VON STEINLB 94~99 The Wise and Foolish Virgins

93 15 Graphiscne
7 KARL FRIEDRICH SCHINKEL Original drawing from the Staatliche
Little Girl under an Apple-Tree
The Castle of the Grail Sammlung, Munich
Folkwang Museum, Essen
Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne
100
94"99 24 PHILIPP OTTO RUNGE
16 PHILIPP OTTO RUNGB
CARL PHILIPP FOHR 93 Noon
8 Alstcr, Hamburg
Gypsies View of the
Gbtz von BerUchingen among the Munich Kunsthalle, Hamburg
"Winterstein Collection,
Hessisches Landcsmuscum,
Darmstadt
 235
facing page
page
facing page
XXXIV GEORC FRIEDRICH KERSTING 118
25 PHILIPP OTTO RUNGB IOO XXVII CARL PHILIPP FOUR 106
Romantic Landscape in Italy Children at the Window
The Lily of Light
H.R.H. the Prince of Hesse and the Rhine Kunstmuseum, Diisseldorf
Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne
page
Collection, Germany
XXXV MORITZ VON SCHWIND 119
100 page
26 JOHANN FRIEDRICH OVBRBECK In the Arti
XXVIII CARL BLECHEN 108
Joseph Telling his Dreams Schackgalerie, Munich
Private Collection In the Park of the Villa Borghese page
National-Galerie, Berlin JOSEPH ANTON KOCH 120
XXXVI
Waterfalls near Subiaco
27 JULIUS SCHNORR VON CAROLSPELD 103 page
109 N.ttional-Galcric, Berlin
Study for the Large West Window of St
Paul's XXIX CARL BLECHEN
page
Cathedral, London Women Bathing in the Park of Terni
LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER 121
XXXVII
Courtesy Victoria and Albert Museum, London Kunstmuseum, Diisseldorf
The Little Lake
facing page
National-Gahric, Be.
28 CARL SPITZWEG I0 3 XXX CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH no page

The Departure Mountain Landscape with Rainbow XXXVIII CARL SPITZWEG 12a

Courtesy Victoria and Albert Museum, London Folkwang Museum, Essen The Outing
Neue Pinakothck, Munich
page
CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH II2
29 JOSEPH ANTON KOCH
XXXI
CARL SPITZWEG 123
103 The Cross and the Cathedral in the Mountains XXXIX
Dante and Virgil in the Underworld
Kunstmuseum, Diisseldorf Life in an Attic
Niedersachsische Landesgalerie, Hanover
Schackgalerie, Munich
facing page

103 XXXII CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH "4 124

30 LUDWIG ADRIAN RICHTER XL ARNOLD BOCKLIN
Peasants Returning from the Fields Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon The Isle of the Dead
Courtesy Victoria and Albert Museum, London
National-Galerie, Berlin Museum of Art, New York
page 126
»6 XLI HANS THOMA
105 XXXIII CASPAR DAVID FRIEDRICH
XXVI PHILIPP OTTO RUNGB In the Sun
The Wreck oftlie 'Hope
Rest on the Flight into Egypt Staatlichc Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe
Kunsthalle, Hamburg
Kunsthalle, Hamburg

V FRANCE
UI
facing page
136-141 19 GUSTAVE DORE
JEAN-FRANCOIS MILLET
(

10 Witches from Macbeth

13° Witches' Sabbath or the
1 THEODORE PIERRE ETIENNE ROUSSEAU
The Wild Geese des Beaux-Arts, Strasbourg
Marshy Landscape Louvre, Pans Musee
Cabinet des Dessins, Musee du
Musee Fabre, Montpellier DENIS AUGUSTB MARIE
RAPPBT M4
136-141 20
I3 ° II ADRIEN DAUZATS Nocjume l8}4
2 VICTOR HUGO La Revue , _
Orleans Cathedral Nationale, Pans
The Mouse-Tower Cabinet des Estampes, Bibliothcquc
Musee du Petit Palais, Paris
Collections de Maison de Victor Hugo, Pans known OS
ANNE-LOUIS GIRODET DE ROUCY
la
136-141 21
12 LOUIS BOULANGER *44
3 EUGENE DELACROIX 133 GIRODET DE ROUCY-TRIOSON
Sire de Gyac
Study for Liberty Leading the People The Funeral of Atala
Collections de Maison de Victor Hugo, Pans
Musee du Louvre, Pans
la
Dessins, Musee du Louvre, Pans
Cabinet des Dessins, Cab
I3 6" I 4 I
13 GUSTAVE DORE 144
4 PAUL HUET
133
a Cemetery 22 HONORB DAUM
The Wandering Jew Crossing
The Beach at Witters Bibliothcquc Nationale, Pans Don Quixote and Sancho Panza
Cabinet des Estampcs, London
Cabinet des Dessins, Musee du Louvre, Paris Courtauld Institute of Art,
I30-I4I
14 CHARLES MERYON 147
JULES ROBERT AUGUSTE
133
23 THEODORE GERICAULT
5 The Ghoul
Study of Arab Horses France Vic Murder oj
Grosjean-Maupin CoUcction,
France Musde Wicar,
Maurice Perret-Camot Collection, Lille

THEODORE GERICAULT
H^HI 147
DE 15
6 DAVID PIERRE GIOTTINO HUMBERT the Wounded Cuirassier 24 HONORS DAUMIER
The Retreat from Russia, or **34
GIOTTINO *3« Rue Transnonain on April 15,
SUPERVILLE known as
Ecole des Beaux-Arts,
Paris
mice
Struggling for the Soul of an Old Man facing page AntoincdcHalaszColl
Angel and Devil
*** 150
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam FRANCOIS MARIUS GRANET THEODORE CHASSBRIAU
!6 XLII
136 the Galleries of the
Louvre the Body ofMazeppa
EUGENE DELACROIX Louis Philippe Visiting Cossack Girl Finding
7 Strasbourg
h Musee des Beaux-Arts,
Study for Apollo's Chariot at „
du Louvre, Pans
Cabinet des Dessins, Musee du Louvre, Pans Cabinet des Dessins. Musee GUSTAVE COURBET
152
XLIII JEAN DESIRE
141
HON 136
JEAN AUGUSTE
DOMINIQUE INGRES Den ,'s Studio
8 PIERRE PAUL PRUD 17
ofOssian Paris
Justice and Divine Vengeance Pursuing
Crime Study for The Dream Musee du Louvre,
Musee Ingres, Montauban GUSTAVE COURBET
154
Musee du Louvre, Paris
XLI V JEAN DESIRE
between pages 141
18 ALFRED JOHANNOT Tlie Roebuck in <fc
I36-HI
9 ANTOINE LOUIS BARYE Esmeralda Abducted by
Quasimodo
Musee du Louvre,
Paris

Maison de Victor Hugo, Pans

Lion and Snake Collections de la

Musee Fabre, Montpellier

^MMMM
k
236
facing page 166 LIV THEODORB GERICAULT 174
L ANTOINE JEAN GROS
Raft of the 'Medusa*
JEAN BAPTISTE CAMILLB COROT
I5<5
XIV Portrait of Christina Boyer
Mus6e du Louvre, Paris
The Letter Paris
Musee du Louvre,
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
EUGENE DELACROIX 176
LV
INGRES I58 Chios
JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE ANNE-LOUIS GIRODET DE ROUCY
kllOWtl OS Scenes of the Massacre at
XLVI LI
l68 Musee du Louvre, Paris
Portrait of Grand GIRODET DE ROUCY-TRIOSON
e Granet, Aix-en-Provence
Tfa Funeral ofAtaU
EUGENE DELACROIX 178
Musee du Louvre, Paris LVI
160
XL VII CHARLES FRANCOIS DAUBIGNY Liberty Leading the People
Evening Musee du Louvre, Paris
X7
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York LII THEODORE GERICAULT
and Lightning 180
Horse Frightened by Thunder LVII EUGENE DELACROIX
National Gallery.
XLVI1I THEODORE PIERRE ETIENNE ROUSSEAU l62
By courtesy of the Trustees of the The Abduction of Rebecca
Sunset at Arbonne London Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
182
172 LVIII HONORE DAUMIER
164 LIII THEODORE GERICAULT Print Collector
XLIX ANTOINE JEAN GROS The
La Folle {The Madwoman) Museum of Art
Napoleon Crossing the Bridge at Areola Philadelphia
Musee des Beaux-Arts, Lyons
Musee du Louvre, Paris

VI OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

facing page WAHLBOM 197
192 20 CARL
l86 10 ALEXANDRE CALAMB
I FRANCISCO DE GOYA Y LUCIENTES Braga the Ancient
Mountain Landscape
Man Walking among Phantoms British Museum, Nationalmuseum, Stockholm
By courtesy of the Trustees of the
Tomas Harris Collection, England 197
London 21 LOUIS GALLAIT

186 Two Children

2 FRANCISCO DE GOYA Y LUCIENTES 11 CARL BRULLOV *9 2
Trustees of the British Museum,
By courtesy of the
The Carnivorous Vulture Design for a Fountain
Museum, London
Tomas Harris Collection, England By courtesy of the Trustees of the British
20°
London 22 LUIGI SABATELLI
between pages Doge
l86 Scene with a
3 FRANCISCO DE GOYA Y LUCIENTES
AUGUST FREDERICK AHLGRENSSON 192-197 degli
12 Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe, Palazzo
The Dream of Reason Produces Monsters
Museum of Art Grotto Uffizi, Florence
Philadelphia
Kongelige Teaters Bibliotek, Copenhagen
200
23 FRANCESCO MORELLI
l8 9 outside the Old
4 LEONARDO ALENZA THOMAS BRUUN 192-197 View of the Pontc Lamentano,
13
Study of Heads Porta Pi a, Rome
Museum, Grotto London
By courtesy of the Trustees of the British Courtesy Victoria and Albert Museum,
Department of Prints and Drawings, Statens Museum
London 200
for Kunst, Copenhagen 24 FELICE GIANI
The Sorcerer
5 ADAM WOLFGANG TOEPFFER 1 89 14 SVEND LUDVIG VALDEMAR GYLLICH 192-197
Gabinetto Disegni e Stampe, Palazzo
degli

Girl with Bowed Head The Valkyries Uffizi, Florence

courtesy of the Trustees of the British
Museum, Kongelige Teaters Bibliotek, Copenhagen
By 200
London 25 TOMMASO MINARDI
LUND 192-I97 Women Lamenting over the Body of Hector
15 JENS PETERSEN Trojan
British Museum,
l8 9 Punch in Prison By courtesy of the Trustees of the
6 HENRY FUSELI
Department of Prints and Drawings, Statens Museum London
Tlie Body of Buonconte da Monlcfeltre being Carried
for Kunst, Copenhae; 203
off by the Devil 26 GIACINTO GIGANTE
courtesy of the Trustees of the British
Museum, Fountain of the Temple of Serapis, Pozzuoli
By 192-197
16 PETER CRAMER San Martino, Naples
London Museo Nazionale di
Death of Balder
Museum 203
Department of Prints and Drawings, Statens 27 GIUSEPPE BERNADINO BISON
l8 9
7 HENRY FUSELI for Kunst, Copenhagen Temptation of St Anthony
Odin Foreseeing Balder s Death facing page Alessandro Morandotti Collection, Italy
By courtesy of the Trustees of the British Museum, 17 NICOLAI ABRAHAM ABILDGAARD 197 203
London 28 FORTUNATO DURANTI
Fingal's Ancestors Appearing to him by Moonlight
Museum Two Saints and an Angel
Department of Prints and Drawings, Statens Disegni, Rome
Gabinetto Nazionale delle Stampe c
8 HENRY FUSELI J 92 for Kunst, Copenhagen
Dante Meeting Ugolino in the Frozen Cocytus LIX FRANCISCO DE GOYA Y LUCIENTES
By courtesy of the Trustees of the British
Museum, 18 JENS CHRISTIAN CLAUSEN DAHL 197 Portrait of Dr Peral
Gallery,
London Landscape By courtesy of the Trustees of the National
Billedgalleri, Bergen London
9 ALEXANDRE CALAME *92 210
AUGUST CAPPELEN 197 LX HENRY FUSELI
19
Landscape with Two Figures Daggers
a Forest
Lady Macbeth Grasping the
Museum, Brook in
By courtesy of the Trustees of the British Stanley-Clarke Collection, London
Nasjonalgallcriet, Oslo Mrs J.
London
 237

VII THE UNITED STATES

facing page

214 8 SAMUEL MORSB 214-219 IS WASHINGTON ALLSTON 219

1 ROBERT HAVELL P. B.

Chinese Pagoda Romantic Scene Ships at Sea

Niagara Falls Seen from the
New York New York Historical Society, New York Fogg Museum of Art. Harvard University,
Phelps Stokes Collection,
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Public Library
9 THOMAS COLE 214-219
214 Landscape
2 THOMAS DOUGHTY
New York Historical Society, New York 16 KARL BODMER 219
River Landscape
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Indians Hunting Bison
10 THOMAS MORAN 214-219 Rare Books Division, New York Public Library
214 Solitude
3 ASHER B. DURAND
Prints Division, New York Public Library
Sketch from Nature
facing page BINGHAM 223
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York LXt GEORGE C.
11 MARY CUSHMAN 219
between pages Fur Traders Descending th

214-219 Mourning Picture—Jacob Cushman Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

4 THOMAS COLE
Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Collection,
Landscape with Tower
Williamsburg, Virginia
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
THOMAS COLE 224
LXXI
12 JOHN TRUMBULL 219
214-219 In the Catskllls
REMBRANDT PEALE
5
Death of Hotspur Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York
Harpers Ferry in 1812
Vassar College Museum, Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
Municipal Museum of the City of Baltimore,

Baltimore, Maryland MILLER 219 226

13 ALFRED J. WASHINGTON ALLSTON
LXIII
214-219 The Trapper's Bride Flight of Florimel
6 WASHINGTON ALLSTON The
Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore Detroit Institute of Arts
Romantic Landscape Oklahoma Press.
By permission of the University of
Art Gallery,
Carolina Art Association, Gibbcs
Charleston, South Carolina 219
14 REMBRANDT PEALB DURAND 228
LX1V ASHER B.
Study for The Court of Death
214-219 Kindred Spirits
7 THOMAS SULLY Charles Coleman Sellers Collection, Carlisle,
New York Public Library
Woman and Child Reading Pennsylvania
,>
•

New York Historical Society, N^w York

ftl
INDEX OF NAMES
to tlie colour plates;

136. I4»
Decamps, Gabriel Alexandre.
Burdach. Karl Friedrich, 89
Burnc-Joncs. Sir Edward.
60. (87)

Other European Countries 17

Adam, William.
Aeschylus, 45. «99
30
^ ..«»«
Countries 9, to
Colder, Alexander. «3
«...

England
(.9* (« 8>.

7
° th " Euiopcin

^:re\rD^q:P Jakob
Dc
rt
Louthcrbourg. Pbilipp
De Monvdle, M.. (34). Architecture 17.
i

II. (72)

18
e J
(30,.McU,,cc to e J

Countries 12 Calvert. Edward. 50. (49).

Dc Saint-James, M..(39)
5SS USX .89. OW. °*« Europe Countries ,
Camuccini. Vinccnzo, 205. (203)
gppelen. August. (.97) Other
Caravaggio (Michelangelo
Mens.). 134.
»^^«»
V (*>).
'9
Desfosscs, Victor, (151)
Dcsiderio. Monsii. 8. 221,
222
Architecture.;
Carducci. Giosue, 205 . . . , x / Desprez. Jean Lou.s. (34).
UW. V
103 )
Lawrence, 94 Julius Schnorr
von. 93. 94. (90). (94;.
De Stael. Madame. 40
Alma Tadema, Sir Carolsfcld.
Altdorfcr. Albrccht, 94, 190,
(i4). " (121). Germany J. lS, 27 Dcutsch. Manuel, 190

M
Carpaccio, Vittorc, (12) Deveria.AchilleJacquW.i48.203
Angelico. Fra. 94 X4*. 148. 203
Dcvcria, Eugene Francois. 43-
Angers, David d\ 44
Anonymous, (39) g££ E2£S * 4. 45,

Carus CarlGmtav.89.99.ioo.io3,230,(99).(»2),oerm
-* <;£„ y
Diday, Francois, 191.
DistcU, Martin, 94
(i9»). ( 228 J

Appiani, Andrea, 205 Architecture 5

Ariosto, Lodovico, 133 Catherwood, Frederick. 220 Dolman. Georg, (33).
(168), (228) Dore\ Gustave, 148. (141).
F^" «* ^
Arnim. Ludwig Achim von. 94 Catlin. George, 213. 214.
205
Arnold, Chnstoph, (121) Cavallini, Pietro,
2 .4).Uni t eaS»,w
Augur, Hezekiah, 213 . » „
France
.
5
Cclentano. Bernardo. 206 g;°^T-^.4.-.(
Aulusie. Jules Robert. 134.
136. (US). Cervantes. Miguel dc, 148 Duban.J. F.. 33

Cezanne. Paul. 59. 135. '43.

*3i. <»»>. I™) Dunker. Balthasar-Anton, 190
Azeglio, Massimo d', 206
Architecture 23
Chanibers.W.lliam. 50. (39). Dupre Jules .44
Simeon, 129. 221 L X1V. United States 3
Jean-Baptiste
8AADER, FRANZ VON, 89 Chardin,
Bacon, John (the Elder). 43 Charlemagne, 94 .
Ul
(»44) 30. 50. 93. 94. (16).
Banks, Thomas, 43, (40).
Sculpture 33 Charlct, Nicolas Toussamt, 133. Durcr. Albrecht. 8,

Banvard.John, 220
Banville, Th6odorc de. 1*7
Charpentier. Julie, 44
Chasscriau. Theodore. 143.
(iS<>).
130. (144). (168)
XL" »%]£--< »— fljJchan) " 43, (40)>
Sculpturc w
Barabino, Nicol6. 205 Chateaubriand. Francois Rene, Duval, Amaury, 133
Barlow, Francis, 49 Chaucer. Geoffrey. 46
Barnum. P.T., (34) Chavanncs, Puvis de, 143 EASTMAN, SETH. 214
200
Chintrcuil, Antoine. 144 Eckcrsberg. ChristoffetWilhelm,
Barry. Sir Charles, 30
Chopin, Frederic, 8. 135 Eckhart (Meister), 103
Bartholdy, Jacob Salomon, 93
Baryc, Antoine Louis. 44, 49. (HO.
Baschenis, Evaristo, 221
Bastiani, Lazaro, (12)
F™ nCC 9
MESSE*^ (=4). 0,). ™ ** Eclcy.William, (87)
Eidhtz, Leopold, (34).
Architecture 12

Emerson. RalphWaldo, 214

Engleficld. Sir Harry, (39)
Batoni, Pompeo, 93. 205 / \
g
135. 186. 189. 214. V™)
l68
Baudelaire. Charles. 9. X30. 133. 134,
Beckford, William. 59. (33). (5*)
Architecture 26
^If
C K"2»*
°^M»"i. (nS XVU. x'vm.
V. (57).
"0.
XIX. EngUnd „
.35. .44. .05.
Ennemoscr, Joseph, 89
Ensor. James, 207
Eschenmaycr, Adam Karl
August von, 00
Bclangcr, F. J.. (39).
Bellini, Gentile, (12) Cooper. Fenimore, 213 Etty, William, 49. 52. (83)
Benvcnuri. Pietro. 205 Coote. Sir Eyre. 43 Everdingcn, Albert, 144
Berkeicy, Bishop, 50 Copley, John, 49 Ewald.J..(i97)
Berlioz, Hector, 13S (»9).
Bcrtall. (Albert d'Arnoux),
148 g£ft?SEV «. .03. *> S , (M. (93). (94).
FAUVEAU, FEUC.B DB, 43. (43).
Sculpture «J

Giacomo, 206
Bertrand, Aloysius, 142
BicdcrmannJ.J., 190
Bingham. George Caleb, 214. («3).
LXI
cSX B.pus.c C-c
Corrcggio. Antonio Allcgn,
(168)
.48. (.56). 003).
XIV Favrctto,
Fcdotov. Paul Andrcv.tch. 192
Ferdinand IV. King of Naples, (34)

\^^*^™'^
Blake.William, 45. 59. 60, 199. (46).
(49). (64). (74). (7^. V >•
Courbet, Jean Desire
Gustave. 43. "*> *33. *«•
(I54).(178).XL1II,XLIV
(.SO), (152).
^ «* Feuerbach, Ansclm, 104
Feti, Domcnico. 134
Field, Erastus Salisbury,
221, 222, (219)
England 9
.

XV, England 6 Couture. Thomas, 143 Flaxman. John. 43. 45. 46. 199. (49).
XXVIII, XXDC
**
(189). 4,
*». ( xo8)- ( loo) { ll2)
Blcchen, Carl. 90. 103. ' - ' Cowpcr.W.lliam, (14O Flegcl, Georg, 221
Blommcr.NilsJohanOlsson.200
(»4). (i*>.
»- Cox, David, 59. (63) ,.-..,.
England 14
Focillon, Henri. 144
Bocklin. Arnold, 103. 104. VI. C»3). Cozens. Alexander, 59. (3*). Forstcr. Fncdrich. (34) n
Bodmcr, Karl. 89. (219). United
Bochmc. Jakob, 46. 103. (76)
States J 6

gS^A* (.97). Other European Countries ,6

Fogelbcrg. Bengt Erland.
Fohr. Carl Philipp. 93. 94. (93).
^
(«). Scugturt J7
(">6), XXVII.
oc
c„,w,,«*
g

Boisdenicr, Boissard dc, 130 Cranach. Lucas. 94. 190 Foscolo, Ugo, 205 »
l8 5. f(39;
Boisscree, Sulpicc. and
Mclchior, 30 Cremona, TranquiUo, 206 Fragonard, Jean Honorc, 129. 143.
Boito. Arrigo, 205 Crcmono, Tclcmaco. 206 Franconi, Antonio, .34
Cromc. John (Old Crome). 51.214 Frederick II. King of Prussia, (26)
SSMSIpES. «. .35. .44. (57). **W * Cushman, Mary. (219). United
States II
Friedrich I. Grand Duke of
Baden. (.26)
Architecture 31 ^.^99.1
Borel. Pctrus, 142
Bosch, Hicronymus, 148
Cuthbcrt. H.. 49. (39). Fr.edr.ch. Caspar David. 7. 9. «. 43.
104. .44. .48. 203. 204. 205.
(»o).
214.
(«a).
60.

(»4).
2 o 23 j. I
("6). (»»). l*^'
"0 *^
Bossi, Giuseppe, 205 (99). (.05). (.09).
Botti* ItO, 46

Boucher. Franco.s. 136

%E£fcZSZ^» m.
Other European Countries lS
-4. (109). d»). 097).
XXXI. XXXII. XXXIII. Germany
Friednch.Johan..cs Bapt.sta. 90
13, H
France 12
Boulanger. Louis. 43. 14*. US. (141). D'Ahvoinc.Jcin-Antoinc. 33 FromciH.n, Eugene. 133. «42
Architecture 1
(l° 6 )
Boullee! Etiennc-Louis, 29. (30). Dalbono. Edoardo, 206 Fuhrich. Joseph von, 93. (94).
Brahms. Johannes. 8 Dah, Salvador. 189 HamHdnrichtteFuseli.Hear7
(49), (64).

^
II

Braun and Schneider. (123)

Brcnuno. Clemens von,
.__*
94, 103. (94).
w ("9)
Danby. Francs, 50. (57).
England 20
Dance. George (the Younger), 30
Fusclu H.nrv. 4S 49. 57. .34. .91.
(76). (.70). (.89). (192).
'99.
(197). (210).
(40),
LX. Otlur
n

Bresdin. Podolphe, 148, 231 Dantan, Jean-Pierre, 44 . Countries 6, 7, 8

Bridgewater. Earl of, (33) Dante. 45. 46. .33. »4*. (74). (l03). (« 9)
to*) .

(.60). XLV"
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('47), (»«*).
Galla.t. Loui., 207. (.97).
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France 2*. 2* Galli-bibiena, Fcrdinando. 203
Dauzats. Adricn, 142. (141). F"
ncc »M< , v Gandy.J. M..(3-;), Architecture 29
Other European Countne* ij 130. 133. 189. 200, 20 5 . (40).
Bruun. Thomas. 203. (.97). Dav.d. Jacques Lou.s. 44. 94. .29. Gau. F. -O, 33
Bryant, William Cullcn, 214 I 70). (219)
Gauguin. Paul. 143. 231
22
Buckler, J.. (33) Davis. A. J.. 40. (34). Architecture 20. Gauticr, Thcophilc, 40, 205
Bullock, Waiiam. (174) Dcbrct, Jean-Baptiste, 33
Buonarcini, Lodovico Otuvio, 203
 239

Irving, Edward, on, Charles. 148. (14O. France 14

(64)
G.W.. Meuroi. lien dc. 191
Isscls. (106)
Ivanov, Alexander, 192, 198 Meyer. 190
J. J..
Gcorgct, Dr.. (172) Michel, Georges, 143
Michelangelo, 46. 93. *34. »3S. »9». '92. "99. 200. (46). (170).
^SiSrS&S!^ » HI. IS* I*LU. LUI.
US. (.40.
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.4.. (69). JAMES, HENRY. (40)
Jank. Christian, (33). Architecture 8 U89)
(SiU»7*>. Ct74). (176). (178). Jet, 33. 134
(U7). 104
Michctti. Paolo. 206
15. *J JcrTcrson, Thomas. (219)
Gcssncr. Salomon Johannot. .
W ii '. (xa)
vcrctt. (46), (87). England 3
Hhirlandaio. Domeiiico, 93 Johannot, Tony, 148. 203.
I

Gun' Felice, (,00). (203).

Other European Countries « (

Miller. Alfred J.. 214. i

.
Juel.Jcns. 90. 203, (105), (Xl
147. (141). France 10
Gibbons. Griming, 43 Julienne, Jean dc, (26)
Mills. Robert, 40
46. 49. 199. (46). (49). (72). (197)
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KAIP, WIILEM, 22t Countries a$
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GigOUX, Jean. 148 ,dinsky. Wassily, 230
Moine, Antonin, 43
Gilly, Fricdrich, (33) Kasthofcr, Karl Albert, 190
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.
49 Kcan, Charles, (39)
I Mondrian. Pict. 221
Giorgionc, 10. (12), Keats, John. 10. 59 States 10
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Roocy-Triosoo, A^c-Loui.. ,30. («). (.«>.
LI. Keller. Sydney, 214
Kcnsctt, John, 214
Kent, William, 50
Morcau. Jean Michel (the Younger), 143
Morcau, Gustavc. 143

drich. 90. 103. ("a). ("8).

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XXXIV 205,206

g3!SS2StS?w.w. •***-»* Kcrstin^ <,). Other European

Countnes sj
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Giulio Romano. 199 King, Charles Bird, 214 [and, George, (64)

g£ ^rg voo.,.30. 9 3..9P.-3. to ).W.

Kirchncr. Ernst Ludwig, 103
Klce, Paul, 103. 230,231
Mon
Morns, Robert. 30
, 135

(112), Germany 19 Klcist. Hemrich von. (39). (112)

Morns. William, 60
Max, 104 United States 8
S^uS?*-*" fc 49. .34. .85. .86. ,8,. (.«>.
("8). UX. Ote Europe Klinkowstrbm. Fncdrich August von, (112)
Monc. Samuel F. B..
Motl
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. 49. (63).
England ij
5£ (.86). (.89). t»J). Klopstock. Fricdrich Got.. 199
94). (99).
Moi
icus, 8. 33. (26)

Countries X, », J Koch. Joseph Anton, 49. 93. 99. 190. (24).

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Graf. Urs, 190 (.03). (.06). (.20).
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Hon. Pierre Adrien, 44 Kbbke. Christen, 204 Munch. Edvard. 203. 23'

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Greco (Doinenico Tlicotocopouli),
Grecnough, Horatio, 213
.Bourguignon
8. (IS),
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iv
Koekkock. Barend Cornelius, 207
Krafft. Johann Peter, (119)
,. Gerhard
von. 103. ("2)
Kupelwiescr, Leopold, (94). (»9)
Mu

NANTBU1L, CBLBSTIN, I48. 203

Napoleon I. .29. I» =00. (158).
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Gncn, Baldung. 8, 50 Alphonsc de, 33 - 20
irrine, Nea
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Grosf Antoine Jean. Baron, 49. 94.

i*9. »3°. 133. U4. U*
6 (57J. Landi. Gaspare, 20S Ncalc.j.P..(33)
XLIX. L Landon, C. P., (30) Ncl io.43
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(144). (164). (166). Urkin, Oliver W.. 221 Nerval lc . I0
Gruncwald, Matthias. 8 Latrobe, Benjanun H.. 40
i.
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Gude. Hans Frcdrik. (197) Lawrence. Sir Thomas, (219) .
. 1,99
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Guerin. Pierre Narcissc. Baron. 130. FurODCan
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Ncuv Maximilian of. (219)
Valdcmar. 203. (w). Other
Gyllich. Svend li0 )
Leibl, Wuhelm, 147. ( Newton, Isaac. (30)
Countries 14 Lcnau. Fricdrich. (119) Nolde. Bmil, 103
Leonardo Da Vinci. 51 NoUckens. Joseph. 4 5
dcnbcrg.90. to J
HADRIAN (EMPEROR),
Haider, Karl, 104, '47
Hallcr, Albert von. 99. 190
(39) Leonard!. Giacomo, 205
Uqueu. can Jacques.
Lermootov. Mikhail Yurcvicfa.
29. 3C U Architecture 4
Nov.!
Nuycn. W.J.J..207

("2)
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24
Lcsueur.J.-B.. 33 OEHMB. BRNSI FERDINAND, 103.

Hansen, Constantin. 203 Lc Sueur. Hubert, 43

Hansonn. Christian Hcmrich, (123) Leu, Hans, 190
Hardorff. Gerold. (the Elder). (105) Lewis. Henry. 220
Dtt, 220. 221 U ,N OttO»»14
Adolf Fredrich, (120)
irpcr, Leys, Henri, 207
Haitmann. Ferdinand. 103 Linnell.John. 5 9. (°3). (7°) Germany 2j. 26
.bert, (-14). United States 1
Ljotard, Jean-Ed Owen, Robert Dale, 40
Wadsworth. 213
Haydon, Benjamin, 49 kngfellow, Henry
1 XVI
Hayez. Francesco, 205
KEfES* * » -• «* •* «>>• «*
ckel, Erich. 103
HeidelofT. K. von. 30
Hcini. Fl «pn, *4 2 Louis XIV, 129
Parccrisa.Josc. l8 9
Heine, Hcmrich, 135. 1+2 Louis XVII. (168) Car. 89
Passavant, Johannes
Hennequin, Phihppc Auguste, (197) Lucas yPadiua.Eugenio,x89 94. (»06)
«9)
l89
Herder, Johann Gottfried '

Lucas y Vil , ,
'

Hertcncli. Heinrich Joachim, (X05) Architecture 13

Giuseppe. (34).
Hess. Heinrich Maria von, 93
Hctsch, Phillip Friedrich, (120)
,, Edward, aax, 222, (219)
EK
Lundbye,
,'^97)?
"° 4
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Countries r 5
10. 104
(219)

Hobbcnu, Meindcrt,
1. Per, 203
51 MACPHERSON. JAMBS. 45. »30. ('9?) ft* tt MM.ft1
lord. 60 Peak. Rubens. (2"v)
Hod! Band, 191 Madox Brown.
Pcna. Diaz dc la, 144
I L6ld( tlin, Fricdrich, 103 Madrazo.Joscdc. 189.(189)
Dr., (208)
Magnasco. Allcsandro, 8
,

flfmann, E.T.A.. 10, 89 Thomas, 45

Architecture 8 Percy,
.ffinann, Julius, (33). Malfatti. Giovanm, 89
Peru 0.93
Holland, Mrs., M.«'
-30
Pcto.John. 220, 221
i

I0 4
Hofland, T. C, (39) Mattes, Hans von. 103. . .

Queen of Naples. (34) Pcyrc. M.J. (30)

Hogarth. William, (189) Mac. Carolina.
Antoine. '33. I4a
Hokusai, 51 Manchat.Prosper-Georges
Picasso, Pablo. 185
ilbein, Hans, 94 Manui. Antomo. 205 P.cnenun 27
Holberg, Ludvig, 200 Marlborough. Duke
of. (39) "J
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Architecture

Homer, 199 Marorigha, G., (34)

203 Plato. 199
ay, Franz, (94). Germany Marstrand, Wuhelm, ,z. Count. 94

•*»«*-* ft* »«*«»*»'

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HotN' i.onrad.93
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Huber.Wolf, 190
Hurlun.um, |.J., 190 Pou "- ''° yj
France 4 ,,. fui (no), (226)
Huct. Paul, 143. '44. 231. ('33). Massimo, Prince, 93
(13^041). P»»*' Maulbcrtsch, Franz
Anton. 135
Hugo »3. 43. 103. 143. 148.
60. (46). (87). -«^ v May, Edouard. 148
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Augustan,
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205
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Mcmi. Bartbelemy, 1

France 17
(141). (US). (200). XLVl.
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240 Tourncmine, Charles Emile dc. 14a

SchcfTcr. Ary. 142

Prud'hon. Pierre Paul. 46.
(X3°). W> France 8
Treviranus, Gottfried
Viul, 90
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ten, «.»«. 3* Wilhelm, 147

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(123) Joseph Mallo.d William, $1, 57. 58. 59. 60. 144. 231.
30 Turner
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Pushkin, Alexander, 19a Schubert. Franz, (xxo) (
von, 90. ("4) XXIU, England
Schubert, GonhilfHeinnch Xx'll, 15
VON. (ll6)
QIMNDT, JOHANN COTTLOB Schumann, Robert, 7. 133
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Quistorp. Johann Gottfried. (112) Schwechte. XXXV,
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Ramboux. Johann Anton. 93. (99).
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a 22 Scott. David, 49
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(176). n, Vincent, 143. 231
Segantini. Giovaniu. 104.
»90 59. (63).
England 26
Rauch. Christian. 43
X90 Arclutccture 3
Ravicr, Auguste. 144 Scghcrs, Hercules. 144. Vaudoyer, Laurent. (30).
RcdUon. Odilon. 46. 60 VI Seitz. Mazinulian. 205 Diego, 185
,

USh (**)• («7°)- Ncpomuk Alois. 148. (H4)

Rembrandt. 8. .34. I3«. '44. Senefeldcr. Johann Vendramin, ( labriele, (12)

Ren *i 40 Servandoni.J. -N.. 203 Vcnctsianov, Alexis. 192

Rcthel. Alfred. 94 Seymour. James. 49 Venturi, Lioncllo, 133. 148
Reynolds. Joshua. 51. X91. ( 2I Verdi. Giuseppe. 205, 206
Richmond. George. 59
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(87). Veronese, Paolo. (18)
XXXVII. Germany 1, 12. '4. 3° Shelley. Percy Bysihe, 10, 59 Ict-lc-Duc. Eugene Emmanuel. 33
Eduard. Architecture 8
Riedel. (33). Sigalon, Xavier, 142 Vugil, (76)
Riepcnliausen Brothers, 103 Silcsius, Angelus. 103 Vivaruu, Alvisc, (12)
Rictschel. Ernst. 43 Simon. Friedrich Rudolf. 190 Vogcl. Ludwig. 93. (94). Germany 11
Sculpture 38
Rimmcr. William. (43). Skovgaard. Peter Knsuan. 204
30, 205
Rittcr. Karl, 89 Sloa 40 • WACKBNRODBR. WILHELM HBINRICH.
Riviere. Madame, 133 Smargiassi. Gabncle, 206 Wagner. J. J.. 89
Architecture 30
Robert! Hubert. 143. (34). (39). Smuh.J.R-.(6.; Warmer, Richard, to, 148
Robert, Leopold. 190 Soanc, Sir John, (39) Mbom, Carl, (197), Other European Countries 20
Architecture 9
Robinson. William. (33). Solana.Josc Gutierrez, 189 erdinand Georg. 103
Rodin. Auguste, 44 Sonne. Jorgcn Valentin,
200 „e. 30. 50. (33). Architecture 9
Wal,
Rorbye. Christian, 203 Speckter, Erwin. 94. 104 VYYV VVXIX Wappers. Gustavc. 207
Rbsner, K . 3° Sp.czweg. Karl. 99. (l«9). (»**)• (»*>'
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Wattcau,
Rogicr, CamiUc, 148 Stael. Madame dc. 130
Watts. Georgi •
60
England 1
Romney. George. 49. (46). Stanley. John Mix. 214 Wedgwood. Josiah. 49. (49), (66). (69)
SterTcns. Hcnnk. 89 Wchl. Fcodor. 90
Eduard Jakob von. 99. (94). Germany 15
Stcinlc, Welti. Albert. 104
Rottmann. Carl. (93). (94).
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Rottmann. Fncdrich, (106) Stewart. Captain William, (219) Wcstall. Richard. 49. (49).
England 8
RoubilLuc. Louis Francois, 43 Stifter. Adalbert. 103 Whately. Thomas. 50
Wctmorc. Sculpture 36
Rouge, G. L. le. (34) Story. William (40).
Wli i« McNeill. 60
231
Rousseau. Henri (Douamcr), 221. Stothard. Thomas. 52
Wickenberg, Per Gabriel. 204
Rousseau. Jean-Jacques, 190. (168) W.cland. Chnstoph Martin, (119)
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XLV111. France I
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50. .34. <«3>. w. (*>. (no. x.,
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Wilde, Oscar, 60
Rozcra, Juan, (189) . ^ Sullv. Thomas. (219). Umted
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Rubens. Peter Paul. 8. 136. 191. *>?. (26). Supcrvuk, Dav.d P.erro G.ott.no
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Wilson. Richard. 50. $1. 214. (57).
Ruhl. Ludwig Si 94. 104 Swcdenborg, Emmanuel, 46
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Runciman. Alexander, (46), TCHAIKOVSKY. PETER ILY1TCH, I98 Wintcrgcrsi. Joseph, 93
16
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Tintoretto. (Jacopo Robusu), (i»)
Other European Countries 22 YOUNG. EDWARD. X90
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St. (39) TocprTer. Wolfgang
ZIEHLAND, C.r.. 30
Sandbcrg, Johan Gustaf. 204 Countries 3
Zuccarelh. Francesco. (57)
Saprcna. Princess, of Warsaw. (118) Torngiain. Pictro. 43
Schadow, Gottfried, 43. 93