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Consider the perfectly mixed storage tank shown in figure 2.1. Liquid stream
with volumetric rate Ff (m3/s) and density f flow into the tank. The outlet stream has
volumetric rate Fo and density . Our objective is to develop a model for the variations
of the tank holdup, i.e. volume of the tank. The system is therefore the liquid in the
tank. We will assume that it is perfectly mixed and that the density of the effluent is the
same as that of tank content. We will also assume that the tank is isothermal, i.e. no
variations in the temperature. To model the tank we need only to write a mass balance
equation.
Ff
f V
Fo
o
Since the system is perfectly mixed, the system properties do not vary with position
inside the tank. The only variations are with time. The mass balance equation can be
1
written then on the whole system and not only on a differential element of it. This leads
to therefore to a macroscopic model.
We apply the general balance equation (Eq. 1.2), to the total mass m = V. This yields:
f Ff (2.1)
o Fo (2.2)
Accumulation:
dm d (V )
(2.3)
dt dt
The generation term is zero since the mass is conserved. The balance equation yields:
d (V )
f F f o Fo (2.4)
dt
For consistency we can check that all the terms in the equation have the SI unit of kg/s.
The resulting model (Eq. 2.4) is an ordinary differential equation (ODE) of first order
where time (t) is the only independent variable. This is therefore a lumped parameter
model. To solve it we need one initial condition that gives the value of the volume at
initial time ti, i.e.
V(ti) = Vi (2.5)
Under isothermal conditions we can further assume that the density of the liquid is
constant i.e. f = o=. In this case Eq. 2.4 is reduced to:
dV
F f Fo (2.6)
dt
The volume V is related to the height of the tank L and to the cross sectional area A by:
V = AL (2.7)
Since (A) is constant then we obtain the equation in terms of the state variable L:
dL
A F f Fo
dt (2.8)
2
L(ti) = Li (2.9)
For the system to be exactly specified we need therefore one more equations. This extra
relation is obtained from practical engineering considerations. If the system is operated
without control (at open loop) then the outlet flow rate Fo is a function of the liquid
level L. Generally a relation of the form:
Fo L (2.10)
If on the other hand the liquid level is under control, then its value is kept constant at
certain desired value Ls. If Fo is used to control the height then a control law relates Fo
to L and Ls:
Fo = Fo(L,Ls) (2.11)
For instant, if a proportional controller Kc is used then the control law is given by:
Where Fob the bias, i.e. the constant value of Fo when the level is at the desired value
i.e., L = Ls.
Note that at steady state, the accumulation term is zero (height does not change with
time), i.e., dL/dt = 0. The model of the tank is reduced to the simple algebraic equation:
F0 = Ff (2.13)
We consider the liquid tank of the last example but at non-isothermal conditions.
The liquid enters the tank with a flow rate Ff (m3/s), density f (kg/m3) and temperature
Tf (K). It is heated with an external heat supply of temperature Tst (K), assumed
constant. The effluent stream is of flow rate Fo (m3/s), density o (kg/m3) and
temperature T(K) (Fig. 2.2). Our objective is to model both the variation of liquid level
3
and its temperature. As in the previous example we carry out a macroscopic model over
the whole system. Assuming that the variations of temperature are not as large as to
affect the density then the mass balance of Eq. 2.8 remains valid.
E=U+K+ (2.14)
Ff , Tf , f
Q
L
Fo , To , o
Tst
Heat supply
Q
F1 F1
Inlets
outlets
F2 System F2
Fn
F3
Ws
Figure 2-3 General Macroscopic System
4
The flow of energy out of the system is:
~ ~ ~
o Fo( Uo Ko o (2.16)
~ ~ ~
d V (U K ) (2.17)
dt
As for the rate of generation of energy, it was mentioned in Section 1.8.4, that the
energy exchanged between the system and the surroundings may include heat of
reaction Qr (J/s), heat exchanged with surroundings Qe (J/s) and the rate of work done
against pressure forces (flow work) Wpv (J/s), in addition to any other work Wo.
W pv Fo Po F f Pf (2.18)
Qe Qr (Wo Fo Po F f Pf ) (2.19)
Substituting all these terms in the general balance equation (Eq. 1.7) yields:
~ ~ ~
d V (U K ) ~
~ ~
~ ~
~
f F f U f K f f o Fo U o Ko o (2.20)
dt
Qe Qr (Wo Fo Po F f Pf )
We can check that all terms of this equation have the SI unit of (J/s). Equation (2.20)
can be also written as:
~ ~ ~
d V (U K ) ~
~ ~ ~
~
~
f F f U f K f f o Fo U o Ko o
dt
(2.21)
P Pf
Qe Qr Wo Foo o F f f
o f
~
The term V 1 / is the specific volume (m3/kg). Thus Eq. 2.21 can be written as:
~ ~ ~
d V (U K ) ~
~ ~ ~
~
~ ~ ~
f F f U f Pf V f K f f o Fo U o PoVo K o o (2.22
dt
)
Qe Qr Wo
5
~ ~ ~
The term U PV that appears in the equation is the specific enthalpy h . Therefore,
the general energy balance equation for a macroscopic system can be written as:
~ ~ ~
d V (U K ) ~
~ ~
~ ~
~
f F f h f K f f o Fo ho K o o Qe Qr Wo
(2.23
)
dt
We return now to the liquid stirred tank heater. A number of simplifying assumptions
can be introduced:
We can neglect kinetic energy unless the flow velocities are high.
We can neglect the potential energy unless the flow difference between the inlet
and outlet elevation is large.
All the work other than flow work is neglected, i.e. Wo = 0.
There is no reaction involved, i.e. Qr = 0.
d VU
~
~ ~
f F f h f o Foho Qe
(2.24)
dt
Here Qe is the heat (J/s) supplied by the external source. Furthermore, as mentioned in
~ ~
Section 1.12, the internal energy U for liquids can be approximated by enthalpy, h .
The enthalpy is generally a function of temperature, pressure and composition.
However, it can be safely estimated from heat capacity relations as follows:
~ ~
h Cp(T Tref ) (2.25)
~
where C p is the average heat capacity.
Furthermore since the tank is well mixed the effluent temperature To is equal to process
temperature T. The energy balance equation can be written, assuming constant density
f = o = , as follows:
C p
~ d V (T Tref ) ~ ~
F f C p (T f Tref ) FoC p (T Tref ) Qe
(2.26)
dt
~ d LT ~ ~ (2.27)
C p A F f C pT f FoC pT Qe
dt
or equivalently:
d LT Q (2.28)
A F f T f FoT ~e
dt C p
6
Since
d LT d L d T (2.29)
A AT AL
dt dt dt
dT Q (2.30)
AL T ( F f Fo ) F f T f FoT ~e
dt C p
or equivalently:
dT Q
AL F f (T f T ) ~e (2.31)
dt C p
The stirred tank heater is modeled, then by the following coupled ODE's:
dL (2.32)
A F f Fo
dt
dT Q (2.33)
AL F f (T f T ) ~e
dt C p
This system of ODE's can be solved if it is exactly specified and if conditions at initial
time are known,
L(ti) = Li and T(ti) = Ti (2.34)
The degree of freedom is therefore, 4 − 2 = 2. We still need two relations for our
problem to be exactly specified. Similarly to the previous example, if the system is
operated without control then Fo is related to L through (Eq. 2.10). One additional
relation is obtained from the heat transfer relation that specifies the amount of heat
supplied:
U and AH are heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer area. The source temperature Tst
was assumed to be known. If on the other hand both the height and temperature are
under control, i.e. kept constant at desired values of Ls and Ts then there are two control
laws that relate respectively Fo to L and Ls and Qe to T and Ts:
7
2.1.3 Isothermal CSTR
We revisit the perfectly mixed tank of the first example but where a liquid phase
chemical reactions taking place:
A
k
B (2.37)
The reaction is assumed to be irreversible and of first order. As shown in figure 2.4, the
feed enters the reactor with volumetric rate Ff (m3/s), density f (kg/m3) and
concentration CAf (mole/m3). The output comes out of the reactor at volumetric rate Fo,
density 0 and concentration CAo (mole/m3) and CBo (mole/m3). We assume isothermal
conditions.
Our objective is to develop a model for the variation of the volume of the reactor
and the concentration of species A and B. The assumptions of example 2.1.1 still hold
and the total mass balance equation (Eq. 2.6) is therefore unchanged
Ff
f
CAf V Fo
CBf o
CAo
CBo
Figure 2.4 Isothermal CSTR
Ff CAf (2.38)
Fo CAo (2.39)
Rate of accumulation:
dn d (VC A )
dt dt (2.40)
8
where r (moles/m3s) is the rate of reaction.
d (VC A ) (2.41)
F f C Af Fo C A rV
dt
We can check that all terms in the equation have the unit (mole/s).
d (VC A ) d (C A ) d (V ) (2.42)
V CA F f C Af Fo C A rV
dt dt dt
Substituting Equation (2.6) into (2.42) and with some algebraic manipulations we
obtain:
d (C A ) (2.43)
V F f ( C Af C A ) rV
dt
In order to fully define the model, we need to define the reaction rate which is for a
first-order irreversible reaction:
r = k CA (2.44)
Equations 2.6 and 2.43 define the dynamic behavior of the reactor. They can be solved
if the system is exactly specified and if the initial conditions are given:
The degree of freedom is therefore 3 − 2 =1. The extra relation is obtained by the
relation between the effluent flow Fo and the level in open loop operation (Eq. 2.10) or
in closed loop operation (Eq. 2.11).
The steady state behavior can be simply obtained by setting the accumulation terms to
zero. Equation 2.6 and 2.43 become:
9
F0 = Ff (2.46)
F f ( C Af C A ) rV (2.47)
More complex situations can also be modeled in the same fashion. Consider the
catalytic hydrogenation of ethylene:
A+BP (2.48)
where A represents hydrogen, B represents ethylene and P is the product (ethane). The
reaction takes place in the CSTR shown in figure 2.5. Two streams are feeding the
reactor. One concentrated feed with flow rate F1 (m3/s) and concentration CB1 (mole/m3)
and another dilute stream with flow rate F2 (m3/s) and concentration CB2 (mole/m3). The
effluent has flow rate Fo (m3/s) and concentration CB (mole/m3). The reactant A is
assumed to be in excess.
V
Fo, CB
k1CB
r ( mole / m 3 .s )
(1 k2CB ) 2 (2.49)
where k1 is the reaction rate constant and k2 is the adsorption equilibrium constant.
Assuming the operation to be isothermal and the density is constant, and following the
same procedure of the previous example we get the following model:
dL
A F1 F2 Fo
dt (2.50)
Component B balance:
d (C A )
V F1( CB1 CB ) F2 ( CB 2 CB ) rV
dt (2.51)
10
Degrees of freedom analysis
The degree of freedom is therefore 3 − 2 =1. The extra relation is between the effluent
flow Fo and the level L as in the previous example.
So far we have considered only liquid-phase reaction where density can be taken
constant. To illustrate the effect of gas-phase chemical reaction on mass balance
equation, we consider the following elementary reversible reaction:
A 2B (2.52)
taking place in perfectly mixed vessel sketched in figure 2.6. The influent to the vessel
has volumetric rate Ff (m3/s), density f (kg/m3), and mole fraction yf. Product comes out
of the reactor with volumetric rate Fo, density o, and mole fraction yo. The temperature
and volume inside the vessel are constant. The reactor effluent passes through control
valve which regulate the gas pressure at constant pressure Pg.
Writing the macroscopic total mass balance around the vessel gives:
d ( V )
f F f o Fo (2.53)
dt
d
V f F f o Fo
dt (2.54)
dC A (2.55)
V F f C Af FoC A0 r1V r2V
dt
The reaction rates for the reversible reaction are assumed to be:
r1 = k1 CA (2.56)
11
r2 k 2C B (2.57)
2
Equations (2.54) and (2.55) define the variations of density and molar concentration.
One can also rewrite the equation to define the behavior of the pressure (P) and mole
fraction (y). The concentration can be expressed in term of the density through ideal gas
law:
CA = yP/RT (2.58)
CB = (1 − y)P/RT (2.59)
Similarly, the density can be related to the pressure using ideal gas law:
where MA and MB are the molecular weight of A and B respectively. Therefore one can
substitute equations (2.58) to (2.60) into equations (2.54 & 2.55) in order to explicitly
write the latter two equations in terms of y and P. Or, alternatively, one can solve all
equations simultaneously.
The degree of freedom is therefore 6 − 5 =1. The extra relation relates the outlet flow to
the pressure as follows:
P Pg
Fo Cv (2.61)
We reconsider the previous CSTR example (Sec 2.1.3), but for non-isothermal
conditions. The reaction A B is exothermic and the heat generated in the reactor is
removed via a cooling system as shown in figure 2.7. The effluent temperature is
different from the inlet temperature due to heat generation by the exothermic reaction.
12
Ff , CAf , Tf
Qe V Fo, CA, T
Assuming constant density, the macroscopic total mass balance (Eq. 2.6) and mass
component balance (Eq. 2.43) remain the same as before. However, one more ODE will
be produced from the applying the conservation law (equation 2.23) for total energy
balance. The dependence of the rate constant on the temperature:
k = koe-E/RT (2.62)
should be emphasized.
The general energy balance (Eq. 2.23) for macroscopic systems applied to the CSTR
yields, assuming constant density and average heat capacity:
C p
~ d V (T Tref ) ~ ~
F f C p (T f Tref ) FoC p (T Tref ) Qr Qe
dt (2.63)
where Qr (J/s) is the heat generated by the reaction, and Qe (J/s) the rate of heat
removed by the cooling system. Assuming Tref = 0 for simplicity and using the
differentiation principles, equation 2.63 can be written as follows:
~ dT ~ dV ~ ~ (2.64)
C pV C pT F f C pT f FoC pT Qr Qe
dt dt
Substituting Equation 2.6 into the last equation and rearranging yields:
~ dT ~ (2.65)
C pV F f C p (T f T ) Qr Qe
dt
Qr = −Hr)Vr (2.66)
where Hr (J/mole) is the heat of reaction (has negative value for exothermic reaction
and positive value for endothermic reaction). The non-isothermal CSTR is therefore
modeled by three ODE's:
dV (2.67)
F f Fo
dt
13
d (C A ) (2.68)
V F f ( C Af C A ) rV
dt
~ dT ~ (2.69)
C pV F f C p (T f T ) (H r )Vr Qe
dt
r = koe-E/RTCA (2.70)
The system can be solved if the system is exactly specified and if the initial conditions
are given:
The degree of freedom is 5−3 = 2. Following the analysis of example 2.1.3, the two
extra relations are between the effluent stream (Fo) and the volume (V) on one hand and
between the rate of heat exchanged (Qe) and temperature (T) on the other hand, in either
open loop or closed loop operations.
A more elaborate model of the CSTR would include the dynamic of the cooling
jacket (Fig. 2.8). Assuming the jacket to be perfectly mixed with constant volume Vj,
density j and constant average thermal capacity Cpj, the dynamic of the cooling jacket
temperature can be modeled by simply applying the macroscopic energy balance on the
whole jacket:
~ dT j ~ (2.72)
jC p j V j j F j C p j (T jf T j ) Qe
dt
Since Vj, j, Cpj and Tjf are constant or known, the addition of this equation introduces
only one variable (Tj). The system is still exactly specified.
14
Fj , Tjf
V F o , CA , T
Fj , Tj
Ff , CAf , Tf
Figure 2-8 Jacketed Non-isothermal CSTR
Consider the tank of figure 2.9 where two solutions 1 and 2 containing materials
A and B are being mixed. Stream 1 has flow rate F1 (m3/s), density 1 (kg/m3), T1 (K),
concentration CA1 (mole/m3) and CB1 (mole/m3) of material A and B. Similarly stream 2
has flow rate F2 (m3/s), density 2 (kg/m3), T2 (K), concentration CA2 (mole/m3) and CB2
(mole/m3) of material A and B. The effluent stream has flow rate Fo (m3/s), density o
(kg/m3), To (K), concentration CAo (mole/m3) and CBo (mole/m3) of material A and B. We
assume that the mixing releases heat of rate Q (J/s) which is absorbed by a cooling fluid
flowing in a jacket or a coil.
Our objective is to develop a model for the mixing process. We will assume that
the tank is well mixed. In this case all the effluent properties are equal to the process
properties. We also assume for simplicity that the densities and heat capacities of the
streams are constant and equal:
= 1 = 2 = o (2.73)
15
Total mass balance
d ( V )
F11 F2 2 Fo o (2.75)
dt
F1 F2 Fo
dV
dt (2.76)
Component balance
d ( oC AoV )
F11C A1 F2 2C A2 Fo oC Ao (2.77)
dt
dC Ao dV
o V C Ao F11C A1 F2 2C A2 Fo oC Ao (2.78)
dt dt
F1 C A1 C Ao F2 C A2 C Ao
dC Ao
V (2.79)
dt
d ( oCBoV )
F11CB1 F2 2CB 2 Fo oCBo (2.80)
dt
Energy balance
The general energy balance equation (Eq. 2.23) yields, assuming negligible kinetic,
potential energy and since no reaction or shaft work occurs:
~
d oVho , mix ~ ~ ~
1F1h1, mix 2 F2 h2, mix o Fo ho , mix Q (2.81)
dt
~
where hi,mix (J/kg) is the specific enthalpy of mixture i.
~
The specific enthalpy hmix of n components can be written as:
16
~ ~
hmix (T , P) hmix (Tref , P) Cpmix (T Tref ) (2.82)
where
n
~
mixhmix (Tref , P ) Ci hˆi (Ci , Tref , P ) Ck hˆs (Ci , T , P ) (2.83)
i 1
with ĥi (J/mole) being the molar enthalpy of component i and ĥs is the heat of
solution per mole of a key component k. Assume constant process pressure (P) then
we can write the enthalpy of each stream as follows, taking component (A) as the key
component,
~
1h1, mix (T1 ) C A1hˆA CB1hˆB C A1hˆ1, s 1Cp1, mix (T1 Tref ) (2.84)
~
2h2,mix (T2 ) CA2hˆA CB 2hˆB CA2 hˆ2, s 2Cp2,mix (T2 Tref ) (2.85)
~
o ho, mix (T ) C AohˆA CBohˆB C Aohˆo, s oCpo, mix (T Tref ) (2.86)
Substituting Eq. 2.86 into the left hand side of Eq. 2.81 and expanding yields:
~
d oVho ,mix =
(2.87)
dt
d (VC Ao ) ˆ d (VCBo ) d (VC Ao ) dT dV
hˆA hB hˆ o ,s CpV CpT
dt dt dt dt dt
The right hand side of equation (2.81) is equal after some manipulation to:
Substituting into the right hand side of Eq. 2.87, the total mass balance equation (Eq.
2.76) and the component balance equation for species (A) (Eq. 2.77) and that of B (Eq.
2.80), and equating Eq. 2.87 to Eq. 2.88 yields, after some manipulations:
dT
VCp C A1F1 ( hˆ1,s hˆo,s ) C A2 F2 ( hˆ2,s hˆo,s ) (2.89)
dt
CpF1 (T1 T ) F2 (T2 T ) Q
The mixer is then described by three ODE's Equations (2.76, 2.79, 2.89). To these
relations we should add the relations that give the heats of mixing:
17
hˆo, s f 3 (C Ao , CBo , To ) (2.92)
The degree of freedoms is therefore 8 – 6 = 2. The two needed relations are the relation
between effluent stream Fo and height L and the relation between the heat Q and
temperature To in either open loop or closed-loop operations.
Consider the shell and tube heat exchanger shown in figure 2.10. Liquid A of
density A is flowing through the inner tube and is being heated from temperature TA1
to TA2 by liquid B of density B flowing counter-currently around the tube. Liquid B
sees its temperature decreasing from TB1 to TB2. Clearly the temperature of both liquids
varies not only with time but also along the tubes (i.e. axial direction) and possibly with
the radial direction too. Tubular heat exchangers are therefore typical examples of
distributed parameters systems. A rigorous model would require writing a microscopic
balance around a differential element of the system. This would lead to a set of partial
differential equations. However, in many practical situations we would like to model the
tubular heat exchanger using simple ordinary differential equations. This can be
possible if we think about the heat exchanger within the unit as being an exchanger
between two perfect mixed tanks. Each one of them contains a liquid.
Tw Liquid, B
TB1
Liquid, A
TA1 TA2
Liquid, B
TB2
For the time being we neglect the thermal capacity of the metal wall separating the two
liquids. This means that the dynamics of the metal wall are not included in the model.
We will also assume constant densities and constant average heat capacities.
18
One way to model the heat exchanger is to take as state variable the exit temperatures
TA2 and TB2 of each liquid. A better way would be to take as state variable not the exit
temperature but the average temperature between the inlet and outlet:
TA1 TA2
TA (2.93)
2
TB1 TB 2 (2.94)
TB
2
dTA (2.95)
AC p VA A FAC p A (TA1 TA2 ) Q
A
dt
where Q (J/s) is the rate of heat gained by liquid A. Similarly for liquid B:
dTB (2.96)
BC p VB B FBC p B (TB1 TB 2 ) Q
B
dt
where
with U (J/m2s) and AH (m2) being respectively the overall heat transfer coefficient and
heat transfer area. The heat exchanger is therefore describe by the two simple ODE's
(Eq. 2.95) and (Eq. 2.96) and the algebraic equation (Eq. 2.97).
The degree of freedom is 5 − 3 = 2. The two extra relations are obtained by noting that
the flows FA and FB are generally regulated through valves to avoid fluctuations in their
values.
19
So far we have neglected the thermal capacity of the metal wall separating the
two liquids. A more elaborated model would include the energy balance on the metal
wall as well. We assume that the metal wall is of volume Vw, density w and constant
heat capacity Cpw. We also assume that the wall is at constant temperature Tw, not a bad
assumption if the metal is assumed to have large conductivity and if the metal is not
very thick. The heat transfer depends on the heat transfer coefficient ho,t on the outside
and on the heat transfer coefficient hi,t on the inside. Writing the energy balance for
liquid B yields:
dTB (2.100)
BC p VB B FBC p B (TB1 TB 2 ) ho , t Ao , t (TB TW )
B
dt
where Ao,t is the outside heat transfer area. The energy balance for the metal yields:
dTw (2.101)
wC p Vw ho , t Ao , t (TB Tw ) hi ,t Ai , t (Tw TA )
w
dt
where Ai,t is the inside heat transfer area. . The energy balances for liquid A yields:
dTA (2.102)
AC p VA A FAC p A (TA1 TA2 ) hi ,t Ai , t (Tw TA )
A
dt
Note that the introduction of equation (Eq. 2.101) does not change the degree of
freedom of the system.
A common case in heat exchange is when a liquid L is heated with steam (Figure 2.11).
If the pressure of the steam changes then we need to write both mass and energy balance
equations on the steam side.
Tw Steam
Ts(t)
Liquid, L
TL1 TL2
condensate, Ts
20
dTL (2.103)
LC pLVL L FLC pL (TL1 TL 2 ) Qs
dt
where
TL1 TL 2 (2.104)
TL
2
Ts = Ts (P) (2.106)
Assuming ideal gas law, then the mass flow of steam is:
M s PsVs (2.107)
ms
RTs
where Ms is the molecular weight and R is the ideal gas constant. The mass balance for
the steam yields:
M sVs dP (2.108)
s Fs c Fc
RTs dt
where Fc and c are the condensate flow rate and density. The heat losses at the steam
side are related to the flow of the condensate by:
Qs = Fc s (2.109)
The degrees of freedom is therefore 7 – 5 = 2. The extra relations are given by the
relation between the steam flow rate Fs with the pressure Ps either in open-loop or
closed-loop operations. The liquid flow rate F1 is usually regulated by a valve.
The previous treated examples have discussed processes that occur in one single
phase. There are several chemical unit operations that are characterized with more than
one phase. These processes are known as heterogeneous systems. In the following we
21
cover some examples of these processes. Under suitable simplifying assumptions, each
phase can be modeled individually by a macroscopic balance.
Component balance:
d ( LV L x i )
f F f z i L FL xi v Fv y i (i=1,2,….,Nc-1) (2.111)
dt
Energy balance:
~
d ( LVL h ) ~ ~ ~
f Ff h f L FL h v Fv H (2.112)
dt
~ ~
where h and H are the specific enthalpies of liquid and vapor phase respectively.
22
Liquid-vapor Equilibrium:
y
i 1
i 1 (2.114)
Nc
x i 1
i 1 (2.115)
Physical Properties:
The densities and enthalpies are related to the mole fractions, temperature and pressure
through the following relations:
L = f(xi,T,P)
v = f(yi,T,P) ≈ MvaveP/R T
Nc (2.118)
Mvave = yM
i 1
i i
Nc (2.119)
h = f(xi,T) ≈ x Cp (T T
i 1
i i ref )
Nc (2.120)
H = f(yi,T) ≈ y Cp (T T
i 1
i i ref ) m
Nc
m = y
i 1
i i
Note that physical properties are not included in the degrees of freedom since they are
specified through given relations. The degrees of freedom is therefore (2Nc+5)-
(2Nc+3)=2. Generally the liquid holdup (VL) is controlled by the liquid outlet flow rate
(FL) while the pressure is controlled by FV. In this case, the problem becomes well
defined for a solution.
Consider the two phase reactor shown in figure 2.13. Gaseous A and liquid B
enters the reactor at molar flow rates FA and FB respectively. Reactant A diffuses into
the liquid phase with molar flux (NA) where it reacts with B producing C. The latter
diffuses into the vapor phase with molar flux (NC). Reactant B is nonvolatile. The
product C is withdrawn with the vapor leaving the reactor. The objective is to write the
23
mathematical equations that describe the dynamic behavior of the process. We consider
all flows to be in molar rates.
Fv
yA , yc
P, T
Vv
FA , TA NA
NC
FB , TB
Q
VL
FL , T
xA , xB , xC
Assumptions:
The individual phases are well mixed and they are in physical equilibrium at
pressure P and temperature T.
The physical properties such as molar heat capacity Cp, density , and latent heat
of vaporization are constant and equal for all the species.
The reaction mechanism is: A+B C and its rate has the form: Rc = k CA CB VL
The two phases are in equilibrium and follows the Raoult’s law.
Total enthalpy for the system is given as: H = NL HL + Nv Hv where HL and Hv are
molar enthalpies in the liquid and vapor phases respectively, and NL and Nv are
their corresponding molar holdups.
The assumption of well mixing allows writing the following macroscopic balances:
Vapor phase:
dNv
FA N A N c Fv
dt (2.122)
d (Nv y A )
FA N A Fv y A (2.123)
dt
Since d(NvyA)/dt = Nv dyA/dt + yA dNv/dt, and using equation (2.122), equation (2.123)
can be written as follows:
24
dy A
Nv FA (1 y A ) N A (1 y A ) N c y A (2.124)
dt
Liquid phase:
dN L
FB N A N c FL Rc (2.125)
dt
d ( N L xA )
N A FL x A Rc (2.126)
dt
Since d(NL xA)/dt = NL dxA/dt + xA dNL/dt, and using equation (2.125), equation (2.126)
can be written as follows:
dx A
NL N A (1 x A ) FB x A Rc (1 x A ) N c x A (2.127)
dt
dxB
NL N A (1 xB ) FB xB Rc (1 xB ) N c xB (2.128)
dt
d ( N L H L Nv H v )
FBCpTB FA (CpTA ) FLCpT FvCpT Rc H r Q (2.129)
dt
Note that:
d ( Nv H v ) d (Hv ) d ( Nv ) d (T ) d ( Nv )
Nv Hv N vCp (CpT )
dt dt dt dt dt (2.131)
Substituting the last two equations, and using the definition of dNL/dt and dNv/dt from
equations (2.122) and (2.125), in equation (2.131) yields:
d (T ) H r Q
N L Nv FA (TA T ) FB (TB T ) Rc (T ) ( N A Nc )
dt Cp Cp Cp (2.132
)
25
The following additional equations are needed:
V = VL + Vv (2.135)
Or, using ideal gas law for vapor volume and total volume and knowing that VL = NL/ ,
we can write:
or
V = NvRT/P + NL/ (2.137)
The degree is freedom is 9-9=0 and the problem is exactly specified. Note that the
reaction rate Rc is defined and that the outlet flow Fv can be determined from the overall
mass balance.
A+BC (2.138)
Assumptions:
26
Fv
V
CA
FL CB
Liquid out
FB
CBo
B Liquid in
FA
A
Figure 2-14 Reaction with Mass Transfer
In such cases, when the two chemical phenomena, i.e., mass transfer and chemical
reaction, occur together, the reaction process may become mass transfer dominant or
reaction-rate dominant. If the mass transfer is slower reaction rate, then mass transfer
prevail and vise versa.
where
KL is mass transfer coefficient
C A* is gas concentration at gas-liquid interface
CA is gas concentration in bulk liquid
To fully describe the process, we derive the macroscopic balance of the liquid phase
where the chemical reaction takes place. This results in:
Liquid phase:
dV (2.140)
B FB M A Am N A FL
dt
Component balance on A:
dC A
V Am N A FLC A rV
dt (2.141)
Component balance on B:
27
dCB
V FBCBo FLCB rV (2.142)
dt
Vapor phase:
Here, since vapor holdup is negligible, we can write a steady state total continuity
equation as follows:
Fv = FA − MA Am NA/A (2.143)
where
Am total mass transfer area of the gas bubble
MA molecular weight of component A
density
V liquid volume
Note that the liquid flow rate, FL can be determined from the overall mass balance and
that the reaction rate r should be defined.
The same modeling approach used for single stage processes will be used for the
staged processes, where the conservation law will be written for one stage and then
repeated for the next stage and so on. This procedure will result in large number of state
equation depending on the number of stages and number of components.
28
In the following we present some examples of mass separation units that can be
modeled by simple ODE's, and we start with liquid-liquid extraction process.
Liquid-liquid extraction is used to move a solute from one liquid phase to another.
Consider the single stage countercurrent extractor, shown in Figure 2.15, where it is
desired to separate a solute (A) from a mixture (W) using a solvent (S). The stream
mixture with flow rate W (kg/s) enters the stage containing XAf weight fraction of solute
(A). The solvent with a flow rate (S) (kg/s) enters the stage containing YAf weight
fraction of species (A). As the solvent flows through the stage it retains more of (A) thus
extracting (A) from the stream (W). Our objective is to model the variations of the
concentration of the solute. A number of simplifying assumptions can be used:
YA = K XA (2.144)
Here K is assumed constant. Since both phases are assumed perfectly mixed a
macroscopic balance can be carried out on the solute in each phase. A component
balance on the solute in the solvent-free phase of volume V1 and density 1 gives:
dX A
1V1 WX Af WX A N A
dt (2.145)
whereas NA (kg/s) is the flow rate due to transfer flow between the two phases. A similar
component balance on the solvent phase of volume V2 and density 2 gives:
dYA
2V2 SYAf SYA N A (2.146)
dt
dX A
2V2 K SY Af SKX A N A
(2.147)
dt
dX A
( 1V1 2V2 K ) WX Af SYAf (W KS ) X A
dt (2.148)
The latter is a simple linear ODE with unknown XA. With the volume V1, V2 and flow
rates W, S known the system is exactly specified and it can be solved if the initial
concentration is known:
29
XA(ti) = XAi (2.149)
Note that we did not have to express explicitly the transferred flux NA.
S, YA S, YAf
W, XAf W, xA
1 2 i N
A component balance in the ith stge (excluding the first and last stage) gives:
dX Ai (2.150)
1iV1i WX Ai 1 WX Ai N Ai (i=2…,N-1)
dt
where NAi is the flow rate due to transfer between the two phases at stage i.
dYAi (2.151)
2iV2i SYAi 1 SY Ai N Ai … (i = 2…,N-1)
dt
Writing the equilibrium equation (Eq. 2.144) for each component YAi = K XAi
(i=1,.,.N) and adding the last two equations yield:
dX Ai (2.152)
(1iV1i 2iV2i K ) WX Ai 1 SYAi 1 (W KS ) X Ai (i=2…,N-1)
dt
30
V1i = V1 and V2i = V (2.153)
dX Ai
(1V1 2V2 K ) WX Ai 1 SYAi 1 (W KS ) X Ai (i=2…,N-1) (2.155)
dt
dX A1
(1V1 2V2 K ) WX Af SYA1 (W KS ) X A1 (2.156)
dt
dX AN
(1V1 2V2 K ) WX AN 1 SYAf (W KS ) X AN (2.157)
dt
The model is thus formed by a system of linear ODE's (Eq. 2.155, 2.156, 2.157)
which can be integrated if the initial conditions are known:
Assumptions:
Isothermal Operation
Negligible vapor holdup
Constant liquid holdup in each stage
31
Perfect mixing in each stage
According to the second and third assumptions, the molar rates can be considered
constants, i.e. not changing from one stage to another, thus, total mass balance need not
be written. The last assumption allows us writing a macroscopic balance on each stage
as follows:
Component balance on stage i:
dxi
H G ( yi 1 yi ) L( xi 1 xi ) (i=2…,N-1) (2.160)
dt
where H is the liquid holdup, i.e., the mass of liquid in each stage. The last equation is
repeated for each stage with the following exceptions for the last and the first stages:
L, xf G, yN
stage N
xN yN-1
xi+1 yi
stage i
xi yi-1
x3 y2
stage 2
x2 y1
stage 1
L, x1 G, yf
Figure 2-17 N-stages Absorbtion Tower
32
Distillation columns are important units in petrochemical industries. These units
process their feed, which is a mixture of many components, into two valuable fractions
namely the top product which rich in the light components and bottom product which is
rich in the heavier components. A typical distillation column is shown in Figure 2.18.
The column consists of n trays excluding the re-boiler and the total condenser. The
convention is to number the stages from the bottom upward starting with the re-boiler as
the 0 stage and the condenser as the n+1 stage.
Cw
D
xd
F
z
steam
B
xb
Figure 2-18 Distillation Columns
33
Well mixed condenser drum and re-boiler.
Liquids are well mixed in each tray.
Negligible vapor holdups.
liquid-vapor thermal equilibrium
Since the vapor-phase has negligible holdups, then conservation laws will only be
written for the liquid phase as follows:
Component balance:
d ( M D xD , j ) (2.162)
Vn yn, j ( R D) xD, j j 1, nc 1
dt
Energy balance:
d ( M D hD ) (2.163)
Vn hn ( R D )hD Qc
dt
dM n (2.164)
Vn 1 Vn R Ln
dt
Component balance:
d (M n xn, j ) (2.165)
Vn 1 y n 1, j Vn y n, j Rx D, j Ln xn, j j 1, nc 1
dt
Energy balance:
d ( M n hn ) (2.166)
Vn 1H n 1 Vn H n Rh D Ln hn
dt
34
Component balance:
d ( M i xi , j ) (2.168)
Vi 1 yi 1, j Vi yi , j Li 1 xi 1, j Li xi , j j 1, nc 1
dt
Energy balance:
d ( M i hi ) (2.169)
Vi 1H i 1 Vi H i Li 1hi 1 Li hi
dt
dM f (2.170)
V f 1 (V f (1 q) F ) L f 1 ( L f qF )
dt
Component balance:
d (M f x f , j ) (2.171)
V f 1 y f 1, j (V f y f , j (1 q) Fz j ) L f 1 x f 1, j ( L f x f , j qFz j )
dt
j 1, nc 1
Energy balance:
d (M f hf ) (2.172)
V f 1H f 1 (V f H f (1 q) Fh f ) L f 1h f 1 ( L f h f qFh f )
dt
Component balance:
d ( M1 x1, j ) (2.174)
VB yB, j V1 y1, j L2 x2, j L1 x1, j j 1, nc 1
dt
Energy balance:
d ( M 1h1 ) (2.175)
VB H B V1H1 L2 h2 L1h1
dt
35
dM B (2.176)
VB L1 B
dt
Component balance:
d ( M B xB , j ) (2.177)
VB yB, j L1 x1, j Bx B, j j 1, nc 1
dt
Energy balance:
d ( M B hB ) (2.178)
VB H B L1h1 Bh B Qr
dt
Notation:
Li, Vi Liquid and vapor molar rates
Hi, hi Vapor and liquid specific enthalpies
xi, yi Liquid and vapor molar fractions
Mi Liquid holdup
Q Liquid fraction of the feed
Z Molar fractions of the feed
F Feed molar rate
Mi n
MB, MD 2
Li n
B,R,D 3
xi,j n(nc − 1)
xB,j,xD,j 2(nc − 1)
yi,j n(nc − 1)
yB,j nc − 1
hi n
hB, hD 2
Hi n
HB 1
Vi n
VB 1
Ti n
36
TD, TB 2
Total 11+6n+2n(nc−1)+3(nc−1)
Equations:
Total Mass n+2
Energy n+2
Component (n + 2)(nc − 1)
Equilibrium n(nc − 1)
Liquid holdup n
Enthalpies 2n+2
Vapor rate n
hB = h1 1
yB = xB (nc − 1)
Total 7+6n+2n(nc-1)+3(nc-1)
Constants: P, F, Z
To well define the model for solution we include four relations imported from inclusion
of four feedback control loops as follows:
Use B, and D to control the liquid level in the condenser drum and in the re-
boiler.
Use VB and R to control the end compositions i.e., xB, xD
37
R, xd V n , yn
Vn, yn
stage n
(a)
Qc (b)
R, xd D, xd
Ln, xn Vn-1, yn-1
stage i stage f
(c) (d)
L2, x2 V 1 , y1 VB, yB
Qr
stage 1
(f)
B, xB
(e)
L1, x1 V B , yB
L1, x1
Figure 2-19 Distillation Column Stages
Simplified Model
One can further simplify the foregoing model by the following assumptions:
(a) Equi-molar flow rates, i.e. whenever one mole of liquid vaporizes a tantamount
of vapor condense. This occur when the molar heat of vaporization of all
components are about the same. This assumption leads to further idealization
that implies constant temperature over the entire column, thus neglecting the
energy balance. In addition, the vapor rate through the column is constant and
equal to:
VB = V1 = V2 =… = Vn (2.179)
(b) Constant relative volatility, thus a simpler formula for the phase equilibrium can be
used:
38
Degrees of Freedom:
Variables:
Equations:
Consider a fluid flowing inside a pipe of constant cross sectional area (A) as
shown in Figure 2.20. We would like to develop a mathematical model for the change
in the fluid mass inside the pipe. Let v be the velocity of the fluid. Clearly the velocity
changes with time (t), along the pipe length (z) and also with the radial direction (r). In
order to simplify the problem, we assume that there are no changes in the radial
direction. We also assume isothermal conditions, so only the mass balance is needed.
Since the velocity changes with both time and space, the mass balance is to be carried
out on microscopic scale. We consider therefore a shell element of width z and
constant cross section area (A) as shown in Fig. 2.20.
(t,z)
z
vo v(t,z)
39
vAt|z (2.181)
where the subscript (.|z) indicates that the quantity (.) is evaluated at the distance z.
Mass out of the shell:
vAt|z+z (2.182)
Accumulation:
Similarly the subscript (.|t) indicates that the quantity (.) is evaluated at the time t.
We can check for consistency that the units in each term are in (kg). Dividing Eq. 2.184
by t z and rearranging yields:
Since the cross section area (A) is constant, Eq. 2.186 yields:
( v ) (2.187)
t z
or
( v ) (2.188)
0
t z
The ensuing equation is a partial differential equation (PDE) that defines the variation
of and v with the two independent variables t and z. This equation is known as the
one-dimensional continuity equation. For incompressible fluids for which the density is
constant, the last equation can also be written as:
v (2.189)
0
z
This indicates that the velocity is independent of axial direction for one dimensional
incompressible flow.
40
2.2.2 Velocity profile inside a pipe
We reconsider the flow inside the pipe of the previous example. Our objective is
to find the velocity profile in the pipe at steady state. For this purpose a momentum
balance is needed. To simplify the problem we also assume that the fluid is
incompressible. We will carry out a microscopic momentum balance on a shell with
radius r, thickness r and length z as shown in Fig 2.21.
r
r
R
r
r z
z
P|z P|z+z
Momentum in:
(rz2rz)|r (2.190)
where rz is the shear stress acting in the z-direction and perpendicular to the radius r.
Momentum out:
(rz2rz)|r+r (2.191)
As for the momentum generation we have mentioned earlier in section 1.8.3 that the
generation term corresponds to the sum of forces acting on the volume which in this
example are the pressure forces, i.e.
There is no accumulation term since the system is assumed at steady state. Substituting
this term in the balance equation (Eq. 1.6) and rearranging yields,
We can check for consistency that all the terms in this equation have the SI unit of
(N/m2). Taking the limit of (Eq. 2.193) as z and r go to zero yields:
41
d (r rz ) dP (2.194)
r
dr dz
Here we will make the assumption that the flow is fully developed, i.e. it is not
influenced by the entrance effects. In this case the term dP/dz is constant and we have:
dP P2 P1 P (2.195)
dz L L
where L is the length of the tube. Note that equation (2. 195) is a function of the shear
stress rz, but shear stress is a function of velocity. We make here the assumption that
the fluid is Newtonian, that is the shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient:
dv z (2.196)
rz
dr
d rdv z P (2.197)
( )r
dr dr L
d 2 vz 1 dvz P (2.198)
( 2
)
dr r dr L
The system is described by the second order ODE (Eq. 2.198). This ODE can be
integrated with the following conditions:
vz = 0 at r = R (2.199)
Due to symmetry, the velocity profile reaches a maximum at the center of the tube:
dvz (2.200)
0 at r = 0
dr
Note that the one-dimensional distributed parameter system has been reduced to a
lumped parameter system at steady state.
42
Flow of moles A in:
(SNA)|z (2.201)
where S (m2) is the surface area and NA (moles A/s m2) is the molar flux.
(SNA)|z+z (2.202)
Rate of generation of A:
−(Sz)r (2.203)
Porous
catalyst
particle
Exterior
surface
z
z=0 z=L
Figure 2-22 diffusion with chemical reaction inside a slab catalyst
( N A ) | z ( N A ) | z z (2.205)
kCA 0
z
dN A (2.206)
kCA 0
dz
43
dC A (2.207)
N A D A
dz
where DA is diffusivity coefficient of (A) inside the catalyst particle. Equation (2.206)
can be then written as follows:
d 2C A (2.208)
DA 2
kC A 0
dz
at z = L, CA = CAo (2.209)
at z = 0, dCA/dr = 0 (2.210)
The first condition imposes the bulk flow concentration CAo at the end length of the
slab. The second condition implies that the concentration is finite at the center of the
slab.
R
r
r
r
z
L
Figure 2-23 Temperature Distribution In a cylindrical rod
44
qz(2 r r)t (2.211)
Heat flow in by conduction at r:
where qz and qr are the heat flux by conduction in the z and r directions.
Heat accumulation:
~ ~
(2 r r z)( h t+t − h t) (2.215)
~
where h is the specific enthalpy. Summing the above equation according to the
conservation law and dividing by (2 r z t), considering constant density, gives:
~ ~
ht t ht q qz z rqr rqr r (2.216)
r r z
t z r
T (2.218)
qz k z
z
and
T (2.219)
qr k r
r
T 2T k T (2.220)
C p kz 2 r (r )
t z r r r
45
This is a PDE where the temperature depends on three variables: t, z, and r. If we
assume steady state conditions then the PDE becomes:
2T k r T (2.221)
0 kz (r )
z 2 r r r
If in addition to steady state conditions, the radius of the rod is assumed to be small
so that the radial temperature gradient can be neglected then the PDE (Eq. 2.221) can
be further simplified. In this case, the differential element upon which the balance
equation is derived is a disk of thickness z and radius R. The heat conduction in the
radial direction is omitted and replaced by the heat transfer through the surface area
which is defined as follows:
Q = U(2RL)(Ta – T) (2.222)
Consequently, the above energy balance equation (Eq. 2.221) is reduced to the
following ODE
d 2T (2.223)
0 kz U (2RL )(Ta T )
dz 2
z
v(t,z)
CAo CA
z z+z z=L
(t,z), CA(t,z)
Figure 2-5 Isothermal Plug flow reactor
In the following we derive the microscopic component balance for species (A) around
differential slice of width z and constant cross-section area (S).
46
where NA is the diffusive flux of A ( moles of A/m2 s).
Accumulation:
− r(Szt) (2.227)
Substituting all the terms in the mass balance equation (Eq. 1.3) and dividing by t and
z gives:
Taking the limit of t 0 and z 0 and omitting S from both sides give the
following PDE:
C A vCA N A (2.229)
kCA
t z z
dC A (2.230)
N A DAB
dz
where DAB is the binary diffusion coefficient. Equation 2.229 can be then written as
follows:
C A (vCA ) 2C A (2.231)
DAb kCA
t z z 2
C A C v 2C A (2.232)
v A C A DAb kCA
t z z z 2
This equation can be further simplified by using the mass balance equation for
incompressible fluids (Eq. 2.189). We get then:
47
C A C 2C A (2.233)
v A DAb kCA
t z z 2
The equation is a PDE for which the state variable (CA) depends on both t and z.
The PDE is reduced at steady state to the following second order ODE,
dC A d 2C A (2.234)
0 v DAb kCA
dz dz 2
The ODE can be solved with the following boundary conditions (BC):
The first condition gives the concentration at the entrance of the reactor while the
second condition indicates that there is no flux at the exit length of the reactor.
The tubular reactor discussed earlier is revisited here to investigate its behavior
under non-isothermal conditions. The heat of reaction is removed via a cooling jacket
surrounding the reactor as shown in figure 2.25. Our objective is to develop a model for
the temperature profile along the axial length of the tube. For this purpose we will need
to write an energy balance around an element of the tubular reactor, as shown in
Fig.2.25. The following assumptions are made for the energy balance:
Water in
To T
CAo v(t,z) v(t,z)
CA
Assumptions:
Kinetic and potential energies are neglected.
No Shaft work
Internal energy is approximated by enthalpy
Energy flow will be due to bulk flow (convection) and conduction.
48
Under these conditions, the microscopic balance around infinitesimal element of width
z with fixed cross-section area is written as follows:
Accumulation of energy:
~ ~
(A h z)|t+t − (A h z)|t (2.239)
Substituting these equations in the conservation law (equation 1.7) and dividing by
t z give:
~ ~ ~ ~
( h ) |t t ( h ) |t ( vh ) |z ( vh ) |z z qz |z q z |z z (2.242)
t z z
D
H r kCA ht ( )(T Tw )
A
T (2.244)
q z kt
z
~
where kt is the thermal conductivity. The specific enthalpy ( h ) can be approximated by:
49
~
h C p(T Tref ) (2.245)
Since the fluid is incompressible it satisfies the equation of continuity (Eq. 2.189).
Substituting these expressions in Eq. 2.243 and expanding gives:
T T 2T D (2.246)
C p C pv kt 2 H r ko e E / RT C A ht ( )(T Tw )
t z z A
dT d 2T D (2.247)
0 C pv kt 2 H r ko e E / RT C A ht ( )(T Tw )
dz dz A
B.C2: at z = L dT ( z ) (2.249)
0
dz
The first condition gives the temperature at the entrance of the reactor and the second
condition indicates that there is no flux at the exit length of the reactor.
Energy accumulation:
50
~ ~
(A h z)|t+t − (A h z)|t (2.252)
Energy generated:
Using the expression for specific enthalpy (Eq. 2.245) and dividing by Atz, the
energy balance yields:
AC p(T Tref )z |t t AC p(T Tref )z | t (vAC pT ) |z (vAC pT ) |z z U (D )(T T(2.254
)
t z A
s )
T T 4U (2.256)
v ( )(T Ts )
t z C pD
dT 4U (2.257
0 v ( )(T Ts )
dz C pD
T ( z 0) T0 (2.258
51
Consider the binary absorption tower shown in Figure 2.26. A liquid stream flow
downward with molar flow rate L and feed composition (XAf). Vapor stream flows
upward with molar flow rate (G) and feed composition (YAf). A simple vapor-liquid
equilibrium relation of the form of:
YA = HXA (2.265)
is used, where H (mole fraction gas/mole fraction liquid) is the Henry's law constant.
This assumption is valid for dilute streams. The molar rates can be considered constants,
i.e. not changing from one stage to another, thus the total mass balance need not be
written. To establish the model equations we need to write equations for liquid and
vapor phase. To simplify the problem we assume constant liquid and vapor holdup in
each stage. We also assume isothermal conditions. An energy balance therefore is not
needed.
The flux NA transferred from bulk liquid to bulk gas is given by:
Where KY is the overall mass transfer in the gas-phase (kgmole/m2s mole fraction) and
YA* is the value that would be in equilibrium with XA. The flux can also be expressed as:
Where KX is the overall mass transfer coefficient in the liquid-phase and XA* is the value
that would be in equilibrium with YA.
A mass balance on the liquid phase for a differential volume (Fig. 2.26) of the column
length z and cross sectional area S yields:
(SLXA)t|z+z (2.269)
Rate of accumulation:
52
Xa (z1, t) Ya (z1, t)
Ls Ya (z,t)
zl Na, z
Xa (z,t) Gs z
z=0
Xa (0, t) Ya (0, t)
Figure 2-26 Packed column
Dividing by Stz and taking the limits as z and t goes to zero yield:
X A X A (2.272)
HL L NA
t z
which is equivalent to
X A X (2.273)
HL L A KY (YA YA* )
t z
X A X (2.274)
HL L A K X ( X a* X A )
t z
We can develop material balances for the gas phase that are similar to Eq. 2.274. This
gives:
X A Y (2.275)
HG G A KY (YA YA* )
t z
or alternatively:
53
YA Y (2.276)
HG G A K X ( X a* X A )
t z
It should be noted that the analysis carried here can be used for a number of operations
where packed columns are used. This includes liquid-liquid extraction, gas-liquid
absorption and gas-solid drying. In each of these operations an equilibrium relation of
the type:
YA = f (XA) (2.277)
is generally available.
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