Introduction to the “With the genuine desire to know comes the
Philosophy of the Human Person courage to ask questions.”
Chapter 1-A: Doing Philosophy
LESSON 1 Objectives:
1. Distinguish a holistic perspective from a
partial point of view.
2. Do a philosophical reflection on a
concrete situation from a holistic
perspective.
What is “Holism”?
Holism in general terms is the idea that
all the properties of a given system cannot be
determined or explained by its component
parts alone, but the system as a whole
determines in an important way how the parts
behave.
Perspectives – Affect the way we might put
meaning in and to anything and everything.
The first philosophers came from ancient Greek
civilization. They had insight (seeing with the
mind). They asked:
a. What makes us all connected to each
other?
b. What makes us one?
c. What underlies everything that exists?
Thales – The first noted philosopher in Western
history, said that “everything is related to each
other because everything that exists contains
water.”
- To understand philosophy is to engage
in it.
- Doing philosophy entails a holistic
rather than a partial perspective.
- With a holistic perspective, we are able
to see the connectedness of parts to
see a meaningful whole.
LESSON 2 Objectives:
1. Discuss the meaning of philosophy.
2. Describe and distinguish the different
branches of philosophy.
3. Recognize human activities that
emanated from deliberate reflection.
4. Realize the value of doing philosophy in
obtaining a broad perspective on life.
What is philosophy?
Derived from the Greek words philos, to love,
and sophia, wisdom, meaning love of wisdom.
Philosophy – the science that by natural light of
reason studies the first causes or highest
principles of all things.
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Ideas of Philosophy:
1. Science
Systematic investigation; organized
body of knowledge
2. Natural Light of Reason
Investigates by using the natural
capacity to think or unaided, human
reason alone
3. Study of All Things
Philosophy is multidimensional or
holistic.
4. First Cause or Highest Principle
From which something proceeds in any
manner whatsoever (Ramos, 2016).
The First Principles:
1. Principle of Identity
Whatever is is, and whatever is not is
not. Everything is what it is.
2. Principle of Non-contradiction
It is impossible for a thing to be and not
to be at the same time and respect.
3. Principle of Excluded Middle
A thing is either is or is not; everything
must either be or not; there is no
middle ground possible.
4. Principle of Sufficient Reason
Nothing exists without a sufficient
reason for its being and existence.
Branches of Philosophy (MEELA)
Metaphysics
- Concerns with reality and existence
- Asks: What is the nature of reality?
Metaphysics is divided into two branches:
Ontology (nature of existence) and
Cosmology (origin and organization of the
universe)
- Principles:
o Time does not exist.
o Past, present and future are all
happening simultaneously.
o What we think, we create.
o Our beliefs create our reality.
Ethics
- Greek ethos, custom or convention,
spirit of community
- Moral principles that govern a person’s
behaviour or the conducting of an
activity.
Ethics is concerned with morality which is
distinguishing between good and evil, right
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 and wrong, and the virtuous and non-
virtuous.
- Principles:
o Autonomy – Self-determination
o Non-maleficence – Avoiding and
preventing harm to all persons
o Beneficence – Providing benefit or
advantage to all
o Justice – Fairness and equity
Epistemology
- Greek episteme, knowledge, science +
logos, theory of knowledge
- Concerned with nature, sources, scope
(limitations), and validity of knowledge.
Epistemology states that knowledge is
related to truth, belief and justification; talks
about the means of production of knowledge
and skepticism about different knowledge
claims (Ferrier, 1808-1864).
- Epistemological Questions:
o What is knowledge?
o How is knowledge acquired?
o What do people know?
o How do we know what we claim to
know?
o How can we differentiate truth
from falsehood?
o Can our senses be trusted?
Logic
- Greek logike, coined by Zeno the Stoic;
Means treatise on matters pertaining to
the human thought.
- The science which directs the
operations of the mind in the
attainment of truth.
- Reasoning is the concern of the
logician.
Aristotle was the first philosopher to
devise a logical method. Truth means the
agreement of knowledge with reality. Logical
reasoning makes us certain that our conclusions
are true, and this provides us with accepted
scientific proofs of universally valid propositions
or statements; that we have valid arguments.
- Three fundamental laws of logic:
o Law of identity: P is P.
o Law of non-contradiction: P is non-
P.
o Law of the excluded middle: Either
P or non-P.
Aesthetics
- Greek aisthetikos, sense of perception
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- Concerned with the nature and
appreciation of art, beauty and good
taste.
- Critical reflection on art, culture and
nature.
Aesthetics vitalizes our knowledge,
helps us to live deeper and richly, and brings us
in touch with our culture.
Contemporary American philosopher Denis
Dutton has identified seven universal
signatures in human aesthetics:
1. Expertise or Virtuosity – Technical
artistic skills are cultivated, recognized
and admired.
2. Non-Utilitarian Pleasure – People enjoy
art for art’s sake, and do not demand
practical value of it.
3. Style – Artistic objects and
performances satisfy rules of
composition that place them in
recognizable styles.
4. Criticism – People make a point of
judging, appreciating and interpreting
works of art.
5. Imitation – Works of art simulate
experiences of the world with a few
exception.
6. Special Focus – Art is set aside from
ordinary life and made a dramatic focus
of experience
7. Imagination – Artists and their
audiences entertain hypothetical
worlds in the theatre of the
imagination.
How do we acquire reliable knowledge?
1. Induction (Empiricism)
 General ideas are formed from the
examination of particular facts.
 The view that knowledge can only be
attained through sense experience.
 Empiricists (e.g. John Locke)
Method: Theory > Hypothesis > Observation
> Confirmation
2. Deduction (Rationalism)
 Particular facts can be understood or
judged according to a general idea.
 The philosophical stance according to
which reason (logic, laws, methods) is
the ultimate source of human
knowledge.
 Rationalists (e.g. Rene Descartes)
Method: Observation > Pattern > Tentative
Hypothesis > Theory
3. Pragmatism (Practicability)
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  The meaning and truth of an idea
are tested by its practical
consequences.
 Pragmatists (e.g. William James
and John Dewey), believe that the
truth of an idea is dependent on its
workability; ideas or principles are
true so far as they work.
Empiricism vs. Rationalism
Rationalists thought that reason could
explain the working of the world; without
reference to sense experience.
Conversely, empiricism argued that the
mind was like a tabula raza (blank sheet of
paper) which was informed by the world of
experience.
Empiricism was rejected, arguing that
the rational mind is capable of structuring and
interpreting sense experience.
Chapter 1b: Doing Philosophy
LESSON 3 Objectives:
1. Distinguish between a personal and a
philosophical question
2. Resolve to develop the habit of asking
not only personal but also philosophical
questions.
3. Resist being dogmatic in thinking and
attitude.
4. Do a philosophical reflection on a
concrete situation from a holistic
perspective.
5. Realize the value of doing philosophy in
obtaining a broad perspective on life.
Personal questions : Philosophical questions ::
Unease > Questions > Unanswered questions >
More questions : Intellectual Midwifery
Abstraction:
- Philosophical questioning begins with a
metaphysical unease (Marcel).
“Philosophy (by way of philosophical
questioning) greatly increases our
knowledge as to what they may be.”
Philosophy removes the somewhat
arrogant dogmatism of those who have
never traveled into the region of liberating
doubt, and it keeps alive our sense of
wonder by showing familiar things in an
unfamiliar aspect.” (Russell)
Dogmatism – arrogant, stubborn assertion of
opinion or belief. Russell argues that the
difficult and unanswerable questions of
philosophy delivers us from dogmatism.
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Doing Philosophy:
- Is every man’s vocation.
- Entails digging into the roots.
- Involves the marriage of theoria and
praxis.
- Necessitates deep reflection.
- Is primarily about questions than it is
about answers.
- Leads to a holistic perspective.
Eastern and Western Philosophy
3 original centers of philosophy in the world:
China, India, and Greece
The Greek Triumvirate
1. Socrates, 469-399 B.C.
 One of the most powerful thinkers in
the world. He encouraged his students
to examine their beliefs.
 Used questions to show that people
hold many contradictory opinions.
 Socratic method – Question-and-
answer approach to teaching
“There is only one good, knowledge;
and one evil, ignorance.”
2. Plato, 426-347 B.C.
 Born into a wealthy Athenian family,
was a wrestler and a poet before a
philosopher.
 Studied with Socrates.
 Traveled to N. Africa and Italy, then
founded school, The Academy, in 387
B.C., lasted for 900 years
“Philosophy begins in wonder.”
3. Aristotle, 384-322 B.C.
 Son of a physician, one of the
brightest students at The Academy.
 Founded school, The Lyceum.
“He who studies how things originated
and came into being... will achieve the
clearest view of them.”
Western Philosophy
Format:
Historical Period | School of Thought | Main
Features and Beliefs | Notable Philosophers
Ancient Rome, 100 BCE-500 | Stoicism |
Emphasis on morality, virtue, calm, and
emotional fortitude | Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus
Aurelius
Medieval Period, 500-1500 | Scholasticism |
Application of philosophy to define and explain
religious doctrines | St. Thomas Aquinas, St.
Augustine
Renaissance, 1400-1700 | Humanism |
Emphasis on the human person, use of
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philosophy to understand society, nature, and
humanity | Petrarch, Desiderius, Erasmus,
Niccolo Machiavelli, Francois Rabelais
The Enlightenment, 1700-1800
A. Rationalism | Reason and logic considered
the basis of knowledge and belief, man has
innate knowledge that can be accessed through
intuition and deduction | Rene Descartes,
Immanuel Kant, Gottfried Leibniz
B. Empiricism | Knowledge is gained through
the sense, reliance on inductive reasoning to
arrive at generalizations | David Hume, Francis
Bacon, John Locke
C. Social and Political Philosophy | Discussions
on the ideal human situation and society,
emphasis on individual rights and liberties |
Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Thomas
Hobbes, John Stuart Mill
Modern Period, 1900-2000
A. Existentialism | Human experience is defined
by the views, emotions, and actions of the
individual | Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich
Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger, Jean Paul Sartre,
Simone de Beauvoir
B. Pragmatism | Emphasis on the practical use
of knowledge and ideas | Charles Peirce,
William James, John Dewey
C. Phenomenology | Experience is studied
based on the subjective viewpoint of the infidel
| Edmund Husserl
D. Absurdism | Man will never understand the
human condition and the meaning of life |
Albbert Camus
E. Postmodernism, Post-structuralism | Analysis
on how knowledge, ideas, and power relations
are defined | Jacques Derrida, Michael Foucault
Additional Information:
- Greek Civilization started to flourish
around 800 BCE-500 BCE.
- Major cities were Athens, Corinth,
Sparta, Thebes, although not politically
united, they were bound by common
culture and language.
- Golden Age of Greek civilization began
around 445 BCE, Athens became the
center of culture and the arts and were
ruled by a democratic government
(Citizens exercised the right to vote,
except women and slaves).
- Produced great lawgivers like Solon,
Draco, Cleisthenes, Pericles and
Lycurgus.
- Sparta had a military form of
Government, war broke out between
Sparta and Athens (Peloponnesian War
in 431 BCE), Sparta won.
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- At this point, Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle rose.
- Aristotle: Concerned with the practical
application of abstract ideas in real life,
“Man is a rational animal.”
Eastern Philosophy
Judaism (Israel or the Levant), 2000 BCE
- Belief in one God who has a role in the
ultimate destiny of mankind; the Jewish
people are God’s chosen people.
- Observance of God’s commandments
will reap rewards.
- Deeper understanding of God’s laws
(scriptures) will lead to wisdom.
- Abraham, Moses, etc. prophets –
Tanakh, Torah, and various scriptures
Hinduism (India, South Asia), 1500 BCE
- Belief in a pantheon of gods, three main
gods are Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu
- Text: The Vedas
Samsara – Belief in a cycle of birth and
rebirth
Moksha – Ultimate union with the Divine
Dharma – The fulfillment of duties and
behaviour in accordance with the
established order in the world
Karma – Good or bad effect
Shinto (Japan), 600 BCE
- Animistic religion influenced by
Japanese myth and traditions
- Kami-no-Michi – The way of the gods
- Material and spiritual worlds are closely
connected through rituals and
traditions
- Mankind and the world are essentially
good and pure
- Harmony and balance are essential in
maintaining purity
Jainism (India), 600 BCE-500 BCE
- Rejects the idea of a Creator and
considers the universe as eternal and
unceasing; time is a wheel which goes
through cycles of prosperity and
suffering.
- Wisdom is developed through the
practice of the five main vows:
o Ahimsa (Non-violence)
o Satya (Truth)
o Asteya (Honesty)
o Brahmacharya (Chastity)
o Aparigraha (Piety)
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 - Meditation, discipline, and respect for
all life are emphasized.
- Mahavira and Jain Agamas are
proponents.
Buddhism (S. E. S.E. Asia), 400 BCE
- Shares a number of main beliefs with
Hinduism (samsara, dharma, moksha)
Four Noble Truths describe worldly
existence as imperfect and influenced by
earthly desires and suffering, one must follow
the Eight-fold Path to achieve Nirvana.
- Two major branches are Theravada and
Mahayana Buddhism
- Siddharta Gautama Buddha, Tripitaka
Confucianism (East Asia), 400 BC
- Contemplation of the order of things
can lead to self-transformation which
can lead to the family and society’s
betterment.
- Human relationships are based on
mutual obligations; people should
perform their intended roles and
contribute to social order.
- Text: The Five Classics
Taoism (East Asia), 200 BC
- Emphasis on the unity and harmony
among opposing elements (yin and
yang).
- Individuals must seek to act understand
and act in accordance with natural
order.
- Lao Tzu, I Ching, Tao Te Ching, Zhuangzi
Islamism (West Asia), 610
- Belief in one God, Allah
- Commitment to faith shown through
Five Pillars:
1. Shahada (Testament of faith)
2. Salat (Daily prayers)
3. Zakat (Alms-giving)
4. Sawm (Ramadan month fasting)
5. Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca)
- Religion and society are closely
intertwined
- Ummah – Muslim community bounded
by faith
- Divided into: Sunni and Shia Islamism
- Prophet Muhammad and text Quran
Sikhism (India), 1440
- God is believed to have created the
universe and is present everywhere and
in everything.
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- Communication to God through
meditation, ultimate destiny is union
with the Divine
- Believers devote themselves to selfless
service and action.
- Guru Nanak and Guru Granth Sahib
Comparison of Eastern Philosophy (♠) and
Western Philosophy (♣)
♠ Buddhism, Confucianism, Hinduism, Integral
Yoga, Islam, Taoism, Zen
♣ Christianity, Rational Scientific, Logical
Schools:
♠ Main Principles:
1. Cosmological unity
2. Life is a journey towards eternal
realities that are beyond the realities
that surround us
3. Circular view of the universe, based on
the perception of eternal recurrence
4. Inner-world dependent
5. Self-liberation from the false “Me” and
finding the true “me”. The highest state
is believed to be a state of ‘no-self’,
where neither self-worth nor self-
importance have any real meaning.
6. Behavioral ethics
♣ Main principles:
1. Feeling oneself as an element of the
Divine
2. Life is a service (to God, money,
business, etc.)
3. Linear view of the universe and life,
based on the Christian philosophy
where everything has its beginning and
the end
4. Outer-world dependent
5. Self-dedication to the goal (life-vision,
success, happiness, etc.)
♠ Eternal reality of the universal truth: self-
liberation through getting rid of the false “Me”
and discovering the true “Me”; Integration with
Religion; Search for absolute truth is a
systematic approach – all events in the universe
are interconnected; searching inside yourself –
by becoming a part of the universe through
mediation and right living.
“Though he should live a hundred years, not
seeing Truth Sublime; yet better, indeed is the
single day’s life of one who sees the Truth
Sublime.” – Buddha
♣ “Me” is here and now. The true “Me” is
every human being is a part of the Divine that
need to become apparent. True “Me” is given
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and does not have to be cognizable. Opposition
to religion. More focused on individual events
and the role of the person. Searching outside
yourself – through research and analysis.
“The truth that survives is simply the lie that is
pleasantest to believe.” – H.L. Menclen
♠ Fundamental Reearch:
- Truth is given and does not need to be
proved.
- Weaker.
♣ Fundamental Research:
- Truth needs to be proved.
- Stronger.
♠ Future; Beliefs and Values:
Your future is determined by your deeds today.
“Study the past if you would like to divine the
future.” – Confucius
The truth key is inside. The inner world of a
human being and his or her ability to control
and develop it is of the highest value. The way
to the top is inside yourself, through self-
development.
“The superior man understands what is right;
the inferior understands what will sell.” –
Confucius
“By chasing desires you will meet only the outer
surface.” – Lao Tzu
♣ Future; Beliefs and Values:
Your future is unknown, it was predetermined
by God and is not influenced by much by your
deeds.
“You can never plan the future by the past.” –
Edmund Burke
The main values are success and achievement.
These that can be achieved in many ways, but
rarely through developing inner strength. The
majority of success and achievement criteria
have an external nature (money, obvious faith,
popularity, etc.) The way to the top is through
active outside intervention.
“Happiness lies in virtuous activity, and perfect
happiness lies in the best activity, which is
contemplative.” - Aristotle
♠ Justice through spiritual practice. “There is a
higher court than courts of justice and that is
the court of conscience. It supersedes all other
courts.” – Mahatma Gandhi
Collectivism – A human being is an integral part
of the universe and the society. People are
fundamentally connected. Duty towards all
others is a very important matter.
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Improvement – Cyclic development, hence
improvement is a never ending journey that has
no limits.
No Radical Innovation – The fundamentals of
the status quo should not be questioned. The
culture of considering and introducing radical
changes is weaker.
♣ Justice through cerebral practice. “At best,
man is the noblest of all animals; separated
from law and justice he is the worst.” – Aristotle
Individualism – A human being has an
individualistic nature and is an independent
part of the universe and the society.
Linear development – hence improvement has
a goal. Development stops when the goal is
reached.
The fundamentals of the status quo can and
often should be questioned. Culture of radical
change is stronger.
End of Comparison
Filipino Philosophy (Thought): Local to Global
1. Loob: Holistic and Inner Dimensions
Kagandahang-loob, kabutihang-loob,
and kalooban are terms that show sharing
of one’s self to others.
The Filipino generally believes in the
innate goodness of human being and looks
at himself as holistic from the inner
dimension under the principle of harmony;
as a self, as total whole, as a “person”
conscious of his freedom, proud of his
human dignity and sensitive to the violation
of these two.
2. Filipino Philosophy of Time
The Filipino believes in “gulong ng
palad” and so looks at life as a series of ups
and downs, a philosophy of life that makes
him an unmitigated optimist.
Time is considered cyclic and blends
well with some Eastern philosophy such as
karma, yin and yang, and living in harmony
with nature.”
3. Bahala Na
- The pre-Spanish Filipino believed in a
Supreme Being, Batula or Bathala
Bathala is a personal being that keeps
the balance in the universe, endowed with
personality. The Filipino subconsciously
accepts the bahala na attitude as a part of
life.
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 Bahala na literally means to leave
everything to God or chance, this
philosophy puts complete trust in the
Divine Providence, contains the element of
resignation. This courage to take risk is also
fatalistic.
Chapter 2: Methods of Philosophizing
LESSON 4 Objectives:
1. Distinguish the different ways of
understanding truth.
2. Explain the criteria to establish the
truth in an argument.
3. Distinguish opinion from truth.
4. Analyze situations that show the
difference between opinion and truth.
5. Realize that the methods of philosophy
lead to wisdom and truth.
6. Evaluate opinions.
What is Truth?
- Scientific truth – based on facts,
verified in the natural world
- Objective truth – points to descriptions
of state of affairs which remains true
regardless of who is viewing them
According to the different SoT in Philosophy:
- Phenomenology – Truth is based on the
person’s consciousness
- Existentialism – “ exercising choices
and personal freedom
- Postmodernism – Truth is not absolute
- Logic – “ reasoning and critical thinking
3 Domains of Truth
1. Objective domain: Truth based on
natural world that maintains a relative
independence from the perspective and
attitude of human beings that perceive
them.
2. Personal domain: Truth is analogous
with “sincerity”; truths that are claimed
in this domain need corresponding
actions that will establish trust. A
person who proves to be consistent
with what he declares about himself is
regarded as authentic.
3. Social domain: Truth is analogous with
a general statement or consensus on
what is right as opposed to what is
wrong. Truth in this domain are the
mostly products of an “agreement” in
society that has been established over
time.
Justification – the process of proving the truth
or validity of a statement; made up of ways of
critically testing a claim against certain criteria.
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“Truth can be understood as what has passed
procedures of justification.” – Richard Rorty,
American pragmatist
How can truth be justified?
1. Scientific / Objective domain: Truths
are tested against empirical evidence.
2. Social domain: Truths are tested
against their acceptability to a
particular group in a particular time in
history.
3. Personal domain: Truths are tested
against the consistency and authenticity
of the person who claims it.
How do we use philosophy to figure out what is
true?
1. Correspondence theory – states that
something is true if it corresponds to
reality or the actual state of affairs.
2. Coherence theory – proposes that
something is true if it makes sense
when placed in a certain situation or
context.
3. Constructivist theory – maintains that
what is true is shaped by an individual’s
society and culture.
4. Consensus theory – views knowledge
based on agreement thus something is
true if everyone agrees with it.
5. Pragmatic theory – maintains that
something is true if we can put it into
practice or is useful in real life.
What is an Opinion?
- An opinion is a statement of judgment
of a person about something in the
world.
- Opinions are statements of judgment
that are in need of further justification.
How to critically examine opinions:
- For an opinion to gain the status of
truth, it must be able to pass the test of
justification, in other words, whoever
makes the opinion must be able to
argue for it in the most reasonable way.
- A philosophical mind must then be
prepared to examine arguments
supporting an opinion.
Argument – a group of statements that
serve to support a conclusion.
- Claim (the conclusion of an argument)
- Premises (the reasons used to support
the conclusion)
Bias – tendencies or influences which affect
the views of people. (4CsFH)
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 1. Correspondence bias or attribution
effect – tendency to judge a person’s
personality by his or her actions,
without regard external factors or
influences.
2. Confirmation bias – tendency to look
for and readily accept information
which fits with one’s own beliefs or
views and to reject ideas or views that
go against it.
3. Framing – focusing on a certain aspect
of a problem while ignoring other
aspects.
4. Hindsight – a tendency to see past
events as predictable, or to ascribe a
pattern to historical events.
5. Conflict of interest – a person or group
is connected to or has vested interest in
the issue being discussed.
6. Cultural bias – analyzing an event or
issue based on one’s cultural standards.
Not all arguments are good arguments. There
are false arguments. Logic studies and
elaborates on good argumentation.
Fallacies – False or fake arguments; faulty
reasoning; a group of statements that appear to
be arguments but fail to support the conclusion.
They usually come in the guise of well-
articulated arguments.
1. Argumentum ad misericordiam (Appeal
to pity): an argument that attempts to
induce pity or guilt to sway opponents
2. Argumentum ad ignorantiam (Appeal
to ignorance): claiming that something
is true because no one has proven it
false or vice versa
3. Argumentum ad baculum (Appeal to
force): An argument where force,
coercion, or the threat of force, is given
as justification for a conclusion.
4. Argumentum ad hominem (Against the
person): Attacking the opponent’s
personal traits or character instead of
countering the argument logically;
includes name calling and mudslinging.
5. Argumentum ad populum (Appeal to
popularity): An argument that appeals
or exploits people’s vanities, desire for
esteem, and anchoring on popularity.
6. Argumentum vericundiam (Appeal to
authority): False authority.
7. Petitio principii (Begging the question):
happens when an arguer states or
assumes as a premise (reason the very
thing he is seeking to probe as a
conclusion; circular reasoning.
8. Post hoc ergo propter hoc (False
cause): Latin after this, therefore
1st Semestral Midterms
because of this, fallacy committed when
it is concluded that one event causes
another simply because the proposed
cause occurred before the proposed
effect.
9. Fallacy of Equivocation: Occurs when
different meanings of a word are used
in the argument.
10. Fallacy of composition: Inferring that
something is true of the whole from the
fact that it is true of some part of the
whole; reverse of the fallacy of division.
11. Fallacy of division: Assuming that
something true of a thing must also be
true of all or some of its parts.
12. Non-Sequitur (Does not follow):
Arguments in which claims, reasons, or
warrants fail to connect logically.
Chapter 3: The Human Person as an Embodied
Spirit
LESSON 5 Objectives:
1. Recognize own limitation or possibilities
for one’s transcendence.
2. Evaluate own limitations and the
possibilities for one’s transcendence.
3. Recognize how the human body
imposes limits and possibilities for
transcendence.
4. Distinguish the limitations and
possibilities for transcendence.
The Body as a Source of Limitation and
Possibility – Embodied beings; embodied
existence.
A paradox is a statement that brings together
two opposing ideas as true at the same time.
The paradox of possibility in limitation:
“It is through our limitations that possibilities
become real.”
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