1 Definition of terms

Knowledge is the foundation of civilisation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Before starting, it is necessary to discuss some fundamentals that are important in

understanding analogue and digital transmission. The first area that is discussed is
what is meant by frequency. Also the make-up of complex waveforms such as
square and sawtooth waveforms is described. In order to understand a complex
waveform a knowledge of harmonic frequencies is necessary, and this is
explained.
Units of measurement are also very important, so an explanation of the gain
or loss of a network is given. The discussion then includes an explanation
of the decibel. Other common units such as dBm, dBr and dBmO are also
discussed.

1.2 FREQUENCIES
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz), equivalent to cycles per second: thus
1 Hz is 1 c/s. The SI measurement system is used to designate frequency
ranges. The common frequency ranges with their SI symbols are given in
Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Common frequency ranges

Frequency SI symbol

1 Hz 1 Hz
1000 Hz I kHz
1000 000 Hz 1 MHz
1000 000 000 Hz 1 GHz
2 Definition of terms

1.3 TYPES OF SIGNAL

There are only two different types of signal that are processed, transmitted and
received by telecommunication equipment. These are analogue and digital. Each
type has individual characteristics.

1.4 ANALOGUE SIGNAL

An analogue signal is defined as a continuous waveform having a positive peak
and a negative peak and having an infinite range of levels. This infinite range is
due to the fact that if two discrete points on the waveform are chosen then a
point halfway between these two points will yield a different amplitude. If the
distance between this new point and one of the previous points is halved then
a new point having a different amplitude will be obtained. This process will
continue an infinite number of times.
An analogue signal has no discontinuous points, i.e. it follows an unbroken
curve for its full duration. Typical analogue waveforms are shown in Fig. 1.1.

+2

+1

-1

-2
Sine wave
+2

+1

-1

-2
Cosine wave
+2

+1

-1

-2
Sinusoidal waveform
+2

+1

-1

-2
Typical speech waveform

Fig. 1.1 Analogue waveforms

 Digital signal 3

The frequencyf of the analogue wave is determined by the following formula:

f=l_ Hz
t
where t = time in seconds

The time t is the duration of one complete cycle, i.e. one wavelength.
The formula used to determine the wavelength A in free space (vacuum) is as
follows:
r
A=ym
where c = velocity of light in a vacuum
= 3 x 108 m / s

The waveforms shown in Fig. 1.1 are shown in the time domain, which means that
the amplitude is plotted against time.
A sine wave and a cosine wave consist of a single frequency. A sine wave can be
described as having a start phase of 0 ~ and an initial amplitude of zero. The wave
then starts to move towards the positive maximum amplitude. A cosine wave can
be described as having a start phase of 90 ~ and an initial positive maximum ampli-
tude. The wave then starts to move towards the zero amplitude point. A sinusoi-
dal wave has a start phase anywhere from 0 ~ to 360 ~ and an initial amplitude
anywhere between the positive maxima and the negative maxima. However, the
sinusoidal wave follows the shape of a sine wave.
A complex wave is a wave that consists of a number of different frequencies.

1.5 DIGITAL SIGNAL

A digital signal is a complex waveform and can be defined as a discontinuous

waveform having a finite range of levels.
A theoretical digital signal is shown in Fig. 1.2. At times t~, t2, t3, t4 and t5, the
signal assumes two states. These states are a logic 0 and a logic 1. It can be seen
that at these times the signal is discontinuous (i.e. there is a break).
A practical digital waveform is not a discontinuous waveform, but has a lead-
ing edge, which is also referred to as the positive edge, and a trailing edge, which is
referred to as a negative edge or lagging edge. A typical practical digital wave is
shown in Fig. 1.2.
In practice the leading edge has a finite rise time and the trailing edge has a finite
fall time. The rise time of the leading edge is the time taken for the output ampli-
tude to rise from 10% of the final steady-state value to 90% of the final steady-
state value. The fall time or decay time of the trailing edge is defined as the
time taken to fall from 90% of the initial output amplitude to 10% of the initial
output amplitude. The rise and decay times are shown in Fig. 1.2.
4 Definition of terms

+'I
+4
+3
+2
+1
I
I
',
|

I
i
i
i
i
i
I
i
l
i
i
i
ii
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i

i
i
I
i
i

l
ii
i

|
i
i
i
i
i
l
i
i
i
ii
i
i
I
i
I
ii

0 II, , II L
to t~ t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
Theoretical digital signal
Positive edge, Negative edge, trailing edge,
leading edge lagging edge
+4
+3
+2
+1
0
to
,
tl
Practical digital signal
l
t6

+'I
+4
+3
+2
+1
90% of Vss

10% of Vss
Vss = Steady-state voltage

0
'-" tl --,
Leading edge expanded

Vss = Steady-state voltage

+5 i

90% of Vss
+3
+4
+2 -t
+l 10% of Vss
0
t ! -----~',

Trailing edge expanded

Fig. 1.2 Digital waveforms

A digital signal has a pulse repetition time (PRT) which is the duration of one
full cycle (one wavelength). The fundamental frequency (i.e. the lowest frequency
in the wave) is determined by means of the following formula:
1
f = P R T Hz

1.6 WAVEFORMS
Different waveforms are produced using different harmonically related frequen-
cies. The harmonic frequencies are those frequencies which are directly related
to the fundamental frequency.
A fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency that exists in the complex
wave and its frequency is determined by the inverse of the duration of one
cycle. Some of these harmonic frequencies are given in Table 1.2.
 Waveforms 5

Table 1.2 Harmonic frequencies

Fundamental frequency Harmonic frequency Relationship

f~ 2nd 23q
3rd 3./i
4th 43q
5th 5fl
50th 50~
200th 200./]

1.6.1 Square wave

A square wave is made up of a fundamental frequency and all the odd harmonic
frequencies. The amplitude relationship between the fundamental frequency
and the harmonic frequencies is very important, as well as the initial phase rela-
tionship between the different frequencies. The fundamental frequency and all the
odd harmonic frequencies must be sine waves and the amplitude relationship

+1
0

-2
Fundamental frequency
+1
0
-1
L-x--:-- v
Third harmonic frequency
+2
+1
0
-1
-2
Fundamental + 3rd harmonic
+1
0
-1 I_ L-'a Fith harmonic frequency
+2
+1
0
-1
-2
Fundamental + 3rd harmonic +5th harmonic

Fig. 1.3 Construction of a square wave

6 Definition of terms

must be as follows:
max. amplitude off1
nth harmonic amplitude =

where J] = fundamental frequency

n = harmonic number (1, 3, 5, 7 etc.)
The construction of a square wave is shown in Fig. 1.3. This figure shows the
resultant of the fundamental frequency and the third harmonic frequency as
well as the resultant of the fundamental frequency, the third harmonic frequency
and the fifth harmonic frequency. By adding more and more odd harmonic
frequencies, eventually a true square wave will result.

1.6.2 Sawtooth wave

This wave is also a complex wave consisting of a fundamental frequency and all the
harmonic frequencies. Again the fundamental frequency and the harmonic frequen-
cies are all sine waves. The amplitude relationship between the fundamental and the
harmonic frequencies is given by the equation in Section 1.6.1. The only difference
is that n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.
+2

+I

-1

-2 Fundamental frequency
+1

-1 Second harmonic frequency

+3 r"
+2
+1
0

-1
-2

-3 L. Fundamental + 2nd harmonic

+1
- f-~ f'~

-1 Third harmonic frequency

+3-

+1

0,, ~ ,-'N
-1
-2 -

-3 - Fundamental + 2nd harmonic + 3rd harmonic

Fig. 1.4 Construction of a sawtooth wave

 Waveforms 7

The construction of a sawtooth wave is shown in Fig. 1.4. This figure shows the
resultant of a fundamental frequency and the second harmonic frequency as well
as the resultant of a fundamental frequency, a second harmonic frequency and a
third harmonic frequency.
If more and more harmonic frequencies are added then a true sawtooth wave
results.

1.6.3 N o i s e spikes
In any communication system one of the biggest problems is noise. Noise can be
caused by sudden current surges due to drastically changing loads in the supply
leads. A typical noise spike is created by a fundamental frequency and all the har-
monic frequencies. Again all the frequencies are sine waves but all the harmonic
frequencies have the same amplitude as the fundamental frequency. This results in
very narrow spikes of large amplitude.
Figure 1.5 shows the fundamental frequency, and the second, third and fourth
harmonic frequencies. In this figure the fundamental and harmonic frequencies all

+2

+1

-1

-2
Fundamental frequency
+2

+1

-1

-2
Second harmonic frequency
+2
+1

-1

-2
Third harmonic frequency
+2

+1

-1

-2
Fourth harmonic frequency

Fig. 1.5 Fundamental and harmonic frequencies

8 Definition of terms

Fig. 1.6 Resultant noise spikes

have the same amplitude. Figure 1.6 shows the resultant wave when these frequen-
cies are added together. By adding more and more harmonic frequencies the spike
increases in amplitude and it is reduced in width; also the ripple between the
positive and negative spikes is reduced.
These noise spikes can occur in the electricity supply in the early morning when
workers in heavy industry switch on their equipment, causing a sudden surge of
current in the supply, and in the late afternoon or early evening when the
equipment is switched off, creating a sudden drain in the current.
Other causes of noise spikes are induced voltages and currents due to lightning
strikes.

1.7 MEASUREMENT OF SIGNAL LEVEL

The gain or loss of a network can be expressed as a ratio of output power over
input power. If the output power is greater than the input power then the network
has a power ratio > 1, which means that the network has a gain. If the output
power is less than the input power then the network has a power ratio <1,
which means that the network has a loss. If the power ratio equals 1 then the net-
work has a unity gain.
Instead of measuring the power a signal dissipates in watts, it is easier to meas-
ure the signal level. The unit of measurement is the bel, but this is a rather large
unit for practical purposes, so instead the decibel is used.
 Measurement of signal level 9

1.7.1 The decibel

A decibel (dB) is one-tenth of a bel and can be defined as the loss or gain of a
network in a logarithmic form.

Power in (Pin) [ N ~---Power out (Pout)

The loss or gain NRati o of the network shown above is given as follows:
Pout
NRati~ Pin
The above equation yields a ratio as both the output power and the input power
are in watts.
To enable a unit of measurement to be attached to this ratio, the following
formula is used:
Pout
N = 10 logl0 ~ dB

The advantage of using the decibel as a unit of measurement is that the individual
gains of the individual networks can be added together instead of being multiplied
together.

Example 1.1
Determine a formula for the overall gain of the three cascaded networks shown
below as a ratio and in dB.
Pio i ,1 P' Poo,
PI P2 Pout
NRatio = K X ~11 x p"-~
This yields the following as a ratio:
N = Pout
Pin
To convert this into dB the following results:

N-
( P, x EP2• -Pout
10 log,o ~ ~2
)
PI /)2 Pout
N = 10 log10 ~ + 10 logl0 ~ + 10 logl0 ~ dB

Example 1.2
Calculate the gain or loss of each of the following networks in dB:
1. Input power is 4 ~tW and output power is 16 ~tW.
2. Input power is 4 mW and output power is 16 mW.
3. Input power is 4 W and output power is 16 W.
10 Definition of terms

Solution
Pout 16 ~tW
N = 10 logl0 ~ = 10 logI0 4 laW

N = 10 lOgl0 4 = 10 x 0.602 = 6 dB
Pout 16 mW
.
N = 10 log10 ~ = 10 logl0 4 mW

N = 10 log10 4 = 10 x 0.602 = 6 dB
Pout _ 16 W
,
N = 10 lOgl0 ~ - 10 logl0 4 W

N = 101og104 = 10 x 0.602 = 6dB

In this example it can be seen that the equation yields the same answer for each
of the three networks. Hence the dB gives no indication of the input power or
output power. In all three examples the network has a gain of 6 dB.
If the input voltage to a network and output voltage from the network are given
then the equation becomes
Vo Zi
N = 20 logl0 -~i + 10 log10 Zo dB

where Fo - output voltage

Fi - input voltage
Zo - output impedance
Zi - input impedance
If the input and output impedance of the network is the same then the equation
becomes

N - 20 log10 ~
Zo dB

where 1Io = output voltage

Vi = input voltage
If the input current to a network and output current from the network are given
then the equation becomes
Io Zo
N - 20 log10 ~ + 10 log10 ~-i dB

where Io = output voltage

Ii = input voltage
Zo = output impedance
Zi = input impedance
If the input and output impedance of the network is the same then the equation
becomes
Io
N = 20 lOgl0 ~ dB
 Measurement of signal level 11

where Io = output voltage

/i = input voltage

1.7.2 The dBm

This unit of measurement is used to measure the actual power at a point in a
system relative to 1 mW. This indicates whether the power at the point is greater
than 1 mW or less than 1 mW. The dBm is defined as the gain or loss of a network,
where the reference signal power is 1 mW, and the power ratio is expressed in a
logarithmic form. This is shown by
P
N = 10 lOgl0 1 mW dBm

Example 1.3
Determine the signal level for each of the following signal powers in dBm:

1. 4laW
2. 16~tW
3. 4mW
4. 16mW

P =101oglo41aW
1. N = 10 logl0 1 m-----W 1mW

N = 10 loglo 0.004 = -23.98 dBm

P =101ogl016~tW
2. N = 10 logl0 1 m-----W 1mW

N = 10 logl0 0.016 = - 17.96 dBm

P 4mW
3. N = 10 loglo 1 m-----W= 10 loglo I mW

N = 10 logt0 4 = 6 dBm
P = 10 loglo 16 m W
4. N = 10 logl0 1 m W 1m W
N = 10 loglo 16 = 12 dBm

As can be seen in the above example the level in dBm indicates the actual
power in the signal relative to 1 roW. Table 1.3 illustrates this relationship
more clearly.
F r o m this it can be seen that the dBm is used to measure the amount of power
at a point in a system.
Refer to Fig. 1.7; the input signal power at the origin of the system is 100 I~W,
which is a level of - l0 dBm. The origin of the system is also referred to as the zero
test level point (0 TLP). The total loss of the local telephone exchange and the
 Table 1.3 Relationship between power and d B m

Power (mW) Level (dBm)

16 +12
8 +9
4 +6
2 +3
1 0
0.5 -3
0.25 -6
0.125 -9
0.0625 -12

100 laW Signal power

-10 dBmO

0 dBr Test point

Loss = 10 dB
-10dBm Signal level
Local' ' National
Origin [ telephone ~ dial
exchange exchange

10laW 19.95 nW 6.31 nW 31.62 pW Signal power

-10 dBmO -10 dBmO -10 dBmO -10dBmO

-10 dBr -37 dBr -42 dBr -65 dBr Test point
88
-20 dBm -47 dBm -52 dBm -75 dBm Signal level

', fc c 420 kHz

T" T
fc I 1116kHz I

Loss - 27 dB Loss = 5 dB fi~

I 4332 kHz

Loss = 23 dB

Channel , Group Supergroup

translation , translation translation
stage ' stage stage

Fig. 1.7 Power losses through a telephone system

 Review questions 13

national dial exchange is 10 dB. The resultant signal power at the audio-in point is
10 ~tW, which is equivalent to a signal level o f - 2 0 dBm.
The channel presents a loss of 27 dB and as a result the signal power at the
output of the channel translation stage is 19.95 nW, which equates to a signal
level o f - 4 7 dBm. The group translation stage presents a loss of 5 dB and as a
result the signal power at the output of the group translation stage is 6.31 nW,
which equates to a signal level o f - 5 2 d B m . The supergroup translation stage
presents a loss of 23 dB, which means that the output signal power from this
stage is 31.62 pW, which equates to a signal level o f - 7 5 dBm.

1.7.3 The dBr

This unit of measurement is used to indicate the level at a point in a system relative
to a level of 0 dBm being sent at the origin of the system or 0 TLP. Refer to Fig.
1.7; the total loss that is caused by the local telephone exchange and the national
dial exchange is 10 dB. As can be seen in the figure, the level at the audio-in point
relative to the 0 TLP is - 1 0 dBr.
The loss presented to the signal by the channel is 27 dB, hence the level at the
output of the channel translation stage relative to the 0 TLP is - 3 7 dBr. The
group translation stage presents a loss of 5 dB to the signal, hence the level at
the output of the group translation stage relative to the 0 TLP is - 4 2 dBr.
The loss presented to the signal by the supergroup translation stage is 23 dB,
hence the level at the output of this stage relative to the 0 TLP is - 6 5 dBr.

1.7.4 The dBmO

This signal level is determined by
N = (N dBm - N dBr) dBmO

As can be seen in the above equation, it is the difference between the level in dBm
and the level in dBr. It should be the same at every test point in a system for the
same signal. A practical example of its usage is the half-power points of a filter.
These points are often referred to as the 3 dB down points; a more correct way
to designate these points is as the - 3 dBmO points.
By referring to Fig. 1.7 it can be seen that the dBmO level at each test point is
exactly the same. This unit of measurement is often used in fault finding to isolate
a faulty piece of equipment in a system.

1.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1.1 Describe the relationships that must exist between a fundamental frequency
and the harmonic frequencies for a square wave.
1.2 Describe, with sketches, the construction of a sawtooth wave.
14 Definition of terms

1.3 Define each of the following:

(a) A sine wave.
(b) An analogue signal.
(c) A digital signal.
1.4 Describe why noise spikes are so troublesome to telecommunication signals.
1.5 Calculate the gain or loss in dB for each of the following:
(a) Input RMS voltage is 3.4mV, output RMS current is 2.5mA, input
impedance is 550 f~ and the output impedance is 220 f~.
(b) The input power is 25 mW and the output power is 2.5 mW.
(c) The input RMS current is 2.4 mA and the output peak current is 5 mA.
The input and output impedance of the network is the same.
1.6 Calculate the signal level in dBm for each of the following:
(a) 5.5 mW.
(b) 6.4 V RMS across 600 f~.
(c) 0.8 mA RMS into 350 f~.