Commission on Higher Education

in collaboration with the Philippine Normal University

TEACHING GUIDE FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

General Mathematics
CORE SUBJECT

This Teaching Guide was collaboratively developed and reviewed by educators from public
and private schools, colleges, and universities. We encourage teachers and other education
stakeholders to email their feedback, comments, and recommendations to the Commission on
Higher Education, K to 12 Transition Program Management Unit - Senior High School
Support Team at k12@ched.gov.ph. We value your feedback and recommendations.
Published by the Commission on Higher Education, 2016

Chairperson: Patricia B. Licuanan, Ph.D.

Commission on Higher Education


K to 12 Transition Program Management Unit

Office Address: 4th Floor, Commission on Higher Education, 

C.P. Garcia Ave., Diliman, Quezon City

Telefax: (02) 441-1143 / E-mail Address: k12@ched.gov.ph

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Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i

DepEd General Mathematics Curriculum Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Chapter 1 Functions

Lesson 1: Functions as Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Lesson 2: Evaluating Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Lesson 3: Operations on Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Chapter 2 Rational Functions

Lesson 4: Representing Real-Life Situations Using Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Lesson 5: Rational Functions, Equations, and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Lesson 6: Solving Rational Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Lesson 7: Representations of Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Lesson 8: Graphing Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Chapter 3 One-to-One and Inverse Functions

Lesson 9: One-to-One Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Lesson 10: Inverse of One-to-One Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Lesson 11: Graphs of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Chapter 4 Exponential Functions

Lesson 12: Representing Real-Life Situations Using Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . 88

Lesson 13: Exponential Functions, Equations, and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Lesson 14: Solving Exponential Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

Lesson 15: Graphing Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Lesson 16: Graphing Transformations of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Chapter 5 Logarithmic Functions

Lesson 17: Introduction to Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Lesson 18: Logarithmic Functions, Equations, and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

 Lesson 19: Basic Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Lesson 20: Laws of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Lesson 21: Solving Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Lesson 22: The Logarithmic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Chapter 6 Simple and Compound Interest

Lesson 23: Illustrating Simple and Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

Lesson 24: Simple Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Lesson 25: Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Lesson 26: Compounding More than Once a Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

Lesson 27: Finding Interest Rate and Time in Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Chapter 7 Annuities

Lesson 28: Simple Annuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

Lesson 29: General Annuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Lesson 30: Deferred Annuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Chapter 8 Basic Concepts of Stocks and Bonds

Lesson 31: Stocks and Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Lesson 32: Market Indices for Stocks and Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Lesson 33: Theory of Efficient Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Chapter 9 Basic Concepts of Loans

Lesson 34: Business Loans and Consumer Loans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

Lesson 35: Solving Problems on Business and Consumer Loans (Amortization and
Mortgage) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Chapter 10 Logic

Lesson 36: Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Lesson 37: Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Lesson 38: Constructing Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Lesson 39: Logical Equivalence and Forms of Conditional Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

Lesson 40: Valid Arguments and Fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

Lesson 41: Methods of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306

Biographical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319

Introduction
As the Commission supports DepEd’s implementation of Senior High School (SHS), it upholds the vision
and mission of the K to 12 program, stated in Section 2 of Republic Act 10533, or the Enhanced Basic
Education Act of 2013, that “every graduate of basic education be an empowered individual, through a
program rooted on...the competence to engage in work and be productive, the ability to coexist in fruitful
harmony with local and global communities, the capability to engage in creative and critical thinking,
and the capacity and willingness to transform others and oneself.”

To accomplish this, the Commission partnered with the Philippine Normal University (PNU), the
National Center for Teacher Education, to develop Teaching Guides for Courses of SHS. Together with
PNU, this Teaching Guide was studied and reviewed by education and pedagogy experts, and was
enhanced with appropriate methodologies and strategies.

Furthermore, the Commission believes that teachers are the most important partners in attaining this
goal. Incorporated in this Teaching Guide is a framework that will guide them in creating lessons and
assessment tools, support them in facilitating activities and questions, and assist them towards deeper
content areas and competencies. Thus, the introduction of the SHS for SHS Framework.

The SHS for SHS Framework

The SHS for SHS Framework, which stands for “Saysay-Husay-Sarili for Senior High School,” is at the
core of this book. The lessons, which combine high-quality content with flexible elements to
accommodate diversity of teachers and environments, promote these three fundamental concepts:

SAYSAY: MEANING HUSAY: MASTERY SARILI: OWNERSHIP

Why is this important? How will I deeply understand this? What can I do with this?

Through this Teaching Guide,
teachers will be able to
facilitate an understanding of
the value of the lessons, for
each learner to fully engage in
the content on both the
cognitive and affective levels.
Given that developing mastery
goes beyond memorization,
teachers should also aim for deep
understanding of the subject
matter where they lead learners
to analyze and synthesize
knowledge.
When teachers empower
learners to take ownership of
their learning, they develop
independence and self-
direction, learning about both
the subject matter and
themselves.

i
The Parts of the Teaching Guide
This Teaching Guide is mapped and aligned to the DepEd SHS Curriculum, designed to be highly usable
for teachers. It contains classroom activities and pedagogical notes, and integrated with innovative
pedagogies. All of these elements are presented in the following parts:

1. INTRODUCTION
• Highlight key concepts and identify the essential questions
• Show the big picture
• Connect and/or review prerequisite knowledge
• Clearly communicate learning competencies and objectives
• Motivate through applications and connections to real-life

2. MOTIVATION
• Give local examples and applications
• Engage in a game or movement activity
• Provide a hands-on/laboratory activity
• Connect to a real-life problem

3. INSTRUCTION/DELIVERY
• Give a demonstration/lecture/simulation/hands-on activity
• Show step-by-step solutions to sample problems
• Give applications of the theory
• Connect to a real-life problem if applicable

4. PRACTICE
• Provide easy-medium-hard questions
• Give time for hands-on unguided classroom work and discovery
• Use formative assessment to give feedback

5. ENRICHMENT
• Provide additional examples and applications
• Introduce extensions or generalisations of concepts
• Engage in reflection questions
• Encourage analysis through higher order thinking prompts
• Allow pair/small group discussions
• Summarize and synthesize the learnings

6. EVALUATION
• Supply a diverse question bank for written work and exercises
• Provide alternative formats for student work: written homework, journal, portfolio, group/
individual projects, student-directed research project

ii
On DepEd Functional Skills and CHED’s College Readiness Standards
As Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) welcome the graduates of the Senior High School program, it is
of paramount importance to align Functional Skills set by DepEd with the College Readiness Standards
stated by CHED.

The DepEd articulated a set of 21st century skills that should be embedded in the SHS curriculum across
various subjects and tracks. These skills are desired outcomes that K to 12 graduates should possess in
order to proceed to either higher education, employment, entrepreneurship, or middle-level skills
development.

On the other hand, the Commission declared the College Readiness Standards that consist of the
combination of knowledge, skills, and reflective thinking necessary to participate and succeed - without
remediation - in entry-level undergraduate courses in college.

The alignment of both standards, shown below, is also presented in this Teaching Guide - prepares
Senior High School graduates to the revised college curriculum which will initially be implemented by
AY 2018-2019.

College Readiness Standards Foundational Skills DepEd Functional Skills

Produce all forms of texts (written, oral, visual, digital) based on:
1. Solid grounding on Philippine experience and culture;
2. An understanding of the self, community, and nation; Visual and information literacies
Media literacy
3. Application of critical and creative thinking and doing processes;
Critical thinking and problem solving skills
4. Competency in formulating ideas/arguments logically, scientifically,
Creativity
and creatively; and Initiative and self-direction
5. Clear appreciation of one’s responsibility as a citizen of a multicultural
Philippines and a diverse world;

Global awareness
Scientific and economic literacy
Systematically apply knowledge, understanding, theory, and skills Curiosity
for the development of the self, local, and global communities using Critical thinking and problem solving skills
prior learning, inquiry, and experimentation Risk taking
Flexibility and adaptability
Initiative and self-direction

Global awareness
Media literacy
Work comfortably with relevant technologies and develop
Technological literacy
adaptations and innovations for significant use in local and global
Creativity
communities; Flexibility and adaptability
Productivity and accountability

Global awareness
Multicultural literacy
Communicate with local and global communities with proficiency,
Collaboration and interpersonal skills
orally, in writing, and through new technologies of communication;
Social and cross-cultural skills
Leadership and responsibility

Media literacy
Interact meaningfully in a social setting and contribute to the Multicultural literacy
Global awareness
fulfilment of individual and shared goals, respecting the
Collaboration and interpersonal skills
fundamental humanity of all persons and the diversity of groups
Social and cross-cultural skills
and communities Leadership and responsibility
Ethical, moral, and spiritual values

iii
The General Mathematics
Teaching Guide
Implementing a new curriculum is always subject to a new set of challenges.
References are not always available, and training may be too short to cover all the
required topics. Under these circumstances, providing teachers with quality resource
materials aligned with the curricular competencies may be the best strategy for
delivering the expected learning outcomes. Such is the rationale for creating a series of
teaching guides for several Grade 11 and 12 subjects. The intention is to provide
teachers a complete resource that addresses all expected learning competencies, as
stated in the Department of Education’s offi︎cial curriculum guide.

This resource is a teaching guide for General Mathematics. The structure is quite
unique, re︎flective of the wide scope of General Mathematics: functions, business
mathematics, and logic. Each lesson begins with an introductory or motivational
activity. The main part of the lesson presents important ideas and provides several
solved examples. Explanations to basic properties, the rationale for mathematical
procedures, and the derivation of important formulas are also provided. The goal is to
enable teachers to move learners away from regurgitating information and towards an
authentic understanding of, and appreciation for, the subject matter.

The chapters on functions are an extension of the functions learned in Junior High
School, where the focus was primarily on linear, quadratic, and polynomial functions.
In Grade 11, learners will be exposed to other types of functions such as piecewise,
rational, exponential, and logarithmic functions. Related topics such as solving
equations and inequalities, as well as identifying the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes are also included.

iv
The chapters on business mathematics in Grade 11 may be learners' ︎first opportunity
to be exposed to topics related to ︎financial literacy. Here, they learn about simple and
compound interest, annuities, loans, stocks, and bonds. These lessons can hopefully
prepare learners to analyze business-related problems and make sound ︎financial
decisions.

The ︎final chapter on logic exposes learners to symbolic forms of propositions (or
statements) and arguments. Through the use of symbolic logic, learners should be able
to recognize equivalent propositions, identify fallacies, and judge the validity of
arguments. The culminating lesson is an application of the rules of symbolic logic, as
learners are taught to write their own justifications to mathematical and real-life
statements.

This Teaching Guide is intended to be a practical resource for teachers. It includes

activities, explanations, and assessment tools. While the beginning teacher may use
this Teaching Guide as a “script,” more experienced teachers can use this resource as a
starting point for writing their own lesson plans. In any case, it is hoped that this
resource, together with the Teaching Guide for other subjects, can support teachers in
achieving the vision of the K to 12 Program.

v
 First Quarter
Hour 1 Hour 2 Hour 3 Hour 4

Week a Lesson 1 Lesson 1, 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 3

Week b Lesson 4 Lesson 5, 6 Lesson 6 Lesson 7

Week c Lesson 7 Lesson 8 Lesson 8 Review/Exam

Week d Lesson 9 Lesson 10 Lesson 10 Lesson 11

Week e Lesson 11 Review/Exam Lesson 12 Lesson 12, 13

Week f Lesson 14 Lesson 14 Lesson 15 Lesson 15

Week g Lesson 16 Lesson 16 Review/Exam Review/Exam

Week h Lesson 17 Lesson 17 Lesson 18, 19 Lesson 19, 20

Week i Lesson 20 Lesson 21 Lesson 21 Lesson 21

Week j Lesson 22 Lesson 22 Review/Exam Review/Exam

Second Quarter
Hour 1 Hour 2 Hour 3 Hour 4

Week a Lesson 23 Lesson 24 Lesson 25 Lesson 25, 26

Week b Lesson 26 Lesson 27 Lesson 27 / Review Review/Exam

Week c Lesson 28 Lesson 28 Lesson 29 Lesson 29

Week d Lesson 29 Lesson 30 Lesson 30 Review/Exam

Week e Lesson 31 Lesson 31 Lesson 32 Lesson 33

Week f Lesson 34 Lesson 35 Lesson 35 Review/Exam

Week g Lesson 36 Lesson 36 Lesson 37 Lesson 37

Week h Lesson 38 Lesson 39 Lesson 39 Lesson 39

Week i Lesson 40 Lesson 40 Lesson 40 Lesson 41

Week j Lesson 41 Lesson 41 Review/Exam Review/Exam

vi
 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – CORE SUBJECT
Grade: 11 Semester: First Semester
Core Subject Title: General Mathematics No. of Hours/Semester: 80 hours/semester
Prerequisite (if needed):
Core Subject Description: At the end of the course, the students must know how to solve problems involving rational, exponential and logarithmic functions; to solve
business-related problems; and to apply logic to real-life situations.
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARDS
Functions and The learner demonstrates The learner is able to... The learner...
Their Graphs understanding of...
M11GM-Ia-1
1. represents real-life situations using functions, including
1. key concepts of 1. accurately construct piece-wise functions.
functions. mathematical models to
represent real-life 2. evaluates a function. M11GM-Ia-2
situations using
functions. 3. performs addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
M11GM-Ia-3
and composition of functions
4. solves problems involving functions. M11GM-Ia-4
5. represents real-life situations using rational functions. M11GM-Ib-1
2. key concepts of rational 2. accurately formulate and 6. distinguishes rational function, rational equation, and
M11GM-Ib-2
functions. solve real-life problems rational inequality.
involving rational 7. solves rational equations and inequalities. M11GM-Ib-3
functions. 8. represents a rational function through its: (a) table of
M11GM-Ib-4
values, (b) graph, and (c) equation.
9. finds the domain and range of a rational function. M11GM-Ib-5
10. determines the:
(a) intercepts
M11GM-Ic-1
(b) zeroes; and
(c) asymptotes of rational functions
11. graphs rational functions. M11GM-Ic-2
12. solves problems involving rational functions,
M11GM-Ic-3
equations, and inequalities.
K to 12 Senior High School Core Curriculum – General Mathematics December 2013 Page 1 of 5

CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS
3. key concepts of inverse
functions, exponential
functions, and
logarithmic functions.
K to 12 Senior High School Core Curriculum – General Mathematics December 2013
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – CORE SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARDS
3. apply the concepts of 1. represents real-life situations using
M11GM-Id-1
inverse functions, one-to one functions.
exponential functions,2. determines the inverse of a one-to-one function. M11GM-Id-2
and logarithmic functions
3. represents an inverse function through its: (a) table of
M11GM-Id-3
to formulate and solve values, and (b) graph.
real-life problems with
4. finds the domain and range of an inverse function. M11GM-Id-4
precision and accuracy.
5. graphs inverse functions. M11GM-Ie-1
6. solves problems involving inverse functions. M11GM-Ie-2
7. represents real-life situations using exponential
M11GM-Ie-3
functions.
8. distinguishes between exponential function, exponential
M11GM-Ie-4
equation, and exponential inequality.
9. solves exponential equations and inequalities. M11GM-Ie-f-1
10. represents an exponential function through its: (a) table
M11GM-If-2
of values, (b) graph, and (c) equation.
11. finds the domain and range of an exponential function. M11GM-If-3
12. determines the intercepts, zeroes, and asymptotes of
M11GM-If-4
an exponential function.
13. graphs exponential functions. M11GM-Ig-1
14. solves problems involving exponential functions,
M11GM-Ig-2
equations, and inequalities.
15. represents real-life situations using logarithmic
M11GM-Ih-1
functions.
16. distinguishes logarithmic function, logarithmic equation,
M11GM-Ih-2
and logarithmic inequality.
17. illustrates the laws of logarithms. M11GM-Ih-3
18. solves logarithmic equations and inequalities. M11GM-Ih-i-1
19. represents a logarithmic function through its: (a) table
M11GM-Ii-2
of values, (b) graph, and (c) equation.
20. finds the domain and range of a logarithmic function. M11GM-Ii-3
21. determines the intercepts, zeroes, and asymptotes of
M11GM-Ii-4
logarithmic functions.
22. graphs logarithmic functions. M11GM-Ij-1
23. solves problems involving logarithmic functions, M11GM-Ij-2
equations, and inequalities.
Page 2 of 5
 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – CORE SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARDS
Basic Business The learner demonstrates The learner is able to... 24. illustrates simple and compound interests. M11GM-IIa-1
Mathematics understanding of... 25. distinguishes between simple and compound interests. M11GM-IIa-2
1. investigate, analyze and 26. computes interest, maturity value, future value, and
1. key concepts of simple solve problems involving present value in simple interest and compound interest M11GM-IIa-b-1
and compound interests, simple and compound environment.
and simple and general interests and simple and 27. solves problems involving simple and compound
annuities. general annuities using M11GM-IIb-2
interests.
appropriate business and 28. illustrates simple and general annuities. M11GM-IIc-1
financial instruments. 29. distinguishes between simple and general annuities. M11GM-IIc-2
30. finds the future value and present value of both simple
M11GM-IIc-d-1
annuities and general annuities.
31. calculates the fair market value of a cash flow stream
M11GM-IId-2
that includes an annuity.
32. calculates the present value and period of deferral of a
M11GM-IId-3
deferred annuity.
2. basic concepts of stocks 2. use appropriate financial 33. illustrate stocks and bonds. M11GM-IIe-1
and bonds. instruments involving 34. distinguishes between stocks and bonds. M11GM-IIe-2
stocks and bonds in 35. describes the different markets for stocks and bonds. M11GM-IIe-3
formulating conclusions 36. analyzes the different market indices for stocks and
and making decisions. M11GM-IIe-4
bonds.
37. interprets the theory of efficient markets. M11GM-IIe-5
3. basic concepts of 3. decide wisely on the 38. illustrates business and consumer loans. M11GM-IIf-1
business and appropriateness of 39. distinguishes between business and consumer loans. M11GM-IIf-2
consumer loans. business or consumer
loan and its proper 40. solves problems involving business and consumer loans
M11GM-IIf-3
utilization. (amortization, mortgage).
Logic The learner demonstrates The learner is able to... 41. illustrates a proposition. M11GM-IIg-1
understanding of... 42. symbolizes propositions. M11GM-IIg-2
43. distinguishes between simple and compound
M11GM-IIg-3
1. key concepts of 1. judiciously apply logic propositions.
propositional logic; in real-life arguments. 44. performs the different types of operations on
syllogisms and M11GM-IIg-4
propositions.
fallacies. 45. determines the truth values of propositions. M11GM-IIh-1
46. illustrates the different forms of conditional
M11GM-IIh-2
propositions.
47. illustrates different types of tautologies and fallacies. M11GM-IIi-1
K to 12 Senior High School Core Curriculum – General Mathematics December 2013 Page 3 of 5
 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL – CORE SUBJECT
PERFORMANCE
CONTENT CONTENT STANDARDS LEARNING COMPETENCIES CODE
STANDARDS
48. determines the validity of categorical syllogisms. M11GM-IIi-2
49. establishes the validity and falsity of real-life arguments
M11GM-IIi-3
using logical propositions, syllogisms, and fallacies.
2. key methods of proof 2. appropriately apply a 50. illustrates the different methods of proof (direct and
and disproof. method of proof and indirect) and disproof (indirect and by M11GM-IIj-1
disproof in real-life counterexample).
situations. 51. justifies mathematical and real-life statements using
M11GM-IIj-2
the different methods of proof and disproof.
K to 12 Senior High School Core Curriculum – General Mathematics December 2013 Page 4 of 5
(x, y) (x, y)
x
y
 f = {(1, 2), (2, 2), (3, 5), (4, 5)}
g = {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 7)}
h = {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9), . . . , (n, 3n), . . .}

f h x
y g (1, 3) (1, 4)
x y

f g
 h

f g x2X y 2Y
h X
y x=7 y = 11 13 x=2
y = 17 19

x = a (a, b) (a, c)
y x=a
 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

x
y x
x y

y = 2x + 1
y = x2 2x + 2
x2 + y 2 = 1
p
y = x+1
2x + 1
y=
x 1
 y = bxc + 1 bxc

x y x=0 y +1
1

R [ 1, +1)
R ( 1, 1) [ (1, +1)
[ 1, 1] R

y f (x) y
x f

f (x) = 2x + 1
q(x) = x2 2x + 2
p
g(x) = x + 1
2x + 1
r(x) =
x 1
F (x) = bxc + 1 bxc

C x
40

40 C(x) = 40x
 A x

A = xy x
x + 2y = 100 y = (100 x)/2 = 50 0.5x
A(x) = x(50 0.5x) = 50x 0.5x2

300
1
m

t(m)
(
300 0 < m  100
t(m) =
300 + m m > 100

8.00
1.50
d
 F (d)

(
8 0<d4
F (d) =
8 + 1.5bdc d>4

bdc d
d b4.1c = b4.9c = 4

• 25

• 0

• 0

• 100

• 100

• 100

T (x)
T (x)
 15

1, 000
400
8
<1000 0x3
f (x) =
:1000 + 400dx 3e x>3

700
f (x) = 700d x4 e x 2 N

150
130 110
100 8
>
> 150x 0  x  20
>
>
>
>
<130x 21  x  50
f (x) = x2N
>
> 110x 51  x  100
>
>
>
>
:100x x > 100
 x
f a
a f f (a)

x = 1.5

f (x) = 2x + 1
q(x) = x2 2x + 2
p
g(x) = x + 1
2x + 1
r(x) =
x 1
F (x) = bxc + 1 bxc

1.5 x

f (1.5) = 2(1.5) + 1 = 4
q(1.5) = (1.5)2 2(1.5) + 2 = 2.25 3 + 2 = 1.25
p p
g(1.5) = 1.5 + 1 = 2.5
2x + 1 2(1.5) + 1 3+1
r(1.5) = = = =8
x 1 (1.5) 1 0.5
F (1.5) = bxc + 1 = b1.5c + 1 = 1 + 1 = 2

g( 4) r(1) g r

4 g(x)
r(x)

f q

f (3x 1) q(2x + 3)
 f (3x 1) x f (x) = 2x + 1 (3x 1)

f (3x 1) = 2(3x 1) + 1 = 6x 2 + 1 = 6x 1

q(3x + 3) x q(x) = x2 2x + 2 (2x + 3)

q(2x + 3) = (2x + 3)2 2(2x + 3) + 2 = (4x2 + 12x + 9) 4x 6 + 2 = 4x2 + 8x + 5

f (x) = x 2

f (0) 2 f (⇡) ⇡ 2
f (3) f (x + 1) x 1
f ( 1) f (3x) 3x 2

4
f (x) =
x
f (1) 4
f (2) 2
f ( 1) 4
p p
f ( 2) 2 2
f (1/x) 4x
f (2x) 2/x
p
f (x) = x 3
f (3) 0
f (4) 1
f (12) 3
p
f (x 3) x 6
✓ ◆
1 3x 2
f
1 x 1 x
p
f (x2 + 4x + 7) x2 + 4x + 4 |x + 2|
 200
25
C(x) = 25x + 200 x C(x)
2700 3950

t s(t) = 5t2 + 100

g = 10m/s2
 1 2
3 5

1 2 5 6 5+6
+ = + =
3 5 15 15 15
11
=
15

1 2
x 3 x 5
(x 3)(x 5) (x2 8x + 15)

1 2 x 5 2(x 3) x 5 + 2x 6
+ = + 2 = 2
x 3 x 5 x2 8x + 15 x 8x + 15 x 8x + 15
3x 11
= 2
x 8x + 15

10 15
21 8

10 15 2·5 3·5 6 2 · 5· 6 3 · 5 25
· = · = =
21 8 3·7 2·2·2 6 3 · 7· 6 2 · 2 · 2 28
 x2 4x 5 x2 5x + 6
x2 3x + 2 x2 3x 10

x2 4x 5 x2 5x + 6 (x + 1)(x 5) (x 2)(x 3)
· = ·
x2 3x + 2 x2 3x 10 (x 2)(x 1) (x 5)(x + 2)
⇠(x⇠⇠
(x⇠⇠5)
(x + 1)⇠ ⇠
⇠ 2)(x 3)
= ⇠ ⇠ + 2)
(x⇠⇠2)(x
⇠ 1)⇠(x⇠⇠5)(x
(x + 1)(x 3) x2 2x 3
= = 2
(x 1)(x + 2) x +x 2

f g

f +g (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

f g (f g)(x) = f (x)
g(x)

f ·g (f · g)(x) = f (x) · g(x)

f /g (f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x)
x g(x) = 0
 • f (x) = x + 3 • g(x) = x2 + 2x 8
x+7
• p(x) = 2x 7 • h(x) =
2 x
x 2
• v(x) = x2 + 5x + 4 • t(x) =
x+3

(v + g)(x) (f + h)(x) (v/g)(x)

(f · p)(x) (p f )(x)

(v + g)(x) = x2 + 5x + 4 + x2 + 2x 8 = 2x2 + 7x 4

(f · p)(x) = (x + 3) (2x 7) = 2x2 x 21

x+7 2 x x+7 (x + 3)(2 x) + (x + 7)

(f + h)(x) = (x + 3) + = (x + 3) · + = =
2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x
6 x x2 + x + 7 13 x2 13 x2 1 x2 13
= = = · =
2 x 2 x 2 x 1 x 2
(p f )(x) = (2x 7) (x + 3) = 2x 7 x 3 = x 10
x2 + 5x + 4
(v/g)(x) = (x2 + 5x + 4) ÷ (x2 + 2x 8) =
x2 + 2x 8

• f (x) = 2x + 1 • q(x) = x2 2x + 2 2x + 1
• r(x) =
x 1

f1 (x) = x2 + 3

q(x) f (x)
x2 +3

q(x) + f (x) = (x2 2x + 2) + (2x + 1)

= x2 + 3
= f1 (x)

f1 (x) = q(x) + f (x)

f2 (x) = x2 4x + 1
 q(x) f (x) x2 4x + 1
q(x) f (x) = (x2 2x + 2) (2x + 1)
2
=x 4x + 1
= f2 (x)
f2 (x) = q(x) f (x)

2x2 + x
f3 (x) =
x 1
2x2 + x 2x + 1
x 1 r(x) =
x 1 x 1
f (x) r(x)
2x + 1
f (x) + r(x) = 2x + 1 +
x 1
(2x + 1)(x 1) 2x + 1
= +
x 1 x 1
(2x + 1)(x 1) + (2x + 1)
=
x 1
(2x2 x 1) + (2x + 1)
=
x 1
2x2 + x
=
x 1
= f3 (x)

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

f1 (x) = q(x) + f (x) = (q + f )(x)

f2 (x) = q(x) f (x) = (q f )(x)
f3 (x) = f (x) + r(x) = (f + r)(x)

g1 (x) = 2x3 3x2 + 2x + 2

 2x3 3x2 + 2x + 2 f (x) q(x)

f (x) · q(x) = (2x + 1)(x2 2x + 2)

= (2x)(x2 2x + 2) + (x2 2x + 2)
= (2x3 4x2 + 4x) + (x2 2x + 2)
3 2
= 2x 3x + 2x + 2
= g1 (x)

g1 (x) = f (x) · q(x)

g2 (x) = x 1

2x + 1
r(x) = x 1 2x + 1
x 1
f (x) r(x)
f (x) 2x + 1
= (2x + 1) ÷
r(x) x 1
x 1
= (2x + 1) ·
2x + 1
2x + 1
= · (x 1)
2x + 1
=x 1
= g2 (x)
f (x)
g2 (x) =
r(x)

1
g3 (x) =
x 1

1 2x + 1
g3 (x) = r(x) =
x 1 x 1
2x + 1 r(x) f (x) = 2x + 1
r(x) 2x + 1
= ÷ (2x + 1)
f (x) x 1
2x + 1 1
= ·
x 1 2x + 1
1
=
x 1
= g3 (x)
r(x)
g3 (x) =
f (x)
 f (x) = 2x + 1
q(x) = x2 2x + 2 (2x + 1)2 2(2x + 1) + 2

f g (f g)

(f g)(x) = f (g(x)).

p
• f (x) = 2x + 1 • g(x) = x+1
• q(x) = x22x + 2 • F (x) = bxc + 1
2x + 1
• r(x) =
x 1

(g f )(x)

(g f )(x) = g(f (x))

p
= f (x) + 1
p
= (2x + 1) + 1
p
= 2x + 2

(q f )(x) (f q)(x)
 (q f )(x) = q(f (x))
= [f (x)]2 2 [f (x)] + 2
2
= (2x + 1) 2(2x + 1) + 2
= (4x2 + 4x + 1) (4x + 2) + 2
= 4x2 + 1

(f q)(x) = f (q(x))
= 2(x2 2x + 2) + 1
= 2x2 4x + 5

(q f )(x) (f q)(x)

(f r)(x)

(f r)(x) = f (r(x))
= 2r(x) + 1

2x + 1
=2 +1
x 1
4x + 2
= +1
x 1
(4x + 2) + (x 1)
=
x 1
5x + 1
=
x 1

(F r)(5)

(F r)(5) = F (r(5))
= br(5)c + 1
⌫
2(5) + 1
= +1
5 1
⌫
11
= +1=2+1=3
4
 f g f +g f g
f · g f /g g/f

f (x) = x + 2 g(x) = x2 4
1
x2 + x 2 x2 + x + 6 x3 + 2x2 4x 8 x 2
x 2
p
f (x) = x 1 g(x) = x2 + 4 p
p p p x 1
x 1 + x2 + 4 x 1 x2 4 x 1(x2 + 4) x 2
x2 +4
x 2 1
f (x) = g(x) =
x+2 x
x 2 1 x 2 1 x 2 x(x 2) x+2
+
x+2 x x+2 x x(x + 2) x+2 x(x 2)
1 x 2
f (x) = g(x) =
x+2 x
1 x 2 1 x 2 x 2 x (x + 2)(x 2)
+
x+2 x x+2 x x(x + 2) (x + 2)(x 2) x
1 p
f (x) = g(x) = x
x2 p
1 p 1 p x 1 p
+ x 2 x p x2 x
x2 x x2 x2 x

f (x) = x2 + 3x g(x) = x 2
f g g f f f g g x2 x 2 x2 + 3x 2 x4 + 6x3 + 12x2 + 9x x 4

(f g) = x
(g f ) = x

f (x) = 3x 2 g(x) = 13 (x + 2)
x 2x
f (x) = g(x) =
2 x x 1
3 p
f (x) = (x 1) + 2 g(x) = 3 x 2+1
 p(x) = an xn + an 1x
n 1
+ an 2x
n 2
+ · · · + a1 x + a0

a0 , a1 , . . . , an 2 R an 6= 0 n
a 0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , a n
an an xn a0

100, 000

y
100, 000
x y=
x

x
y

750 g(x)
100, 000
g(x) = + 750
x

x
y
 p(x)
f (x) = p(x) q(x)
q(x)
q(x) q(x) 6⌘ 0
f (x) x q(x) 6= 0

v v(t)
t

v t

t
v
10
v(t) = v t
t
5t
c(t) =
t2 + 1
t c(t)
t = 1, 2, 5, 10

t
c(t)
•

•
•
•

• a
• b
• c

• x
• y
 x

a
y = +c
x b

x P (x)
 2x2 + 800
P (x) =
x

50t
b(t) = 0  t  20
t+1
t b(t)

t = 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20
x2 + 3x + 2
x+4

1
3x2

x2 + 4x 3
2
p
x+1
x3 1

1
x+2 1
x 2 (x + 2)(x 2)

p(x)
f (x) =
q(x)
p(x) q(x)
q(x)

2 3 1 5 2 x2 + 2x + 3
=  f (x) =
x 2x 5 x 3 x x+1
x2 + 2x + 3
y=
x+1

x y
 15 5x4 6x7 + 1 5 x3
p
x 1 x

y = 5x3 2x + 1
8 x
8=
x 2x 1
p
x 2=4
x 1
= x3
x+1
p
7x3 4 x + 1
y=
x2 + 3
5
6x 0
x+3
 x+1
= 10
2x
x+1
 10
2x

2 3 1
x =
x 2x 5

10x 10x
 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
2 3 1
10x 10x = 10x
x 2x 5
20 15 = 2x
5 = 2x
5
x=
2

x 1 8
x =
x+2 x 2 x2 4

x 1 8
=
x+2 x 2 (x 2)(x + 2)
(x 2)(x+2)
✓ ◆
x 1 8
(x 2)(x + 2) · (x 2)(x + 2) · = [(x 2)(x + 2)]
x+2 x 2 (x 2)(x + 2)
(x 2)x (x + 2) = 8
x2 3x 10 = 0

x2 3x 10 = 0
(x + 2)(x 5) = 0
x+2=0 x 5=0
x= 2 x=5

x=2 x=5
 x
x
12 + x 25 + x

12 + x
= 0.6
25 + x

25 + x

12 + x
= 0.6
25 + x
12 + x = 0.6(25 + x)
12 + x = 0.6(25) + 0.6x
x 0.6x = 15 12
0.4x = 3
x = 7.5

x
60%

d
v= t

d d
v= t t= v
5
v v + 10 v
5
v+10

4
3

5 5 4
+ =
v v + 10 3
3v(v + 10)

5 5 4
+ =
v v + 10 3
 5 5 4
3v(v + 10) · + 3v(v + 10) · = 3v(v + 10) ·
v v + 10 3
15(v + 10) + 15v = 4v(v + 10)
30v + 150 = 4v 2 + 40v
4v 2 + 10v 150 = 0
2
2v + 5v 75 = 0
(2v + 15)(v 5) = 0
15
v= v=5
2
v

(a, b) {x|a < x < b} a b

[a, b] {x|a  x  b} a b
[a, b) {x|a  x < b} a b
(a, b] {x|a < x  b} a b
(a, 1) {x|a < x}
a
[a, 1) {x|a  x}
a
( 1, b) {x|x < b}
b
( 1, b] {x|x  b}
b
R
( 1, 1)
 x

2x
1
x+1

2x
1 0
x+1
2x (x + 1)
0
x+1
x 1
0
x+1
x=1 x= 1
x=1
x= 1

1
 1 1
x 1
x+1

x< 1 1<x<1 x>1

x= 2 x=0 x=2
x 1 +
x+1 + +
x 1
+ +
x+1

x< 1 x 1

{x 2 R|x < 1 x 1}
( 1, 1) [ [1, 1)

3 1
<
x 2 x

3 1
<0
x 2 x
3x (x 2)
<0
x(x 2)
2x + 2
<0
x(x 2)
2(x + 1)
<0
x(x 2)

x = 1 0

1
 x< 1 1<x<0 0<x<2 x>2
1
x= 2 x= 2 x=1 x=3
2(x + 1) + + +
x + +
x 2 +
2(x + 1)
+ +
x(x 2)

{x 2 R|x < 1 0 < x < 2}

x
h

x h h x

8 = x2 h

h x

8
h=
x2
h>x

8
>x
x2
 8
>x
x2
8
x>0
x2
8 x3
>0
x2
(2 x)(x2 + 2x + 4)
>0
x2

x = 16 x = 28 x=0 x=4

x<0 0<x<2 x>2

x= 1 x=1 x=3
2 x + +
x2 + 2x + 4 + + +
x2 + + +
(2 x)(x2 +2x+4)
x2
+ +

0<x<2
x<0
x

x
 1120
x
1600
x+4

1600 1120
10
x+4 x

1600 1120
10
x+4 x
160 112
1
x+4 x
160 112
1 0
x+4 x
160x 112(x + 4) (x2 + 4x)
0
x(x + 4)
160x 112x 448 x2 4x
0
x(x + 4)

x2 44x + 448
0
x(x + 4)
(x 16)(x 28)
0
x(x + 4)
x = 16 x = 28 x=0 x=4

x< 4 4<x<0 0 < x < 16 16 < x < 28 x > 28

x= 5 x= 1 x = 10 x = 20 x = 30
x 16 + +
x 28 +
x + + +
x+4 + + + +
(x 16)(x 28)
+ + +
x(x + 4)
 4<x<0 16 < x < 28

x = 16 x = 28

3 2
=
x+1 x 3

2x 5
+ =2 5
x + 1 2x

x2 10 14 5x
= 4, 1
x 1 x 1

x2 4x 14 9x
= 7
x 2 x 2

(x + 3)(x 2)
0 ( 1, 3] [ [2, 1)
(x + 2)(x 1)

(x + 4)(x 3)
0 [ 4, 2) [ [3, 1)
(x 2)(x2 + 2)

x+1
2 ( 1, 5] [ ( 3, 1)
x+3

x 2
<0 ( 1, 2) [ (2, 5)
x2 3x 10

3+x
x
6+x
t
 p(x)
f (x) = p(x) q(x)
q(x)
q(x) q(x) 6⌘ 0
f (x) x q(x) 6= 0

d
s= t

100
s= t
x
s(x)

100
s(x) =
x
d
s= t

100
x s(x) s(x) =
x

x
s(x)

100
s(x) =
x
x
 x 1
f (x) =
x+1

x x 10 10

x 10 8 6 4 2
f (x) 1

E F
 x 1
f (x) =
x+1

E F

x 1
f (x) =
x+1
x = 1
E F
x= 1

E F
x 1
 x2 3x 10
f (x) =
x

x
x=0 f
6  x  10 x 6= 0

x 5 4 3 2 1
f (x) 6 4.5 2.67 12 6

x 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f (x) 3.33 1.5
 x=0
x 1 x 1

x= 2 x=5
x x
 x
p

12 + x
p(x) =
25 + x
p(x)

x
p(x)

25 + x

⌫
60(t + 1)
P (t) =
t+6
P t b·c
 t=5
⌫
60(5 + 1)
P (5) = = b32.726c = 32
5+6

P (x)
t
P (t)
t

I
V
V R I= R

R
I
x 3
f (x) = 6x2 x
x+4
x

x 6 5 4 3 2 1
f (x) 6 2.5 1.33 0.75 0.4 0.167

f x= 4

x2 + x 6
f (x) =
x2 + x 20
x = 4, 5
6x2 x
 x 6 5 4 3 2 1
f (x) 0.75 0.22 0.3 0.3 0.22 0

x= 3, 2
 x
f (x)
x
x
y x=0

x y

x
 x 2
f (x) =
x+2

f (x) {x 2 R | x 6= 2}

x= 2 x= 2
f (x) x

x f (x) y 1

x x

x 2 x=2 x=2 f (x)

x

2
y f (0) f (0) = 2 = 1

f (x) x

x= 2 x 2
x< 2 2 x 2 x> 2 2+

x 2

x 3 2.5 2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001 x 2

f (x) f (x)

f (x) ! +1 x! 2 f (x)
x 2

x 2+

x 1 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 x 2+

f (x) 3 7 39 399 3999 39999 f (x)
 f (x) ! 1 x! 2+ f (x)
x 2

x 2
x= 2

x=a f f
x a

x=a
 x
f (x) x x ! +1

f (x) x ! +1

x x ! +1
f (x) f (x) 1

f (x) x x! 1
f (x) x! 1

x 5 10 100 1000 10000 x! 1

f (x) f (x) 1+

x f (x)
y=1

y = b f f (x)
b x x ! +1 x! 1

y=b b
 x 2
x ! +1 x! 1

x
x= 2
x=2

x< 2 2<x<2 x>2

x= 3 x=0 x=3
x 2 +
x+2 + +
x 2
+ +
x+2
x x x

x x=2

y
f (x) < 1 x ! +1 f (x) > 1 x! 1
(2, 0)

f (x) x! 2 f (x)
x! 2+

f (x)
 x 2
y=
x+2

y=1 f (x)
f (x) ( 1, 1) [ (1, +1)

4x2 + 4x + 1
f (x) =
x2 + 3x + 2

x x! 1 x ! +1

x
x = 1000 4x2 + 4x + 1 4, 004, 001
4x2 4, 000, 000

x x2 + 3x + 2 x2
4x2
x f (x) = 4 f (x)
x2
x y=4

2x2 5
f (x) =
3x2 + x 7

2x2 5
3x2 + x 7
2x2 2 2
2
= x y= 3
3x 3

3x + 4
f (x) =
2x2+ 3x + 1
3x + 4
2x2 + 3x + 1
3x 3 3
2
= x x
2x 2x 2x
0 y=0

4x3 1
f (x) =
3x2 + 2x 5

4x3 1 4x3 4x
x =
3x2 + 2x 5 3x 2 3
4x
x x
3
y
 n m

• n<m y=0
a
• n=m y = b a
b

• n>m

y
y y
x=0
x
x

3x2 8x 3
f (x) =
2x2 + 7x 4
x
f (x) ( 1, 4) [ ( 4, 12 ) [ ( 12 , +1)

f (x)

3x2 8x 3 (3x + 1)(x 3)

f (x) = =
2x2 + 7x 4 (2x 1)(x + 4)

0 0 3 3
• y f (0) = =
0+0 4 4
1
• x 3x + 1 = 0 ) x = 3 x 3=0)x=3
 1
• 2x 1=0)x= 2 x+4=0)x= 4

•
3
y= 2

f (x)

x
1 1
4, 3, 2 3

1 1 1 1
x< 4 4<x< 3 3 <x< 2 2 <x<3 x>3
x = 10 x= 2 x=0 x=1 x = 10
3x + 1 + + +
x 3 +
2x 1 + +
x+4 + + + +
(3x + 1)(x 3)
+ + +
(2x 1)(x + 4)
x x x x x
 y
x
 R

x y
x
 2 (5x 2)(x 2)
f (x) = f (x) =
x+1 (3x 4)(x + 2)

2 x2 x+6
f (x) = f (x) =
x2 + 2x + 1 x2 6x + 8

3x x2 4x 5
f (x) = f (x) =
x+3 x 4

2x + 3 x 1
f (x) = f (x) =
4x 7 x3 4x

(4x 3)(x 1) x2 9
f (x) = f (x) =
(2x + 1)(x + 1) x2 + 4

N (t) t
75t
N (t) = t 0.
t+5
N
N (t) t!1
t ! 1 N (t) ! 75

c
t
20t
c(t) = t 0.
t2+2
c(t) c(t) t!1
t ! 1 c(t) ! 0

x = 3 x = 3 y = 1 x 5 y
5
9
(x 5)2 (x2 + 1)
f (x) =
(x + 3)(x 3)(x2 + 5)
 5125000V 2 449000V + 19307
p =
125V 2 (1000V 43)
p V
p V

V =0 V = 43/1000

p=0

V = 0.043
 5
T C = (T F 32)
9
9
T F = T C + 32
5

C
 200 F 93.33 C 120 C 248 F

f x1 x2 f f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 )
y x

•
•
•
•
•

(
8.00 0<d4
F (d) =
(8.00 + 1.50 bdc) d>4
bdc d

F (3) = 8

F (3) = F (2) = F (3.5) = 8 F

y x
y x 2

y = x2 4
 y = 2x 1

x 4 3 2 1
y 9 7 5 3 1
y x

x y

x 9 7 5 3 1
y 4 3 2 1

x
y
 x 4 3 2 1
y 1 1 1 1 0

y
x y=1 x = 1, 2, 3, 4

x y

x 1 1 1 1 0
y 4 3 2 1

x=1 y

• x y

• x y

f A B f
f 1 B A f 1 (y) =x
f (x) = y y B

x y
 y
x

y = f (x)

x y

y x

f (x) = 3x + 1

y = 3x + 1
x y x = 3y + 1
y x

x = 3y + 1
x 1 = 3y
x 1 x 1
= y =) y =
3 3

1 (x) x 1
f (x) = 3x + 1 f =
3

f (f 1 (x)) f 1 (f (x))
 f (x) f 1 (x)

f 1 (x) f (x)

f (f 1 (x)) =x x f 1

f 1 (f (x)) =x x f

g(x) = x3 2

y = x3 2
x y x = y3 2
y x

x = y3 2
x + 2 = y3
p
3
p
3
x + 2 = y =) y = x+2
p
g(x) = x3 2 g 1 (x) = 3
x+2

2x + 1
f (x) =
3x 4
2x + 1
y=
3x 4
2y + 1
x y x=
3y 4
y x

2y + 1
x=
3y 4
x(3y 4) = 2y + 1
3xy 4x = 2y + 1
3xy 2y = 4x + 1 y
 y
y(3x 2) = 4x + 1
4x + 1
y=
3x 2

1 (x) 4x + 1
f (x) f =
3x 2

f (x) = x2 + 4x 2

y = x2 + 4x 2

x y x = y 2 + 4y 2
y x

x = y 2 + 4y 2
x + 2 = y 2 + 4y
x + 2 + 4 = y 2 + 4y + 4
x + 6 = (y + 2)2
p
± x+6=y+2
p p
± x+6 2 = y =) y = ± x + 6 2
p
y = ± x+6 2 x
y x = 3 y 1 5
f (x) = x2 + 4x 2

f (x) = |3x|

y = |3x|
 f 1 f
f (1) = f ( 1) = 3 x 1 y f

y = |4x|
x y x = |4y|
y x

x = |4y|
p p
x = (4y)2 |x| = x2
x2 = 4y 2
x2
= y2
r 4 r
x2 x2
± = y =) y = ±
4 4

q
x2
x = 2 y = 1 y = 1 y = ± 4
f (x) = |3x|

k(t) = 59 (t 32) + 273.15

t

k = 59 (t 32) + 273.15
k t
t k
5
k = (t 32) + 273.15
9
5
k 273.15 = (t 32)
9
9
(k 273.15) = t 32
5
9 9
(k 273.15) + 32 = t =) t = (k 273.15)
5 5
t(k) = 95 (k 273.15) k
 1 1 (x)
f (x) = x + 4 f = 2x 8
2
f (x) = (x + 3)3 f 1 (x) = p3
x 3
3 1 (x) = 4x +3
f (x) = f
x 4 x
x+3 1 (x) = 3x +3
f (x) = f
x 3 x 1
2x + 1 1 (x) = x + 1
f (x) = f
4x 1 4x 2

f (x) = |x 1|
 y=x

y = x
y=x

y=x
 y=x

• y=x

x y

f f 1 f 1 (f (x)) =x f 1 (x)

y f (x) x
f (x) f 1 (y)
x !y !x

y=x

y = f 1 (x) y = f (x) = 2x + 1
{x | 2  x  1.5 } f (x)
 y = 2x + 1 y=x

{y 2 R | 3  y  4}

1 (x) x 1
f =
2

1
f (x) = [ 3, 4]
1
f (x) = [ 2, 1.5]
 f (x) f 1 (x)

[ 2, 1.5] [ 3, 4]
[ 3, 4] [ 2, 1.5]

1
f (x) =
x

1
f (x) = y =x
x
y=x f (x) f 1 (x) = f (x)
 1 (x) 1
f = f (x) =
x

p
3
f (x) = x+1

f (x) y=x
 p
f (x) = 3
x+1 y = x3 1
f 1 (x) = x3 1
 5x 1
f (x) =
x+2

f (x) = ( 1, 2) [ (2, 1)
f (x) = ( 1, 5) [ ( 5, 1)

x=2
y= 5

y=x
 x y

y=x

x= 5
y=2

f (x) f 1 (x)

( 1, 2) [ (2, 1) ( 1, 5) [ ( 5, 1)
( 1, 5) [ ( 5, 1) ( 1, 2) [ (2, 1)

y=x
y=x

1 1
f (x) = f (x)
 3(x + 2)2
f (x) = (x + 2)2 · 3 ÷ 2 =
2

x 0

x 0
3(y + 2)2
x y x= ,y 0
2
y x
 3(y + 2)2
x=
2
2x
= (y + 2)2
r 3 r
2x 2x
=y+2 y 2
3 3
r r
2x 2x
2 = y =) y = 2
3 3
x = 54
r r
1 2(54) 108 p
f (54) = 2= 2= 36 2=6 2=4
3 3

t
d
✓ ◆3
12.5
t(d) =
d

✓ ◆3
12.5
t=
d
d t
d t

✓ ◆3
12.5
t=
d
p
3 12.5
t=
d
12.5
d= p3
t
12.5
d(t) = p3
t
22.5
t = 6.5 d(6.5) = p
3
= 12.06
6.5

12.06
 f (x) = x2 + 1
{0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3}

x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

f (x) 1 1.25 2 3.25 5 7.25 10
f
x 1 1.25 2 3.25 5 7.25 10
f 1 (x) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
A = {( 4, 4), ( 3, 2), ( 2, 1), (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5)}

A 1 = {(4, 4), (2, 3), (1, 2), ( 1, 0), ( 3, 1), ( 5, 2)}

p
f (x) = 2 x 2+3
[2, 1)

[3, 1) [2, 1)
3x + 2
f (x) =
x 4
( 1, 3) [ (3, 1)
( 1, 4) [ (4, 1)
x=a f 1 (a) =0 1/2
 w l
w = (3.24 ⇥ 10 3 )l2

l 0

p
l= w/(3.4 ⇥ 10 3)
 n
s n= 2s

b f (x) = bx y = bx
b > 0 b 6= 1

x = 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2 3
1 x
y= 3 y= 10x y= (0.8)x
 x 3 2 1

1 x 1 1 1
y= 3 3 9 27
1 1 1
y = 10x
1000 100 10

y = (0.8)x

1
f (x) = 3x f (2) f ( 2) f 2 f (0.4) f (⇡)

f (2) = 32 = 9

2 1 1
f ( 2) = 3 = 2
=
3 9
✓ ◆
1 p
f = 31/2 = 3
2
p
5 p
5
f (0.4) = 30.4 = 32/5 = 32 = 9

⇡ ⇡ 3.14159 3⇡
f (⇡) = 3⇡ 33.14 33.14159
3⇡
⇡
3⇡

b
b

g(x) = a · bx c
+d

a c d
 t t=0
t

t=0
t = 100 20(2)
t = 200 = 20(2)2
t = 300 = 20(2)3
t = 400 = 20(2)4

y = 20(2)t/100

y T y0
y t y = y0 (2)t/T

t=0
t = 10
t = 20
t = 30
 1 t/10
y = 10 2

100, 000 6%

t=0 = 100, 000

t=1 = 100, 000(1.06) = 106, 000
t=2 = 106, 000(1.06) = 112, 360
t=3 = 112, 360(1.06) ⇡ 119, 101.60
t=4 = 119, 101.60(1.06) ⇡ 126, 247.70
t=5 = 26, 247.70(1.06) ⇡ 133, 822.56

y = 100, 000(1.06)t

P r
t A = P (1 + r)t

y = 100000(1.06)t t t

t = 8 y = 100, 000(1.06)8 ⇡ 159, 384.81 t = 10 y = 100, 000(1.06)10 ⇡

179, 084.77 200, 000
 e ⇡ 2.71828 e
e
e

f (x) = ex

T t
T = 170165e0.006t t

t
T

50, 000

A = 50, 000(1.044)t t
t = 18 18
A = 50, 000(1.044) ⇡ 108, 537.29
100, 000

A = 20, 000(1.05)t t
t = 10, A = 10
20, 000(1.05) ⇡ 32, 577.89
32, 577.89
 x/250
y = 100 12 x=0
1 500/250 1 2
x = 500 y = 100 2 = 100 2 = 25

y = 1, 000(3)x/80 x=0
x = 100 y = 1, 000(3) 100/80 = 3, 948.22 ⇡ 3, 948

10, 000

A = 10, 000(1.02)t t

A = 10, 000(1.02)12 = 12, 682.42

12, 682.42
 4x 1 = 16x y = 2x 2x 26

a · bx c +d b > 0
b 6= 1

f (x) = bx b>0
b 6= 1
x2 1 f (x) = (1.8)x y =
72x = 52x 5x+1  0
343 (1.8)x

x y

f (x) = 2x3
f (x) = 2x
y = ex
22 (5x+1 ) = 500
625 5x+8
a 6= 0
a0 = 1
n 1
a =
an

r s
a a = ar+s
r s
ar
= ar s
asr s
(a ) = ars
(ab)r = ar br
⇣ a ⌘r ar
= r
b b
49 = 7x+1 8x = x2 9
7 = 2x + 3 x2 = 3x3 + 2x 1
3x = 32x 1 2x + 3 > x 1
5x 1 = 125 2x 2 > 8

x1 6= x2 bx1 6= bx2 b x1 = b x2 x1 = x2

4x 1 = 16

4x 1
= 16
4x 1
= 42
x 1=2
x=2+1
x=3

4x 1
= 16
(22 )x 1
= 24
22(x 1)
= 24
2(x 1) = 4
2x 2=4
2x = 6
x=3
 x=3 43 1 = 42 =
16

125x 1 = 25x+3

125x 1
= 25x+3
(53 )x 1
= (52 )x+3
53(x 1)
= 52(x+3)
3(x 1) = 2(x + 3)
3x 3 = 2x + 6
x=9

2
9x = 3x+3

2
(32 )x = 3x+3
2
32x = 3x+3
2x2 = x + 3
2x2 x 3=0
(2x 3)(x + 1) = 0
2x 3=0 x+1=0
3
x= x=1
2
 b>1 y = bx x
b < by
x x<y

0<b<1 y = bx x
bx > by x<y

bm < bn
m<n m>n b

3x < 9x 2

3x < (32 )x 2

3x < 32(x 2)

3x < 32x 4

3>1

x < 2x 4
4 < 2x x
4<x

(4, +1] x=5 x=4

✓ ◆x+5 ✓ ◆3x
1 1
10 100
1 1 2 1
100 = 10 10
✓ ◆x+5 ✓ ◆3x
1 1
10 100
✓ ◆x+5 ✓ ◆
1 1 3x
10 102
✓ ◆x+5 ✓ ◆6x
1 1
10 10
 1
10 <1

x + 5  6x
5  6x x
5  5x
1x

[1, +1) x=1 x=0 1

y0
1
256

t
1 t/2.45 1 t/2.45 1
y = y0 2 y0 2 = 256 y0

✓ ◆t/2.45
1 1
=
2 256
✓ ◆t/2.45 ✓ ◆8
1 1
=
2 2
t
=8
2.45
t = 19.6

t=0

(0.6)x 3 > (0.36) x 1

 (0.6)x 3
> (0.36) x 1
(0.6)x 3
> (0.36) x 1

(0.6)x 3
> (0.62 ) x 1
(0.6)x 3
> (0.62 ) x 1

(0.6)x 3
> (0.6)2( x 1)
(0.6)x 3
> (0.6)2( x 1)

(0.6)x 3
> (0.6) 2x 2
(0.6)x 3
> (0.6) 2x 2

x 3> 2x 2 x 3< 2x 2
3x > 1 3x < 1
1 1
x> x<
3 3

(0.6)x 3 > (0.6) 2x 2 x 3> 2x 2

x > 13

x
8
162x 3 = 4x+2 x= 3
✓ ◆2x
1 1
= 23 x 2 1 x= 3
2 2
 ◆
29
42x+7  322x 3 , +1
6
✓ ◆5x 1 ✓ ◆ 2
2 25 25 2 1
( 1, 5]
5 4 4 5

7x+4 = 492x 1 x=2

4x+2 = 82x x=1
✓ ◆5x+2 ✓ ◆2x ✓ ◆
2 3 2
= , +1
3 2 7
 f (x) = bx b>1
f (x) = bx 0<b<1

f (x) = 2x

f (x)

x 4 3 2 1

1 1 1 1
f (x)
16 8 4 2
 f (x) = 2x f (x) = 2x

x
y x
y=0

✓ ◆x
1
g(x) =
2

g(x)

x 3 2 1

1 1 1 1
f (x)
2 4 8 16
 ✓ ◆x ✓ ◆x
1 1
g(x) = g(x) =
2 2

x
x y=0

b > 1 0 < b < 1 f (x) = bx

b>1 0<b<1
 f (x) = bx b>0 b 6= 1

R
(0, +1)

y x
y=0 x

f (x) = 2x g(x) = 3x

x 4 3 2 1
f (x)
g(x)

x 4 y 1
f (x) g(x)
y

✓ ◆x ✓ ◆x
1 1
f (x) = g(x) =
2 3

x 4 3 2 1
f (x)
g(x)

x 4 y 1
f (x) g(x)
 y

f (x) = 5✓ x◆ y
x 1 1 x
5 = x =
5 5
• x 3
• x 4 y
1
• y = 2x

y = 2x y = 3 · 2x y = 2x + 1 y = 2x+1
y = 2x y = 25 · 2x y = 2x 1 y = 2x 1
 x 3 2 1
y = 2x
y = 2x
y
y= 2x 0.125 .25 .5 1 2 4 8
1
y
y = 3 · 2x

2 y
y= 5 · 2x
2/5

y = 2x + 1

y = 2x 1 0.875 0.75 0.5

y = 2x+1

y = 2x 1

y = 2x y= 2x y=2 x

x 3 2 1
y= 2x
y= 2x 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8
y=2 x

y y = 2x y
y= 2x y = 2x y = 2x
x

y=2 x x y = 2x x y=2 x

y = 2x y
 y= f (x) x y = f (x)

y = f ( x) y y = f (x)

y = 2x y = 3(2x ) y = 0.4(2x )

x 3 2 1
y = 2x
y = 3(2x )
y = 0.4(2x )

y y = 3(2x ) y
y= 2x y y = 0.4(2x )
y y = 2x
 R
y y y = 3(2x )
y y = 0.4(2x )
y=0
(0, +1)

a>0 y = af (x) y
y = f (x) a
a>1 0<a<1 y = f (x)

y = 2x y = 2x 3 y = 2x + 1

x 3 2 1
y= 2x
y = 2x 3 2.875 2.75 2.5 2 1
y = 2x + 1
 R

y = 2x + 1 (1, +1) y = 2x 3 ( 3, +1)

y y
y= 2x

y = 2x y=0
y= 2x+1 y=1 y = 2x 3
y= 3

d y = f (x) + d d
d>0 d d<0 y = f (x)

y = 2x y = 2x 2 y = 2x+4

y
 x 3 2 1
y = 2x
y = 2x 2

y = 2x+4

R
(0, +1)
y x=0 y
y = 2x+4 24 = 16 y y= 2x 2 22 = 0.25

y=0

c y = f (x c) c
c>0 c c<0
y = f (x)
 f (x) = a · bx c +d

• b b>1 0<b<1

• |a| a
x

• d d>0 d d<0

• c c>0 c c<0

y = bx
y

✓ ◆x
y = 3x 4 1
y=2
✓ ◆x 3
1
y= +2 y = 0.25(3x )
2
y = 2x 3 + 1
y = 2x 5
✓ ◆x 1
1
y = (0.8)x+1 y= 2
3
 x

1
24 = x 43 = x 5 1 =x 16 2 =x

1 1
5 4
5x = 625 7x = 0
1
3x = 10x = 100, 000
9

x b logb x b
x log3 81 = 4 34 = 81
log2 32 = 5 25 = 32
log5 1 = 0 50 = 1
✓ ◆
1 1 1
log6 = ( 1) 6 =
6 6

log2 32 log5 5 log7 1

1
log9 729 log 1 16 log5 p
2 5

1
p 1/2
5
 a b b 6= 1 a
b logb a blogb a = a logb a
b a

log2 32 = 5 25 = 32
log9 729 = 3 93 = 729
log5 5 = 1 51 = 5
1 4
log1/2 16 = 4 2 = 16
log7 1 = 0 70 = 1
log5 p1 = 1
5 1/2 = p1
5 2 5

logb a = c

bc = a
• b
• c c = logb a

• logb a a log2 ( 8)

1 3 1
• logb x log5 = 3 5 =
125 125

log x log10 x
e
e
ln ln x loge x
53 = 125 (0.1) 4 = 10, 000
1 40 = 1
7 2=
49
7b = 21
102 = 100
✓ ◆2 e2 = x
2 4
= ( 2)2 = 4
3 9

log5 125 = 3
1
log7 = 2
49

log 100 = 2
✓ ◆
4
log 2 =2
3 9

log0.1 10, 000 = 4

log4 1 = 0
log7 21 = b
b=3 73 6= 21 b
71 .5645
ln x = 2

log m = n 1
log4 2 =
2
log3 81 = 4 log10 0.001 = 3
logp5 5 = 2 ln 8 = a
64
log 3 = 3
4 27
10n = m 41/2 = 2
34 = 81 3 3 1
10 = 0.001 10 =
p 1, 000
( 5)2 = 5
✓ ◆ 3 ea = 8
3 64
=
4 27

1031
log 1031 = 31

2 E
R= log 4.40
3 10
E 104.40

1012
 2 1012 2
E = 1012 R= log 4.40 = log 107.6
3 10 3
log107.6 = 7.6
107.6 log 107.6 = 7.6
2
R = (7.6) ⇡ 5.1
3
1012 /104.40 = 107.6 ⇡ 39810717
 I
D = 10 log
10 12
I 2 10 12 2

106
60 85

90 100

10 6 m2

10 6
D = log 12
= 10 log 106 log 106
10
106 log 106 = 6
D = 10(6) = 60
10 6
12
= 106 = 100, 000
10
 [H + ]

pH = log[H + ]

1
pH = log
[H + ]

10 5 log 10 5 log 10 5

10 5 log 10 5 = 5
log 10 5 = ( 5) = 5
log3 243 5
✓ ◆
1
log6 3
216
log0.25 16 2

49x = 7 log49 7 = x
1
6 3= log6 216 = 3
216
102 = 100 log 100 = 2

✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 2
4 11 4
log 11 = 2 =
2 121 2 121
ln 3 = y y
e =3
log 0.001 = 3 10 3 = 0.001
log3 (x 2) = 5 ln x 9 y= log 1 x
2

logx 2 = 4 ln x2 > (ln x)2 g(x) = log3 x

x
 x y

• logx 2 = 4
• log2 x = 4
• log2 4 = x

• logx 2 = 4 x

• log2 x = 4 4
• log2 4 = x x

log 2x =4
 f (x) = 3x

x f (x)
4
1

g(x) = log3 x
x

x g(x)
1
81
1
3

log2 x = 4 logx 16 = 2 log 1000 = x

log2 x = 4
24 = x
x = 16
logx 16 = 2
x2 = 16
x2 16 = 0
(x + 4)(x 4) = 0
x = 4, +4
x=4
log 1000 = x
 log 1000
3= x
x= 3

log3 81
34 = 81

log4 1 log3 3 log4 42

log4 3 = 0 40 = 1
log3 3 = 1 31 = 3
log4 42 = 2 42 = 42
 b x b>0 b 6= 1

logb 1 = 0

logb bx = x

x>0 blogb x = x

logb 1 b b? = 1

logb bx b bx
x

logb x b x b
x

log2 14
23 = 8 24 = 16

23.8074 ⇡ 14.000

2log2 14 = 14

logb 1 = 0 logb bx = x blogb x = x

✓ ◆
log 10 1
log5
125
ln e3 5log5 2
log4 64 log 1

log 10 = log10 101 = 1

ln e3 = loge e3 = 3
log4 64 = log4 43 = 3
✓ ◆
1 3
log5 = log5 5 = 3
125
 5log5 2=2
log 1 = 0

10 2 m2

✓ ◆
I
D = 10 log
✓ I0 2 ◆
10
D = 10 log
10 12
D = 10 log 1010
D = 10 · 10
D = 100

pH = log[H + ]
3.0 = log[H + ]
3.0 = log[H + ]
+
10 3.0 = 10log H
10 3.0 = [H+]

10 3.0

log7 49
1
log27 3
3
ln e
log7 73 · 78 log7 73 + log7 78
✓ ◆
49
log7 log7 49 log7 7
7
log7 75 5 · log7 7
✓ 4◆
2
log2 log2 24 log2 210 6
210
log3 (27 · 81) log3 27 + log3 81

b > 0, b 6= 1 n2R u > 0, v > 0

logb (uv) = logb u + logb v

⇣u⌘
logb = logb u logb v
v
logb (un ) = n logb u
 logb (uv) = logb u + logb v log7 73 · 78 = log7 73 + log7 78
✓ ◆
49
⇣u⌘ log7 = log7 49 log7 7
logb = logb u logb v ✓ 74 ◆
v 2
log2 = log2 24 log2 210
210
log7 75 = 5 · log7 7
logb (un ) = n logb u
log3 (27 · 81) = log3 27 + log3 81

r = logb u s = logb v u = br v = bs

logb (uv) = logb (br bs )

) logb (uv) = logb br+s
) logb (uv) = r + s
) logb (uv) = logb u = logb v

r = logb u u = br un = brn

un = brn
) logb (un ) = logb (brn )
) logb (un ) = rn
) logb (un ) = n logb u

logb un (logb u)n n

u n logb u
log2 (5 + 2) 6= log2 5 + log2 2
log2 (5 + 2) 6= (log2 5)(log2 2)
log2 (5 2) 6= log2 5 log2 2
log2 5
log2 (5 2) 6=
log2 2
2
log2 (5 · 2) 6= 2 log2 (5 · 2)

log(ab2 ) ln[x(x 5)]

✓ ◆3
3
log3
x

log(ab2 ) = log a + log b2 = log a + 2 log b

✓ ◆3 ✓ ◆
3 3
log3 = 3 log3 = 3(log3 3 log3 x) = 3(1 log3 x) = 3 3 log3 x
x x
ln[x(x 5)] = ln x + ln(x 5)

log 2 + log 3 log5 (x2 ) 3 log5 x

2 ln x ln y 2 log 5

log 2 + log 3 = log(2 · 3) = log 6

✓ 2◆
2 x
2 ln x ln y = ln(x ) ln y = ln
y
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
x2 1
log5 (x2 ) 3 log5 x = log5 (x2 ) log5 (x3 ) = log5 = log5 = log5 (x 1) = log5 x
x3 x
2 log 5

2 = 2(1)
= 2(log 10) 1 = logb b
= log 102 n logb u = logb un
= log 100 ✓ ◆
100
2 log 5 = log 100 = log = log 20
5
 log3 729 6
log9 729 3
log27 729 2
log1/27 729 2
log729 729 1
log81 729 3/2
log81 729
811/4 = 3 36 = 729 (811/4 )6 = 729
3
816/4 = 813/2 = 729 log81 729 = 2

6
log3n 729 = n

a b x a 6= 1, b 6= 1
loga x
logb x =
loga b

6
log3n 729 =
n

log3 729 6
log3n 729 = n
= .
log3 3 n

log8 32
1
log243
27
1
log25 p
5
 log2 32 5
log8 32 = =
log2 8 3
1
1 log3
log243 = 27 = 3
27 log3 243 5
1
log5 p
1 5 1/2 1
log25 p = = =
5 log5 25 2 4

log6 4
log 1 2 e
2

log2 4 2
log6 4 = =
log2 6 log2 6
ln 2 ln 2 ln 2 ln 2
log 1 2 = ✓ ◆ = = = = 1
2 1 ln 1 ln 2 0 ln 2 ln 2
ln
2

✓ ◆
x3
log 3 log x log 2
2
ln(2e)2 (2e)2 = 4e3 2 ln 2 + 2
log4 (16a) 2 + log4 a

log(x + 2) + log(x 2) log(x2 4)

2 log3 5 + 1 log3 75
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
3 9
2 ln ln 4 ln
2 16

(log3 2)(log3 4) = log3 8

(log3 2)(log3 4) = log3 6
log 22 = (log 2)2
log4 x
log4 (x 4) =
log4 4
2
3 log9 x = 6 log9 x
3(log9 x)2 = 6 log9 x
log3 2x2 = log3 2 + 2 log3 x
log3 2x2 = 2 log3 2x

2 ⇡ ◆0.431
log5 ✓
1 p
log5 8, log5 , log5 2, log25 2 log25 8
16
1.2920, 1.7227, 0.2153, 0.2153, 0.6460

log 6 ⇡ 0.778 log 4 ⇡ 0.602✓ ◆ ✓ ◆

2 3
log6 4, log 24, log4 6, log log
3 2
0.7737, 1.3802, 1.2925, 0.1761, 0.1761

b x logb x
• b
• x
• logb x

•
•
•

f (x) = logb x logb u = logb v u=v

ab = 0 a=0 b=0

log4 (2x) = log4 10 log2 (x + 1) + log2 (x 1) = 3

log3 (2x 1) = 2 log x2 = 2
logx 16 = 2 (log x)2 + 2 log x 3=0

log4 (2x) = log4 10

2x = 10
x=5
 log4 (2 · 5) = log4 (10)

log3 (2x 1) = 2
2x 1 = 32
2x 1 = 9
2x = 10
x=5

log3 (2 · (5)1) = log3 (9) = 2

logx 16 = 2
x2 = 16
x2 16 = 0
(x + 4)(x 4) = 0 a2 b2 = (a + b)(a b)
x = 4, 4

log4 (16) = 2 4 log 4 (16)

log2 (x + 1) + log2 (x 1) = 3
log2 [(x + 1)(x 1)] = 3 logb u + logb v = logb (uv)
(x + 1)(x 1) = 23
x2 1 = 8
x2 9 = 0
(x + 3)(x 3) = 0 a2 b2 = (a + b)(a b)
x = 3, 3

log2 (3 + 1) log2 (31

3 log2 (3 + 1) = log2 (2)

x=3

log x2 = 2

log x2 = 2
x2 = 102
x2 = 100
x2 100 = 0
(x + 10)(x 10) = 0
x = 10, 10
log(10)2 = 2 log(10)2 = 2

log x2 = 2
log x2 = log 102 2 = 2(1) = 2(log 10) = log 102
x2 = 102
x2 100 = 0
(x + 10)(x 10) = 0
x = 10, 10
log(10)2 = 2 log(10)2 = 2

logb un = n logb u
log x2 = 2
2 log x = 2
log x = 1
x = 10
log x2 = 2 log x x>0

(log x)2 + 2 log x 3=0

log x = A

A2 + 2A 3 = 0
(A + 3)(A 1) = 0
A= 3 A=1

log x = 3 log x = 1
3 1
x = 10 = x = 10
1000
✓ ◆
1
log log 10
1000

x 2x = 3

2x = 3
log 2x = log 3
x log 2 = log 3 logb un = n logb u
log 3
x= ⇡ 1.58496
log 2

x log 1 x x log2 x
2

1 1
8 8
1 1
4 4
1 1
2 2

x log 1 x x log2 x
2
1 1
8 8 3
1 1
4 4 2
1 1
2 2 1

1
2
3

1
2
log 1 x x log 1 x
2 2

log2 x x log2 x
 logb x
0<b<1 x 1 < x2 logb x1 > logb x2
b>1 x 1 < x2 logb x1 < logb x2

• < > b

• x

log3 (2x 1) > log3 (x + 2)

log0.2 > 3
2 < log x < 2

log3 (2x 1) > log3 (x + 2)

2x 1 > 0 x+2>0
2x 1>0 x > 12 x+2>0 x> 2
1
x> 2 x > 12 x 2

log3 (2x 1) > log3 (x + 2)

2x 1 > x + 2
x>3 x
)x>3
(3, +1)

log0.2 > 3

x>0
 ✓ ◆ 3
1 1
3 5 3 = log 1
5 5
✓ ◆ 3
1
log 1 x > log 1
5 5 5
1
0.2 =
5 ✓ ◆ ✓ ◆ 3
3
1 1
log 1 x > log 1 x< = 125
5 5 5 5
x 0 < x < 125
(0, 125)

2 < log x < 2

x>0

2 log 10 2 log 102

log 10 2 < log x < log 102

log 10 2 < log x log x < log 102

10 2 <x x < 102

1
< x < 100
✓100 ◆
1
, 100
100

EB EN
EB
EN
2 EB 2 EN
7.2 = log 4.4 6.7 = log 4.4
3 10 3 10
 ✓ ◆
3 EB
EB 7.2 = log 4.4
2 10
EB
10.8 = log 4.4
10
10.8 EB
10 = 4.4
10
EB = 1010.8 · 104.4 = 1015.2
✓ ◆
3 EN
EN 6.7 = log 4.4
2 10
EN
10.05 = log 4.4
10
10.05 EN
10 = 4.4
10
EB = 1010.05 · 104.4 = 1014.45
EB 1015.2
= 14.45 = 100.75 ⇡ 5.62
EN 10

n
n+1

E1 E2 n n+1
E2
E1
2 E1 2 E2
n= log 4.4 n+1= log 4.4
3 10 3 10
3 E1
E1 n = log 4.4
2 10
3n/2 E1
10 = 4.4
10 3n
E1 = 103n/2 · 104.4 = 10 2 +4.4

3 E2
E2 (n + 1) = log 4.4
2 10
3(n+1)/2 E2
10 = 4.4
10
3(n+1)
E2 = 10 3(n+1)/2 · 104.4 = 10 2 +4.4
3(n+1)
E2 10 2 +4.4 3
= 3n = 10 2 ⇡ 31.6
E1 10 2 +4.4
 A = P (1 + r)n A
P r n

A = 2P r = 2.5% = 0.025
A = P (1 + r)n
2P = P (1 + 0.025)n
2 = (1.025)n
log 2 = log(1.025)n
log 2 = n log(1.025)
log 2
n= ⇡ 28.07
log 1.025

log ln

ln 2
ln 1.025

P (x) = 20, 000, 000 · e0.0251x x x=0

P (x) = 200, 000, 000

200, 000, 000 = 20, 000, 000 · e0.0251x
10 = e0.0251x
ln 10 = ln e0.0251x
ln 10 = 0.0251x(ln e)
ln 10 = 0.0251x
ln 10
x= ⇡ 91
0.0251
 f (t) = Aekt
t A k

f (0) = 5, 000 f (90) = 12, 000

f (0) = Aek(0) = A = 5, 000
12
f (90) = 5, 000ek(90) = 12, 000 ) e90k =
5
12 12
ln e90k = ln ) 90k = ln ) k ⇡ 0.00973
5 5
f (t) = 5, 000 · e0.00973t

f (180) = 5, 000 · e0.00973(180) ⇡ 28, 813

ex + e x
y=
2

y=4
 ex + e x
4= 8 = ex + e x
2
8 = ex + e x
1
8 = ex + x
e
8ex = e2x + 1
e2x 8ex + 1 = 0
u = ex u2 = e2x u2 8u + 1 = 0
p
u = 4 ± 15
p p
u = ex 4 + 15 = ex 4 15 = ex
p p
ln(4 + 15) = x ln(4 15) = x
y=4
p p
x ln(4 + 15) ln(4 15) ⇡ 4.13

log5 (x 1) + log5 (x + 3) 1=0

log3 x + log3 (x + 2) = 1

3x+1 = 10
1 log 3
⇡ 1.0959
log 3

ln x > 1 e ⇡ 2.7183 (e, +1)

 log0.5 (4x + 1) < log0.5 (1 4x) (0, 1/4)

log2 [log3 (log4 x)] = 0

f (x) = bx

f (x) = bx

y = f (x) = bx
y = bx
x = by x y
y = logb x
f 1 (x) = logb x
 y = log2 x

y = log2 x

1 1 1 1
x 16 8 4 2

y 4 3 2 1

y = log2 x y = log2 x

x>0
x
x=0
 y = 2x y = log2 x

y = x

y = log 1 x
2

y = log 1 x
2

1 1 1 1
x 16 8 4 2

y 4 3 2 1 1 2 3
 y = log 12 x y = log 12 x

x>0
x
x=0

y = log2 x y = log 1 x
2
y = logb x b

y = logb x(b > 1) y = logb x(0 < b < 1)

y = logb x b > 1 0<b<1

 {x 2 R|x > 0}
x logb x

x y
x=0 y

y=x

y = bx y = logb x(b > 1) y = bx y = logb x(0 < b < 1)

y= log2 x
y = log 1 x
2

y = 2 log2 x
x

y = 2 log2 x y = 2 log2 x
y
 1 1 1 1
x 16 8 4 2

log2 x 4 3 2 1
y = 2 log2 x 8 6 4 2

{x|x 2 R, x > 0}
{y|y 2 R}
x=0
x

y = log3 x 1

y = log3 x >
1
y = log3 x (1, 0), (3, 1) (9, 2)
(1, 1), (3, 0) (9, 1)
 {x|x 2 R, x > 0}
{y|y 2 R}
x=0
x
x x
y=0
0 = log3 x 1
log3 x = 1
x = 31 = 3

y = log0.25 (x + 2)

y = log0.25 x 0 < 0.25 < 1

y = log0.25 [x ( 2)]
2
y = log0.25 x (1, 0), (4, 1), (0.25, 1)
( 1, 0), (2, 1), ( 1.75, 1)
 {x|x 2 R, x > 2}
x+2 log0.25 (x + 2) x
2
{y|y 2 R}
x= 2
x 1

f (x) = a · logb (x c) + d

• b b>1 0<b<1

• a a
x

• f (x) = a · logb x d d>0 d

d<0 c c>0 c
c<0
 y = logb x y

y = logx (x + 3) y = (log0.1 x) 2
y = log 1 (x 1) y = log 2 (x 4) + 2
3 5

y = (log5 x) + 6 y = log6 (x + 1) + 5

log 2 ⇡ 0.3010 log 3 ⇡ 0.4771 log 5 ⇡ 0.6990 log 7 ⇡ 0.8451

21/3
51/4

21/3
51/4
21/3 1 1
n = 1/4 log n = log 2 log 5
5 3 4
log n
1 1
log n ⇡ (0.3010) (0.6990) ⇡ 0.0744
3 4
0.0744 n n

log n ⇡ 0.0744

n ⇡ 10 0.0744
•

•
•

• t

• P
• r

• I
• Is
• Ic

• F t
 r

t
t P

t
t t
 Is = P rt

Is
P
r
t
P = 1, 000, 000
r = 0.25% = 0.0025
t=1
Is

Is = P rt
Is = (1, 000, 000)(0.0025)(1)
Is = 2, 500

P = 50, 000
r = 10% = 0.10
9
t=
12
Is

M
M t=
12

Is = P rt
✓ ◆
9
Is = (50, 000)(0.10)
12
Is = (50, 000)(0.10)(0.75)
Is = 3, 750
 P r t

Is 1, 500
P = =
rt (0.025)(4)
P = 15, 000

Is 4, 860
r= =
Pt (36, 000)(1.5)
r = 0.09 = 9%

Is 275
t= =
Pr (250, 000)(0.005)
t = 0.22

Is = P rt = (500, 000)(0.125)(10)
Is = 625, 000
r = 7% = 0.07
t=2
IS = 11, 200
P

Is 11, 200
P = =
rt (0.07)(2)
P = 80, 000

P = 500, 000
Is = 157, 500
t=3
r

Is 157, 500
r= =
Pt (500, 000)(3)
r = 0.105 = 10.5%

P
r = 5% = 0.05
1
Is = P = 0.5P
2
t
 Is 0.5P
t= =
Pr (P )(0.05)
t = 10

t r
F

F = P + Is

F
P
Is

Is P rt
F = P + P rt
F = P (1 + rt)

F = P (1 + rt)

F
P
r
t

P = 1, 000, 000, r = 0.25% = 0.0025

F
F
 Is P F = P + Is .
F = P (1 + rt)

t=1

Is = P rt
Is = (1, 000, 000)(0.0025)(1)
Is = 2, 500
F = P + Is
F = 1, 000, 000 + 2, 500
F = 1, 002, 500

F
F = P (1 + rt)
F = (1, 000, 000)(1 + 0.0025(1))
F = 1, 002, 500

t=5

Is = P rt
Is = (1, 000, 000)(0.0025)(5)
Is = 12, 500

F = P + Is
F = 1, 000, 000 + 12, 500
F = 1, 012, 500

F = P (1 + rt)
F = (1, 000, 000)(1 + 0.0025(5))
F = 1, 012, 500
 P r t I

P r t I

1
2
I F
I F P F r = 9.5%
I = 9, 500 P = 300, 000 t=5 I = 16, 250 F = 1, 016, 250

1
4
 P
r P r
 P (1 + r) = P (1 + r) 100, 000 · 1.05 = 105, 000
P (1 + r)(1 + r) = P (1 + r)2 105, 000·, 1.05 = 110, 250
P (1 + r)2 (1 + r) = P (1 + r)3 110, 250 · 1.05 = 121, 550.63
P (1 + r)3 (1 + r) == P (1 + r)4 121, 550.63 · 1.05 = 127, 628.16

(1 + r) 1+r
r

F = P (1 + r)t

P
F
r
t

Ic

Ic = F P

P = 10, 000
r = 2% = 0.02
t=5
F
Ic

F = P (1 + r)t
F = (10, 000)(1 + 0.02)5
F = 11, 040.081

Ic = F P
Ic = 11, 040.81 10, 000
Ic = 1, 040.81

P = 50, 000
r = 5% = 0.05
t=8
F
Ic

F = P (1 + r)t
F = (50, 000)(1 + 0.05)8
F = 73, 872.77

Ic = F P
Ic = 73, 872.77 50, 000
Ic = 23, 872.77

F
 P = 10, 000
r = 0.5% = 0.005
t = 12
F

F = P (1 + r)t
F = (10, 000)(1 + 0.005)12
F = 10, 616.78

F t r
F = P (1 + r)t

P (1 + r)t = F
P (1 + r)t F
=
(1 + r)t (1 + r)t
F
P =
(1 + r)t
t
P = F (1 + r)

F t
P = = F (1 + r)
(1 + r)t

P
F
r
t
F = 50, 000
r = 10% = 0.1
t=7
P

F
P =
(1 + r)t
50, 000
P =
(1 + 0.1)7
P = 25, 657.91

F = 200, 000
r = 1.1% = 0.011
t=6
P

F
P =
(1 + r)t
200, 000
P =
(1 + 0.011)6
P = 187, 293.65

P r t Ic
 P r t Ic F

Fc = 23, 820.32 Ic = 3, 820.32

Fc = 25, 250.94 Ic = 250.94

Fc = 90, 673.22 Ic = 2, 673.22

P = 89, 632.37

t r Ic
t t
1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2
 1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

1
2

•
• m
• i(m)
• j

i(m)
j= =
m
• n

n = tm = ⇥
 r, i(m) , j
r
i(m) j

i(m)

0.02
= 0.02 = 2%
i(1) = 0.02 1
0.02
= 0.01 = 1%
i(2) = 0.02 2
0.02
= 0.005 = 0.5%
i(3) = 0.02 4
0.02
= 0.0016 = 0.16%
i(12) = 0.02 12
0.02
i(365) = 0.02 365

F = P (1 + j)t

i(m)
• j=
m
• t mt
 !mt
i(m)
F =P 1+
m

F =
P =
i(m) =
m=
t=

F = P (1 + j)t

!mt
i(m)
F =P 1+
m

i(m)
j
m
t mt
P = 10, 000
i(4) = 0.02
t=5
m=4

F
P

i(4) 0.02
j= = = 0.005
m 4

n = mt = (4)(5) = 20 .

F = P (1 + j)n
= (10, 000)(1 + 0.005)20
F = 11, 048.96

Ic = F P = 11, 048.96 10, 000 = 1, 048.96

P = 10, 000
i(12) = 0.02
t=5
m = 12

F
P
 i(12) 0.02
j= = = 0.0016
m 12

n = mt = (12)(5) = 60 .

F = P (1 + j)n
= (10, 000)(1 + 0.0016)60
F = 11, 050.79

Ic = F P = 11, 050.79 10, 000 = 1, 050.79

P = 50, 000
i(12) = 0.12
t=6
m = 12

F
 !tm
i(12)
F =P 1+
m
✓ ◆
0.12 (6)(12)
F = (50, 000) 1 +
12
F = (50, 000)(1.01)72
F = 102, 354.97

F
P = !mt
i(m)
1+
m

F =
P =
i(m) =
m=
t=

F = 50, 000
t=4
i(2) = 0.12

i(2) 0.12
j= = = 0.06
m 2
 n = tm = (4)(2) = 8

F
P =
(1 + j)n

50, 000 50, 000

P = 8
= = 31, 370.62
(1 + 0.06) (1.06)8

F = 25, 000
1
t=2
2
i(4) = 0.10
P

i(4) 0.10
j= = = 0.025
m 4

1
n = tm = (2 )(4) = 10
2

F
P =
(1 + j)n

25, 000 25, 000

P = = = 19, 529.96
(1 + 0.025)10 (1.025)10
i(m)

F
F
3%
 1 m
i(m) x = = (m) m = x(i(m) )
j i
m
m!1 x = (m) ! 1 m
i

m
x=
i(m)
!mt
i(m)
F =P 1+
m
✓ ◆ (m)
1 xi t
F =P 1+
x
✓ ◆ i(m) t
1 x
F =P 1+
x

✓ ◆x
1
x 1+
✓ ◆x x
1
x ! 1 1+ e
x

P i(m)
F t
(m) t
F = P ei
P = 20, 000
i(m) = 0.03
t=6
F

(m) t
F = P ei

(m) t
F = P ei = 20, 000e(0.03)(6) = 20, 000e0.18 = 23, 944.35
P = 3, 000
F = 3, 500
i(12) = 0.25% = 0.0025
m = 12
i(12) 0.0025
j= =
m 12

F = P (1 + j)n

✓ ◆n
0.0025
3, 500 = 3, 000 1 +
12
✓ ◆
3, 500 0.0025 n
= 1+
3, 000 12
 n
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
3, 500 0.0025 n
log = log 1 +
3, 000 12
✓ ◆
0.0025
log(1.166667) = n log 1 +
12
n = 740.00
n 740
t= m = 12 = 61.67

1, 000 300 12%

F = 1, 300
m=2
i(2) = 0.12
i(2) 0.12
j= = = 0.06
2 2

n t

F = P (1 + j)n
1, 300 = 1, 000(1 + 0.06)n
1.3 = (1.06)n
log(1.3) = log(1.06)n
log(1.3) = n log(1.06)
log 1.3
n= = 4.503
log(1.06)

300
n 5
n=5 t= m = 2 = 2.5
1, 000 300
 n
n=5 n = 4.503 t

F = 15, 000
P = 10, 000
t = 10
m=2
n = mt = (2)(10) = 20

i(2)

F = P (1 + j)n
15, 000 = 10, 000(1 + j)20
15, 000
= (1 + j)20
10, 000
1.5 = (1 + j)20
1
(1.5) 20 = 1 + j
1
(1.5) 20 1=j
j = 0.0205

i(m)
j=
m
i(2)
0.0205 =
2
(2)
i = (0.0205)(2)
i(2) = 0.0410 4.10%
 F = 2P
t = 10 s
m=4
n = mt = (4)(10) = 40

i(4)

F = P (1 + j)n
2P = P (1 + j)n
2 = (1 + i)40
(2)1/40 = 1 + j
(2)1/40 1=j
j = 0.0175 1.75%

i(4)
j=
m
i(4)
0.0175 =
4
(4)
i = (0.0175)(4)
i(4) = 0.070 7.00%

•
•
•
i(1)

i(4) = 0.10
m=4

i(1)

F1 = F2
!mt
i(4)
P (1 + i(1) )t = P 1+
m

P
!mt
i(4)
(1 + i(1) )t = 1+
m

1
t
✓ ◆4
(i) 0.10
(1 + i ) = 1+
4
✓ ◆4
(i) 0.10
i = 1+ 1 = 0.103813 10.38%
4
 j
j = (1.025)4 1

F1 = F 2 t t=1

P t

i(12) = 0.12 m = 12 P t
i(1) = m=1 P t

F1 F2

F1 = F2
!(1)t !12t
i(1) i(12)
P 1+ =P 1+
1 12
! ✓ ◆
i(1) 0.12 12
1+ = 1+
1 12
i(1) = (1.01)12 1
i(1) = 0.126825%

i(2) = 0.08 m=2 P t

i(4) = m=4 P t
F1 F2

F1 = F 2
!(4)t !(2)t
i(4) i(2)
P 1+ =P 1+
4 2
!4 ✓ ◆
i(4) 0.08 2
1+ = 1+
4 2
!4
i(4)
1+ = (1.04)2
4
i(4)
1+ = [(1.04)2 ](1/4)
4
i (4)
1+ = (1.04)1/2
4
i(4)
1+ = 1.019804
4
i(4)
= 1.019804 1
4
i (4)
= 0.019804
4
i(4) = (0.019804)(4)
i(4) = 0.079216%

i(12) = 0.12 m = 12 P t
i(2) = m=2 P t

F1 F2
 F1 = F2
!(2)t !(12)t
i(2) i(12)
P 1+ =P 1+
2 12
!2 ✓ ◆
i(2) 0.12 12
1+ = 1+
2 12
!2
i(2)
1+ = (1.01)12
2
i(2)
1+ = [(1.01)12 ](1/2)
42
i(2)
1+ = (1.01)6
2
i (2)
1+ = 1.061520
2
i (2)
= 1.061520 1
2
i(2)
= 0.061520
2
i(2) = (0.061520)(2)
(2)
i = 0.12304 12.304%

F = 2, 000, P = 1, 750, m = 2, t = j i(m)

j = 0.016831504 1.68%, i(m) = 0.033663008 3.37%
F = 100, 000, P = 10, 000, t = i(m) j
j = 0.024275 2.43%, i(m) = 0.2913 29.13%
F = 30, 000, P = 10, 000, i(m) = 16% j n t
j = 0.04, n = 28 ,t = 7
F = 18, 000, P = 12, 000, i(m) = 12% j n t
j = 0.06, n = 7 , t = 3.48
 j

P
•

• t
• R
• F

• P
•

P F
R R R R R ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· n

P F
3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
6
R = 3, 000
t=6
=1
 P F
R R R R R ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· n
•

R = 3, 000
t=6
i(12) = 0.09
m = 12
0.09
j= = 0.0075
12
F

3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

t=6
3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

3, 000
3, 000(1 + 0.0075)
3, 000(1 + 0.0075)2
3, 000(1 + 0.0075)3
3, 000(1 + 0.0075)4
3, 000(1 + 0.0075)5
 3, 000 = 3, 000
(3, 000)(1 + 0.0075) = 3, 022.5
(3, 000)(1 + 0.0075)2 = 3, 045.169
(3, 000)(1 + 0.0075)3 = 3, 068.008
(3, 000)(1 + 0.0075)4 = 3, 091.018
(3, 000)(1 + 0.0075)5 = 3, 114.20
F = 18, 340.89

t=1
t=2 t=3

3, 000 ⇥ 6 = 18, 000

t=1 t=2

F
 F
R R ··· R R
0 1 2 ··· n 1 n

R
R(1 + j)

R(1 + j)n 2

R(1 + j)n 1

F = R + R(1 + j) + R(1 + j)2 + · · · + R(1 + j)n 2

+ R(1 + j)n 1

1+j

F (1 + j) = R(1 + j) + R(1 + j)2 + R(1 + j)3 + · · · + R(1 + j)n 1

+ R(1 + j)n

F (1 + j) F = R(1 + j)n R
F [(1 + j) 1] = R[(1 + j)n 1]
F (j) = R[(1 + j)n 1]
(1 + j)n 1
F =R
j
(1 + j)n 1
sn s n
j

R R R R R ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· n

(1 + j)n 1
F = Rsn = R ,
j

R
j
n
 (1 + j)n 1
F =R
j
(1 + 0.0075)6 1
= 3, 000
0.0075
= 18, 340.89

R = 200
m = 12
i(12) = 0.250% = 0.0025
0.0025
j= = 0.0002083
12
t=6
n = tm = 6(12) = 72
F

(1 + j)n 1
F =R
j
(1 + 0.0002083)72 1
= 200
0.0002083
= 14, 507.02
 R = 3, 000
t=6
i(12) = 0.09
m = 12
0.09
j= = 0.0075
12
P

F 3, 000
P = !mt = = 3, 000(1.0075) t .
i(m) 1.0075t
1+
m

3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000 3, 000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

3, 000(1.0075) 1

3, 000(1.0075) 2

3, 000(1.0075) 3

3, 000(1.0075) 4

3, 000(1.0075) 5

3, 000(1.0075) 6

1
(3, 000)(1.0075) = 2, 977.667
2
(3, 000)(1.0075) = 2, 955.501
3
(3, 000)(1.0075) = 2, 933.50
4
(3, 000)(1.0075) = 2, 911.663
5
(3, 000)(1.0075) = 2, 889.988
6
(3, 000)(1.0075) = 2, 868.474
P = 17, 536.79
 F F 18, 340.89
P = = !tm = ✓ ◆ = 17, 536.79.
(1 + j)n i(m) .09 6
1+ 1+
m 12

F
F = P (1 + j)n P =
(1 + j)n

F n
P = = F (1 + j) .
(1 + j)n

R R ··· R R
0 1 2 ··· n 1 n

R(1 + j) 1

R(1 + j) 2

R(1 + j) (n 1)

R(1 + j) n

P = R(1 + j) 1 + R(1 + j) 2 + · · · + R(1 + j) (n 1) + R(1 + j) n

R R R R R
P = + + + ··· + +
(1 + j)1 (1 + j)2 (1 + j)3 (1 + j)n 1 (1 + j)n
 1
1+j

P R R R R
= 2
+ 3
+ ··· + n
+
1+j (1 + j) (1 + j) (1 + j) (1 + j)n+1

1 R R
P P =
1+j 1 + j (1 + j)n
✓ ◆ ✓ ◆
1 R 1
P 1 = 1
1+j 1+j (1 + j)n
✓ ◆
1+j 1 R n
=P = 1 (1 + j)
1+j 1+j
✓ ◆
j R
P = 1 (1 + j) n
1+j 1+j
n
Pj = R 1 (1 + j)
1 (1 + j) n
P =R
j

1 (1 + j) n
an a n
j
P

1 (1 + j) n
P = Ran = R .
j

(1 + j)n 1
F =R .
j

F
P =
(1 + j)n

n
F R (1+j)j 1 (1 + j)n 1 n 1 (1 + j) n
P = n
= n
=R (1 + j) =R .
(1 + j) (1 + j) j j
 R R R R R ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· n

1 (1 + j) n
P = Rn = R ,
j

R
j
n

P
1 (1 + j) n
P =R
j
1 (1 + 0.0075) 6
= 3, 000
0.0075
= 17, 536.79

= 200, 000
R = 16, 200
i(12) = 0.105
0.105
j= = 0.00875
12
t=5
n = mt = 12(5) = 60
 P =?
16, 200 16, 200 16, 200 ··· 16, 200
0 1 2 3 ··· 60

1(1 + j) n
P =R
j
1 (1 + 0.00875) 60
= 16, 200
0.00875
= 753, 702.20

= +
= 200, 000 + 753, 702.20
= 953, 702.20

P = 100, 000
i(1) = 0.08
m=1
j = 0.08
t=3
n = mt = 1(3) = 3
R

P = 10, 000
R =? R =? R =?
0 1 2 3
 1 (1 + j) n
P =R
j
P
R= 1 (1+j) n
j
100, 000
= 1 (1+0.08) 3
0.08
= 38, 803.35

(1 + j)n 1
F = Rsn = R
j

1 (1 + j) n
P = Ran = R
j

P F

0.2
365 30 30 ⇥ 365
•

12% =

10% =
•

R R R R R ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· n
 j

F
R R R R R ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· n

(1 + j)n 1
F =R ,
j

R
j
n

R = 1, 000
n = 12(15) = 180
i(4) = 0.06
m=4
F

F
1, 000 1, 000 1, 000 ··· 1, 000 1, 000
0 1 2 3 ··· 179 180
 F1 = F2
!12t !4t
i(12) i(4)
P 1+ =P 1+
12 4
!12t !4t
i(12) i(4)
1+ = 1+
12 4
!12
i(12)
1+ = (1.015)4
12
i(12)
1+ = [(1.015)4 ]1/12
12
i(12)
= (1.015)1/3 1
12
i(12)
= 0.004975 = j
12

(1 + j)n 1
F =R
j
(1 + 0.004975)180 1
= 1, 000
0.004975
= 290, 076.28

R = 5, 000
n = 2(10) = 20
i(12) = 0.25% = 0.0025
m = 12
F
 5, 000 5, 000 5, 000 ··· 5, 000 5, 000
0 1 2 3 ··· 19 20

F1 = F2
!2t !12t
i(2) i(12)
P 1+ =P 1+
2 12
!2 !12
i(2) i(12)
1+ = 1+
2 12
!2
i(2)
1+ = (1.00020833)12
2
i(2)
1+ = [(1.00020833)12 ]1/2
2
i(2)
= (1.00020833)6 1
2
i(2)
= 0.00125063 = j
2

(1 + j)n 1
F =R
j
(1 + 0.00125063)20 1
= 5, 000
0.00125063
= 101, 197.06

j
 P
R R R R ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· n

1 (1 + j) n
P =R ,
j

R
j
n

R = 38, 973.76
i(4) = 0.08
m=4
n=3
P

P =?
R = 38, 973.76 R = 38, 973.76 R = 38, 973.76
0 1 2 3
 F 1 = F2
!(1)t !4t
i(1) i(4)
P 1+ =P 1+
1 4
! ✓ ◆
i(1) 0.08 4
1+ = 1+
1 4
i(1)
= (1.02)4 1
1
i(1)
= j = 0.082432 = 8.24%
1

j

1 (1 + j) n
P =R
j
 3
1 (1 + 0.082432)
= 38, 973.76
0.082432
= 100, 000.00

R = 3, 000
i(2) = 0.09
m=2
n=6

P
 F1 = F2
!(12)t !(2)t
i(12) i(2)
P 1+ =P 1+
12 2
!12 ✓ ◆
i(12) 0.09 2
1+ = 1+
12 2
!12
i(12)
1+ = (1 + 0.045)2
12
i(12)
1+ = [(1.045)2 ]1/12
12
i(12)
= (1.045)1/6 1
12
i(12)
= 0.00736312 = j
12

j
✓ ◆
1 (1 + j) n
P =R
j
✓ 6
◆
1 (1 + 0.00736312)
= 3, 000
0.00736312
= 17, 545.08
 50, 000 1, 000, 000
0 1 2 3 ··· 20

50, 000 40, 000 40, 000 40, 000 ··· 40, 000
0 1 2 3 ··· 20

t=0

n
P = F (1 + j)
5
= 1, 000, 000(1 + 0.05)
= 783, 526.17
= 50, 000 + 783, 526.17
= 833, 526.17
 F1 = F2
!(4)(t) !(1)(t)
i(4) i(1)
P 1+ =P 1+
4 1
!4 ✓ ◆
i(4) 0.05 1
1+ = 1+
4 1
i(4)
1+ = (1.05)1/4
4
i(4)
= (1.05)1/4 1
4
i(4) = 0.012272

1 (1 + j) n
P =R
j
1 (1 + 0.012272) 20
= 40, 000
0.012272
= 705, 572.68

= +
= 50, 000 + 705, 572.68
= 755, 572.68

833, 526.17 755, 572.68 = 77, 953.49

t=5
 F = P (1 + j)n
= 50, 000(1 + 0.05)5
= 63, 814.08

= 63, 814.08 + 1, 000, 000

= 1, 063, 814.08

(1 + j)n 1
F =R
j
(1 + 0.012272)20 1
= 40, 000
0.012272
= 900, 509.40

= 63, 814.08 + 900, 509.40

= 964, 323.48

1, 063, 814.08 964, 323.48 = 99, 490.60.

P = 99, 490.60(1 + 0.05) 5 = 77, 953.49

0 1 2 3 4 5

···
0 1 2 3 ··· 20

n
P1 = F (1 + j)
6
= 150, 000(1 + 0.04)
= 118, 547.18

n
P2 = F (1 + j)
10
= 300, 000(1 + 0.04)
= 202, 669.25

= P1 + P2
= 118, 547.18 + 202, 669.25
= 321, 216.43
 F1 = F2
!4(5) !2(5)
i(4) i(2)
P 1+ =P 1+
4 2
!20 ✓ ◆
i(4) 0.08 10
1+ = 1+
4 2
i(4)
1+ = (1.04)1/2
4
i(4)
= (1.04)1/2 1
4
i(4)
= 0.019803903
4

1 (1 + j) n
P =R
j
1 (1 + 0.019803903) 20
= 25, 000
0.019803903
= 409, 560.4726

P F
•

1 (1 + j) 8
15, 000 = 2, 000 j
j
•

•
 P
R R R R R ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ··· n

1 (1 + j) n
P = Ran = R ,
j

R
j
n

R = 2, 500
i(12) = 0.09
t=1
m = 12
P

P =?
2, 500 2, 500 ··· R
0 1 2 ··· n

i(12) 0.09
j= = = 0.0075
m 12
n = mt = 12(1) = 12

1 (1 + 0.0075) 12
P = Ran = 2, 500 = 28, 587.28.
0.0075
 n
j

P =?
2, 500 2, 500 ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ···

P 0 =?
2, 500 2, 500 2, 500 2, 500 2, 500 ··· R
0 1 2 3 4 5 ···

P0
1 (1 + j) n 1 (1 + 0.0075) 15
P 0 = Ran = R = 2, 500 = 35, 342.49
j 0.0075

1 (1 + j) n 1 (1 + 0.0075) 3
P ⇤ = Ran = R = 2, 500 = 7, 388.89
j 0.0075

P = P0 P ⇤ = 35, 342.49 7, 388.89 = 27, 953.60

 k R⇤

R⇤ R⇤ ··· R⇤ R R ··· R
0 1 2 ··· k k+1 k+2 ··· k+n

P
R R ··· R
0 1 2 ··· k k+1 k+2 ··· k+n

1 (1 + j) (k+n) 1 (1 + j) k
P = Rak+n Rk = R R ,
j j

R
i
n
k
 R = 10, 000
i(4) = 0.08
t=5
m=4
P

k = mt = 4(20) = 80
n = mt = 4(5) = 20
i(4) 0.08
j= = = 0.02
m 4

P
10, 000 10, 000 ··· 10, 000
0 1 2 ··· 80 81 82 ··· 100

1 (1 + j) (k+n) 1 (1 + j) k
P = Rak+n Rak = R R
j j
1 (1 + 0.02) 100 1 (1 + 0.02) 80
= 10, 000 10, 000
0.02 0.02
= 33, 538.38
 R = 4, 000
i(12) = 0.10
t=2
m = 12
P

k=2
n = mt = 12(2) = 24
i(12) 0.10
j= = = 0.00833
m 12

k + n = 2 + 24 = 26

P
4, 000 4, 000 ··· 4, 000
0 1 2 3 4 ··· 26

1 (1 + j) (k+n) 1 (1 + j) k
P =R R
j j
1 (1 + 0.00833) 26 1 (1 + 0.00833) 2
= 4, 000 4, 000
0.00833 0.00833
= 85, 260.53
•
•

•
•
•
•
•

•
•

= 30, 000, 000

= 700, 000

=
30, 000, 000
=
700, 000
= 42.86

= 3%
= 500
= 200

500 ⇥ 0.03 = 15
15 ⇥ 200 = 3, 000.
 = ⇥ ⇥
= 0.03(500)(200)
= 3, 000

= 8 = 12
= 52 = 95

= =
8 12
= =
52 95
= 0.1538 = 15.38% = 0.1263 = 12.63%

• r
• P
• F

P =F

P <F

P >F

F = 300, 000
r = 10%

300, 000(0.10) = 30, 000

1
30, 000 2 = 15, 000

F = 100, 000
r = 5%
= 10
= 2(10) = 20
= 4%
 0.05
100, 000 2 = 2, 500

t = 10

F 100, 000
P = n
= = 67, 556.42
(1 + j) (1 + 0.04)10

!2
1 i(2)
(1 + 0.04) = 1+
2
i(2)
= 0.019804
2

1 (1 + j) n 1 (1 + 0.019804) 20
P =R = 2, 500 = 40, 956.01,
j 0.019804
= 67, 556.42 + 40, 956.01 = 108, 512.43.

= ⇥ ⇥
•
•

•
•
•
•
•

•
•
57.29 0.10 =
57.19

•
•
•
•

•
•

•
•

•
•
•
•

•
•
•
P = 1, 000, 000
j = 0.07
n=1

F = P (1 + j)n = 1, 000, 000(1 + 0.07) = 1, 070, 000

P = 1, 200, 000
= 31, 000

= (31, 000)(12 )(5 )

= 1, 860, 000

= 1, 860, 000 1, 200, 000

= 660, 000
 =( )⇥( )
= 0.20(3, 000, 000)
= 600, 000

=( ) ( )
= 3, 000, 000 600, 000
= 2, 400, 000

(0.80)( 3, 000, 000) = 2, 400, 000.

P = 400, 000
i(12) = 0.09
i(12) 0.09
j= = = 0.005
12 12
n = 36

P 400, 000
R=  n = 36 = 12, 719.89
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.0075)
j 0.0075
 P n k
R R ··· R R R ··· R
0 1 2 ··· k k +n1 k k + 2 ··· k+n
Bk
k

Bk p OBk

R = 11, 122.22
i(12) = 0.12
i(12) 0.12
j= = = 0.01
12 12
k = 12
n k = 48

" # 
1 (1 + j) (n k) 1 (1.01) 48
Bk = R = 11, 122.22 = 422, 354.73
j 0.01
 P = 3, 200, 000
i(12) = 0.12
i(12) 0.12
j= = = 0.01
12 12
n = mt = (12)(20) = 240

R

1 (1 + j) n
P =R
j
P 3, 200, 000
R=  n = 240 = 35, 234.76
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.01)
j 0.01

P = 3, 200, 000
R = 35, 234.76
n = 240

240 ⇥ 35, 234.76 = 8, 456, 342.40.

=
= 8, 456, 342.40 3, 200, 000 = 5, 256, 342.40
 P = 3, 200, 000
i(12) = 0.12
i(12) 0.12
j= = = 0.01
12 12
n = mt = (12)(20) = 240
R = 35, 234.76

 190
 190
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.01)
B50 = R = 35, 234.76 = 2, 991, 477.63
j 0.01

P R51

P R51 = R I50 = 35, 234.76 29, 914.78 = 5, 319.98

 F = (1 + j)n = 100, 000, (1 + 0.08)3 = 251, 942.40

 2
 2
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.10)
B3 = R = 26, 379.75 = 45, 783.04
j 0.10
  5
 5
1 (1 + j) 1 (1.06)
B1 = R = 183, 026.37 = 770, 973.65
j 0.06

P 30, 000
R=  n = 12 = 2, 623.54
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.0075)
j 0.0075

P 750, 000
R=  n = 8 = 102, 382.35
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.02)
j 0.02

P 500, 000
R=  n = 36 = 16, 607.15
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.01)
j 0.01

 34
 34
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.01)
B2 = R = 16, 607.15 = 476, 669.63
j 0.01

I3 = i(P2 ) = (0.01)(476, 669.63) = 4, 766.00

P R51 = R I50 = 16, 607.15 4, 766.7 = 11, 840.45
 F = P (1 + j)n = 800, 000(1 + 0.08)2 = 933, 120

P 700, 000
R=  n = 48 = 18, 433.68
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.01)
j 0.01

P 300, 000
R=  n = 20 = 19, 244.14
1 (1 + j) 1 (1 + 0.025)
j 0.025

2 ✓ ◆ 18
3
0.10
 18 61 1+ 7
1 (1 + j) 6 12 7
B6 = R = 29, 994.20 6 7 = 499, 428.21
j 4 0.10 5
12

 12
 12
1 (1 + j) 1 (1.025)
B8 = R = 32, 073.56 = 329, 003.03
j 0.025
 2 ✓ ◆ 3
3
0.10
 3 61 1+ 7
1 (1 + j) 6 12 7
P1 = R = 11, 485.35 6 7 = 33, 889.65
j 4 0.10 5
12

 1

1 (1 + j) (1 + 0.08) 1
1
P4 = R = 25, 045.65 = 23, 190.42
j 0.08
I5 = j(P4 ) = (0.08)(23, 190.42) = 1, 855.23
P R5 = R I5 = 25, 045.65 1, 855.23 = 23, 190.42
 T
F

p1 , p2 , ...

p
q
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x
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 (p ! r) ^ (q ! r)
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p q r p!r q!r (p ! r) ^ (q ! r)
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 T
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 p q ⇠q p ^ (⇠ q) p^q (p ^ (⇠ q)) ^ (p ^ q)
T T F F T F
T F T T F F
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p$q

p q (p ! q) ^ (q ! p) p$q
T T T T
T F F F
F T F F
F F T T

p q p,q

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(p ! q) $ [(⇠ p) _ q]

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(p ^ ⌧ ) , p (p _ ) , p
(p _ ⌧ ) , ⌧ (p ^ ) ,
(p _ p) , p (p ^ p) , p
(p _ [⇠ p]) , ⌧ (p ^ [⇠ p]) ,
⇠ (⇠ p) , p
p _ (q _ r) , (p _ q) _ r p ^ (q ^ r) , (p ^ q) ^ r
p_q ,q_p p^q ,q^p
p _ (q ^ r) , (p _ q) ^ (p _ r) p ^ (q _ r) , (p ^ q) _ (p ^ r)
⇠ (p _ q) , (⇠ p) ^ (⇠ q) ⇠ (p ^ q) , (⇠ p) _ (⇠ q)
p _ (p ^ q) , p p ^ (p _ q) , p
 ⇠ (p ! q) , [p ^ (⇠ q)]

⇠ (p ! q) p ^ (⇠ q)
⇠ (p ! q) p ^ (⇠ q)

⇠ (p ! q)
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q)
 p q
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⇠ q !⇠ p

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(p ! q) ,⇠ q !⇠ p

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((p ! q) _ (p ! r)) , (p ! (q _ r))
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 (p1 ^ p2 ^ . . . ^ pn ) ! q.

p1 , p2 , . . . , pn q

p1
p2

pn
)q
 p1 :
p2 :

q:

(p1 ^ p2 ) ! q,

p1
p2
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A A0

A A0
p!q p!q
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A
p!q p q

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q
 p q p!q
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T F F
F T T
F F T

A0
p!q q p

p!q q p!q
q p

p q p!q
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A0

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q
p1 , p2 , . . . , pn

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 ((p ! q) ^ p) ! q

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)⇠ p

p:
q:

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 p:
q:

p
) p _ q,

p:
q:
r:

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p1 , p2 , . . . , pn
q

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 A0

B0

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)p
p!q
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)q
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 p:
q:

p_q
p
)⇠ q

[(p _ q) ^ p] !⇠ q
p q
p q [(p _ q) ^ p]
⇠q ⇠q q p

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(p ^ q) , (q ^ p)

q_p
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⇠p
)q

p q
p q
 p ⇠p q p^q ⇠ (p ^ q) ⇠ (p ^ q)^ ⇠ p [⇠ (p ^ q)^ ⇠ p] ! q
F T F F T T F

p!q
p
)q

p!q p
q
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(p ^ q) ! r
r
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p !⇠ q
q
)⇠ p

p !⇠ q
⇠p
)q
 (p ^ (⇠ q)) ! r
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q ! (⇠ u)
u^s
)r

(((p ^ (⇠ q)) ! r) ^ (s ! p) ^ (q ! (⇠ u)) ^ (u ^ s)) ! r

24 = 16

p ! (r ^ s)
⇠r
)⇠ p

⇠p
 ⇠r
⇠r ⇠p
p ! (r ^ s) ⇠ (r ^ s)
⇠r (⇠ r) _ (⇠ s) [(⇠ r) _ (⇠ s)] ,⇠ (r ^ s)

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(⇠ r) _ (⇠ s)
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⇠p

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⇠r

(p ^ r) ! (⇠ q)
(⇠ q) ! r
(p ^ r) ! r
⇠r
⇠ (p ^ r)
 ⇠ r ⇠ r
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⇠ (p ^ r)

⇠r
(⇠ q) ! r
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⇠ (p ^ r)

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s
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p_r p

s
⇠ (⇠ s)
(⇠ r) _ (⇠ s)
⇠r
p_r
p
 p_r (⇠ r)_(⇠ s)
⇠p!r r !⇠ s

p_r
⇠p!r
(⇠ r) _ (⇠ s)
r !⇠ s
⇠ p !⇠ s
s
⇠ (⇠ s)
⇠ (⇠ p)
p

b, e, c, d

b:
e:
c:
d:

b!e
c!d
b_c
)e_d
b_c
⇠ (⇠ b) _ c
(⇠ b) ! c
c!d
(⇠ b) ! d
b!e
(⇠ e) ! (⇠ b) (b ! e) , (⇠ e) ! (⇠ b)
(⇠ e) ! d
⇠ (⇠ e) _ d
e_d

p!q
r!s
p_r
)q_s

t:
d:
s:
 t_d
t!s
)d!s

d ! s d s t
t_d t!s t
d s

t d s t_d t!s d!s

F T F T T F

p_q
⇠q
)p

p_q
⇠q
p
 p q p_q ⇠q ((p _ q)^ ⇠ q) ((p _ q)^ ⇠ q) ! p
T T T F F T
T F T T T T
F T T F F T
F F F T F T

((p _ q)^ ⇠ q) ! p

p ⇠q q
p q p_q
p_q

⇠ (p _ q) ^ (p _ q) ,

m m
m = 2k k m = 2k k

m m = 2k k x
y x+y
 x x x = 2k1 k1
y y = 2k2 k2

x + y = 2k1 + 2k2 = 2(k1 + k2 ) k1 + k2 x+y

ABCD mA = 90
mB = 90 mC = 85 ABCD

ABCD D = 90

360

mA + mB + mC + mD = 360 .

90 + 90 + 85 + mD = 360 .
mD = 95 ABCD A B

ABCD
C A B D

mA + mB + mC + mD = 360 ,

90 + 90 + mC + 90 = 360 mC = 90
C 85

ABCD
ABCD
 (p _ q) ! r
q q p_q r
) r

(p ^ q) ! r
q p, r q
) r

p ! (q ^ r)
) (p ! q) ^ (p ! r)
p ! (q ^ r) ⇠ p _ (q ^ r)
(⇠ p _ q) ^ (⇠ p _ r) (p ! q) ^ (p ! r)

p ! (q _ r)
r!s p, q r, s
)p!s

p ! (r _ t)
⇠r
)⇠ p
⇠r ⇠ r_ ⇠ t ⇠ (r ^ t)
⇠p
(p _ q) ! r
⇠r
)⇠p
 ⇠r ⇠ (p _ q) ⇠ p^ ⇠ q
⇠p

(p ^ q) ! r
⇠r p q, r
)⇠p

m 3 m = 3k k n
6 n = 6k k
3 6
m 3 m = 3k k n
6 n = 6k k
6 3 m = 6k k m = 3 · (2k)
2k m 3

a, b c a2 + b2 = c2 ABC
p
6 2 ABC
p
a2 + 62 = (6 2)2 a=6

ABCD