earthscience

I. Earthquakes – vibration of the Earth due to rapid release of energy ; comes from the focus
(within the Earth’s crust) and epicenter (point directly above the focus) ; seismic waves
radiate in all directions from the focus ; H.F. Reid discovered the actual mechanism of
earthquake generation which is from elastic rebound (the earth ’s crusts move and rebound
back to its original form
A. Elastic Energy / Elastic Rebound – discovered by H.F. Reid ; when two parts of the Earth
separate, they snap back to their original form caused by elastic rebound ; until can
hold the energy it won’t release ; when it is released the form or shape of the plate
snaps back to its original shape
B. Focus – center of the Earthquake within the Earth’s crust ; from the focus, seismic
waves radiate in all directions
C. Epicenter – point on the Earth’s crust directly above the focus
D. Faults / Fault Zones – large fractures on the Earth (not just on top but within that is
why it cannot be called a fault line) ; in plate boundaries, there can be both strikeslips
and dip-slips
1. Dip-Slip – vertical faults ; hanging wall (the one above) and footwall (supports)
a. Normal – hanging wall moves down ; caused by tension
b. Reverse – due to compression ; hanging wall moves up
2. Strikeslip – horizontal faults ; shear ; move in opposing directions
E. Seismic Waves
1. Body Waves – travel within the Earth’s crust
a. P Waves – primary waves / pressure waves ; longitudinal waves ; volume
changes ; compress and expand rocks ; can travel through solids, liquids and
gasses ; rare factions and compressions ; vertical lines
b. S Waves – secondary waves / shear waves ; shake the particles at a right angle
to their direction of travel ; can travel only through solids ; crests and troughs ;
sinusoidal
2. Surface Waves – travel on the outer part of the Earth
a. L Waves – love waves ; diagonally sinusoidal
b. R Waves – rayleigh waves ; big concave
F. Seismology – device used is a seismograph ; seismograms are waves from a
seismograph
II. Layers of the Earth
A. Oceanic Crust – thinner
B. Continental Crust – thicker
*Shadow Zone – 105 degrees – 140 degrees (no seismic waves in this area due to the S
waves not being able to pass through the outer core)
*Mohorovicic / Moho – discontinuity between the crust and the mantle because of the change
in density
*The higher the density, the faster the movement of the P & S Waves
*Isostacy – the higher the altitude, the longer the base
*Gradual Flow – solid but still flowing

III. Supercontinents: Vaalbara, Rodinia, Pangaea, Pangaea Ultima

IV. Continental Drift Theory
A. Evidences
1. Fit of continents
2. Fossil evidences – fossils are found in a certain area when connected
3. Geologic Provinces and Structures – geologic structures have the same
characteristics when together
4. Paleoclimatic Evidences – glacial deposits, coal deposits, gypsum deposits, salt
deposits
B. Other Theories
1. Rafting
 2. Isthmian Links (Land Bridges)
3. Island Stepping Stones
C. New Evidences
1. Sea Floor Spreading
2. Paleomagnetism
3. Polar Reversal
4. Polar Wandering
V. Plate Tectonics; Plate Boundaries
A. Convergent – compression ; reverse dip-slip
1. CC – CC – big mountains: Himalayas, Alps, Apalacians ; like two cakes colliding
2. OC – OC – like two pizzas colliding ; one goes up and the other goes down
(subduction zone) creates trenches ; creates volcanic island arcs
B. Divergent – tension ; normal dip-slip – splitting up ; magma separates ; when magma
flows out, it creates rift, tension or faults ; creates linear (parallel) seas like the red
sea ; upwarping ; rift valley ; new OC or linear sea ; new oceanic ridge
C. Transform – shear ; strikeslip
VI. Minerals
A. Definition
1. Natural
2. Inorganic – not part or not used to be part of a living thing
3. Solid
4. Definite Chemical Composition
5. Crystallite Structure – can be seen within or externally
B. Properties
1. Crystal Form – the external expression of a mineral ; orderly order of atoms
2. Luster – reflection of light ; appearance or quality of light reflected
3. Color – the most obvious ; not always a useful diagnostic property
4. Streak – color of mineral in powder form with the use of a streak plate or unglazed
porcelain ; best way to identify a mineral ; even if the colors are different, streaks
remain the same
5. Hardness – depends on crystallite structure ; resistance of mineral to abrasion or
scratching ; if a mineral scratches a glass, the hardness is harder than 5.5 ; if the
nail doesn’t scratch the mineral, the mineral is harder than 2.5
6. Breakage
a. Cleavage – break aong planes of weak bonding ; exhibited by the micas which
are flat sheets ; pairs of parallel lines = planes of cleave ; goniometers
determine adjacent planes of cleave ; smooth breaks
b. Fractures – no cleavage ; irregular or fibrous or conchoidal (resemble broken
glass)
7. Specific Gravity – no units ; weight of a mineral : equal volume of water ; water =
1.00 g/mL
8. Others – taste ; feel ; magnetism ; reactive to acids
C. Groups
1. Silicates – with silicon
a. Ferromagnesians – dark silicates because of the presence of iron
b. Non-Ferromagnesians – light silicates
2. Non-Silicates – without silicon
a. Oxides – oxygen (O)
b. Sulfide – sulfur (S)
c. Sulfates – sulfate (SO4)
d. Carbonates – carbon (C) – react to acids
e. Halides – fluorine or chlorine (F or Cl)
f. Native Elements