Philip B. Magtaan, Reg. Crim.

, MS Crim
Chapter 1

Ballistics
 DEFINITION OF BALLISTICS
• In its broadest sense, ballistics is defined as is the science dealing with the
motion of projectiles and the conditions governing that motion. Science is a
systematized body of knowledge which has been observed tested and proven.
Motion refers to movement or mobility.
• 3 Types of Motion
• Direct motion – is the forward movement of the bullet or shots out of the shell by
the action of the expansive force of gases from a burning gun powder.
• Gyroscopic motion – is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel
firearm which is either twisted to the left or right.
• Translational – is the action of the bullet once it hits a target and subsequently
ricocheted.
• Projectile means to metallic and non-metallic object propelled by
means of force. In strict sense, it is the study of natural laws relating
to the performance of gunpowder and projectiles in firearms and the
means of predicting such performance. It is also refers to the science
of firearms identification which involves the scientific examination of
ballistics exhibits (fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied
matters) used in crimes involving scientific equipments such as bullet
recovery box, bullet comparison microscope and others.
 ETYMOLOGY
• The term ballistics was derived from the Greek word “ballo” or “ballein”
which literally means “to throw”. Its root word was also said to have
been derived from the name of an early Roman war machine called
“ballista” - a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl missiles
or large objects such as stones at a particular distance to deter enemy
forces. The term ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the
press and in police parlance to firearm identification and investigation.
 BALLISTICS AS A SCIENCE
• Ballistics is classified, formulated and verifiable knowledge gathered by
observation, research and experiment and based on scientific theory
and using scientific equipment and apparatus. Results of firearms
identification is an exact science because it permits an absolute
precision in results free from possibility of error normal to human
perception. Therefore, ballistics per se is not an exact science rather it
is a branch of physics or applied science which is subject to changes
and development depending upon the demands of the modern
civilization.
 EARLY RECORDED FIREARMS
IDENTIFICATION
• The earliest recorded identification of firearms by the trained observer was recorded in
the criminal investigation by Hans Gross, the great Austrian Criminologist and
considered as the father of criminalistics. This refers to the French bullet fired by
soldier of Napoleon Bonaparte’s Army, which lodge behind the eye of his grandfather
in 1799. The bullet was recovered in 1845 after the death of his grandfather. When
Hans Gross saw it, he observed and found out that it was still with traces of
gunpowder and this would prove evidentiary value.
• Another was done by Charles Waite in the United States of America. He was an
employee of New York State who conducted an investigation involving firearms. In
1915, a farmer was accused of murder with a gun. Waite was not convinced by the
evidence of the firearms’ experts, and his effort showed that the accused is innocent.
Through Waite’s effort, to trace the gun from which the bullet was fired, consequently
identify the manufacturer of the gun.
• Alexandre Lacassagne (1844-1921)- was the first to recognize the
significance of the striations etched found on a bullet extracted from a
murder victim and its to link to the gun from which it was fired, thus
beginning the science of ballistics.
• Edmond Locard (1877-1966) – established the first forensic laboratory
in France. His principles “objects or surfaces which came into contact
always exchange trace evidence”.
• Col. Calvin H Goddard (1920) – pioneered the introduction of science
of Ballistics in the different universities in U.S., subsequently it was
universally practiced and accepted in the different courts throughout
the world.
 FORENSIC BALLISTICS
• Forensic – a term originated from the Latin word “ forum”, meaning “marketplace
where people gather for public disputation or public discussion”.
• Forensic Ballistics – it refers to the science of investigation and identification of
firearms and ammunition used in crimes.
• It is a refined Tool Mark Identification where the firearm is made of a material harder
than the ammunition components, acts as a tool to leave impressed or striated
marks on the various ammunition components that come into contact with the
harder surface of the firearm.
• Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hall, the pioneer in the field in forensic ballistics, was an expert
in identifying firearm from the fired bullets. Identification of the crime gun is in the
principal purpose and objectives of criminal investigation, to establish the identity
of criminal offender and assist in their prosecution.
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
• 1. Interior (internal) Ballistics
• It refers to the properties and attributes of the projectile while still
inside the gun. It covers from the time; the firearm is loaded with
the cartridge, the explosion and the movement of the bullet from
the breech to the muzzle of the gun.
 ATTRIBUTES OF INTERIOR BALLISTICS
• Firing pin hitting the primer
• In order that the primer should explode, the firing pin should hit such. This is
due to the theory of friction wherein there is a resistance to motion created by
the firing pin.
• Ignition of the priming mixture
• Priming mixture is made up of very sensitive material that is commonly
located in the center portion of the cartridge case. In order to ignite the
priming mixture, it must be live and potent and must be devoid of any
moisture.
• Combustion of the gunpowder
• As the primer crushed and ignited, the flash passes through the vent towards
the gunpowder that provides the combustion of gunpowder.
• Expansion of the heated gas
• There will be equal expansion of heated gas inside the cartridge, after
the combustion of gunpowder. The gas expanded in the different
direction that tends the bullet and shell to separate from each other in
the cartridge.
• Pressure developed
• When the heated gas created by the burning powder charge is
developed, a tremendous pressure is produced in the chamber of the
firearm.
• Energy generated
• Energy refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet compared to a pound
that is drops from a certain height.
• Recoil of the gun
• The recoil of the gun is due to the Newton’s third law of motion (law of
interaction) which states that in every action is always equal and
opposite reaction. The forward movement of the bullet after the
explosion results to backward movement of the cartridge case. Recoil
of the gun is affected by several things such as tightness with which
the firearm is held, height of the bore above the center of the stock line
of wrist for pistols, shape and design of the butt plate or the pistol’s
grip, weight of the firearm and the physical and mental condition of the
shooter.
• Velocity of the bullet in the gun
• The bullet will travel the bore of the barrel depending on the powder
load of the cartridges, since it is the powder load that will propel the
bullet in the bore of the barrel of the firearm.

• Rotation of the bullet in the barrel

• When the bullet is driven by the heated gas by tremendous pressure
towards the muzzle end, the bullet will rotate following the riflings
inside the gun barrel. But if the firearm does not have riflings inside the
barrel, the bullet (shot) would just move forward without rotating inside
the bore of the barrel until the bullet left the gun muzzle.
• Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet
• The riflings starting from the breech end up to the muzzle end of
the barrel will engraved in the body of the bullet, depending on
the number of lands and grooves as part of the class
characteristics of the firearm.
2. EXTERIOR (EXTERNAL) BALLISTICS
• It refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left
the gun muzzle, which includes the condition of the bullets’
movement and flight up to the target.
 ATTRIBUTES OF EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
• Muzzle blast – it is the noise created at the muzzle point due to sudden
escape of the expanding gas coming in contact with the surrounding
atmosphere. Due to this sound at the muzzle end of the gun, a silencer
was invented to minimize the sound, which the criminal took advantage
to conceal the crime.
• Muzzle energy – it is an energy generated at the muzzle point,
whenever the cartridge explodes from a firearm.
• Trajectory – actual curve path of the bullet during its flight from the gun
muzzle to the target. There are three stages of trajectory namely,
straight horizontal line, parabola like flight and vertical drop.
• Range – straight distance from the muzzle to the target. It is classified
into:
1. Accurate /maximum effective range – it is the distance within a
shooter has control of his shots.

2. Absolute maximum range – it is the farthest distance that a

projectile can be propelled from a firearm. It is based upon the
intrinsic accuracy of the firearm and ammunition, size of the target,
marksmanship ability of the shooter, the ability to discern the target,
knowledge of the ballistics characteristics of the ammunition, and
the level of power needed to be delivered to the target.

• Velocity – rate of speed per unit time.

• Air resistance/aerodynamic drag – resistance encountered by the bullet
during its flight which reduces its speed. There are three parts of drag
bullet, the bow resistance, skin friction and the base drag.
• Pull of gravity – downward reaction of the bullet towards the center of
the earth, due to its weight. The pull of gravity will apply only, starting
from the parabola, then to the maximum range and to the final vertical
drop. However, in the effective range, the bullet could withstand the pull
of gravity due to its velocity and gyroscopic stability.

• Penetration – depth of entry on the target based on the power and

velocity of the bullet.
3. TERMINAL BALLISTICS
• It refers to the effects of the impact of the projectile in the target.
The knocking power of particular powder load of the cartridges
which makes a devastating lesion, caused by the bullet.
 ATTRIBUTES OF TERMINAL BALLISTICS
• Terminal accuracy – it is the size of the bullet grouping on the target.

• Terminal energy/striking energy – it is energy of the projectile when it

strikes the target. This refers to the fatal equivalent of a bullet when it
struck the victim.
• Terminal velocity – it is the speed of the bullet upon striking the target.
• Terminal penetration – it is the depth of entry of the bullet in the
target.
4. FORENSIC BALLISTICS
• It refers to the investigation and identification of firearms by means
of ammunition fired through them. This is the real branch of the
science which the police use as their guide in field investigators.
 ATTRIBUTES OF FORENSIC BALLISTICS
• Field investigations – it is conducted the first responders when they
investigate a case wherein firearms have been used.
• Technical examinations of ballistics exhibits – it is conducted by the
firearms examiners in the ballistics laboratory to determine the value
of firearms exhibits in the solution of the case.
• Legal proceeding – it includes making of ballistics report and
presentation of the result of the examination conducted before the
court.
 5. SHOT BALLISTICS
• It is the study of shotgun ammunition including its characteristics
spread and trailing.

6. Wound Ballistics
It refers to the study of the effects of a projectile on a
target and the conditions that affect them
Chapter 2

Scientific
Equipment Used in
Firearms ID
INTRODUCTION
• By means of these equipment and with qualified men to use them,
the police will be more effective in their drive against crimes
involving firearms. At times, an insignificant fire bullet or shell
found at the crime scene will serve as the only “missing link” in the
final solution of a crime wherein a gun has been used. And this is
brought out to light only in the laboratory by the use of different
equipment. It includes:
 1. BULLET COMPARISON MICROSCOPE
• It is designed to permit the firearm examiner to differentiate two fired
bullet or shell, by simultaneously observing their magnified image in a
single microscopic field. Fired bullet and shell are examined and
compared in either INTERMARRIAGE (half of the same image of the
evidence bullet/shell and half of the same image of the test
bullet/shell of the same direction, the same magnification, and the
same level or plane are merge into one image to look for the
congruency of stations or the same markings) and in
JUXTAPOSITION (critical side by side comparison at the same time,
direction, magnification, image and level or plane to find the same
feature, structure of striations to the specimens under observation).
• The forensic examiner can take photomicrographs which are needed
for court presentations as an exhibit to support the ballisticians’
findings he observed under this instrument. The photomicrograph will
give a clue to the judge how the ballistician arrived with his findings
and conclusions.
• It was introduced by Dr. Calvin H. Goddard on April 1925. He was the
first to own and use the first bullet comparison microscope, and
through his efforts, he is considered as the father of modern
ballistics. He took active participation in the examination of the fired
shells in the infamous General Castañeda and Salgado Ambuscade
in Quezon City.
BULLET COMPARISON
MICROSCOPE
 2. STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE
• It is generally used in the primary examinations of fired bullet and shells
to determine the relative distribution of the class characteristics or for
orientation purposes. It can also be used in the closed-up examination
of tampered serial numbers of firearms.
• In the middle of 19th century, Francis Herbert Wenham of London
designed the first successful stereomicroscope. The first modern
stereoscopic microscope was introduced in the United States by
Cycloptic.
STEREOSCOPIC
MICROSCOPE
 3. SHADOWGRAPH
• It contains a series of microscopic lenses of different magnifications
that can be used in examining fired bullets or fired shells to determine
the class characteristics and also for orientation purposes. This
instrument contains a large circular ground glass, and a diameter
about 14 inches, wherein the observation and comparison of class
characteristics is dome similarly with the bullet comparison
microscope.
SHADOWGRAP
H
 4. CP-6 COMPARISON PROJECTOR
• Similar to bullet comparison micro-scope in which two fired bullets of
shell can be compared simultaneously by projecting the image on a
large screen and is observed at a vertical and comfortable viewing.

• The instrument was invented by William Howard Livens, an engineer

and British army.
CP-6 COMPARISON
PROJECTOR
 5. BULLET RECOVERY BOX
• It used is to obtain test fired bullets or test fired shells for examination
and comparison to the questioned bullets or shell. Several designs of
bullet recovery box are now adopted, for as long as it could meet the
desired result in test firing and retrieved the fired bullet undamaged.
This is commonly filled with cotton but sometimes water tank,
sawdust with oil, sand, waste threads, darak, banana trunks or
rubber strips can be used and separated by cardboards.
BULLET RECOVERY
BOX
 6. HELIXOMETER
• It is used in measuring pitch of riflings of firearms. This instrument is
generally used in highly advanced ballistics laboratory. With this
instrument, it is possible to measure the angle of twist in a rifled
pistol or revolver barrel. It is used in inserting the telescope and
aligning it with the axis of the bore. The scope is mounted in a
rotatable bearing, with a graduated disc which permits reading
circular measurements to three minutes of an arc.

• This instrument was invented by John H. Fisher.

 7. MICROMETER/CALIPER
• This is used in making measurements such as bullet diameter, bore
diameter, barrel length and other important details.
8. ANALYTICAL OR TORSION BALANCE
• Used for determining weights of bullets or shotgun pellets – for
possible determination of type, caliber and make of firearms from
which fired.
 9. ONOSCOPE
• A small instrument that is sometimes used in examining the internal
surface of the gun barrel with a tiny lamp at the terminal portion and
this is inserted inside the bore for internal examination.
 10. TAPER GAUGE
• Used primarily for determining the bore diameter of firearms.
 11. SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
• A high powered electron microscope used to identify left over
particles like gunpowder residues and primer residues. This is a
computer system combined with an electron microscope and laser
spectrophotometry unit. Its power is so great that with a mere speck
of dust it could identify the elemental components of the particle
under examination.
SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
 12. ELECTRIC GUN MARKER/STYLUS
• Used in the laboratory for marking fired bullets, fired shells and firearms
submitted for examination.
13. CHRONOGRAP H
• It is used to measure the speed of bullet.
• It was invented by Alfred Lee Loomis in 1918.
 14. BULLET PULLER
• It is used to separate the bullet form the cartridge case.
15. COMPUTERIZED COMPARISON
MICROSCOPE
• It is similar to the bullet comparison microscope; the only difference
is the magnified image is seen in the monitor. It is more convenient
to use than a manual one.
Chapter 3

Firearms
 HISTORY OF FIREARM
The development of firearms followed the invention of
th
gunpowder in Western Europe in the 13 century. Many stories
have been told about the discovery of gunpowder, but most are
legendary and have little support facts. It also often that
gunpowder was first invented by the Chinese and that the
Arabs, with their advance knowledge of chemistry at that time,
may have developed it independently.
 One of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare
was an attack in Seville, Spain in 1247. History also showed
that cannons were used by King Edward III of England in Crecy
in 1346 and by Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest
of Constantinople in 1453.
The first firearm were inefficient, large and heavy,
making it difficult for common soldier to carry; and later the
development of small arms weapons were rampant.
It was many years later before the use of gunpowder
was applied to a portable arm which could be operated by
single person.
MEN BEHIND FIREARM

Roger Bacon – an English monk and scientist

who credited for the invention of gunpowder
in 1248.

Berthold Schwartz – credited for the

application of gunpowder for the propelling of
a missile in the early 1300s.
COL. CALVIN HOOKER GODDARD (1891–1955)
He was a forensic scientist, army officer,
academic, researcher and a pioneer in forensic
ballistics.
In 1925 Goddard wrote an article for the
Army Ordnance titled "Forensic Ballistics" in
which he described the use of the comparison
microscope regarding firearms investigations. He
is generally credited with the conception of the
term "forensic ballistics", though he later admitted
it to be an inadequate name for the science.
He was considered as the father of
forensic ballistics.
HORACE SMITH (1808-1893)
He was a gunsmith, inventor, and
businessman. He and his business partner Daniel
B. Wesson formed two companies named Smith &
Wesson, the first of which was financed in part by
Oliver Winchester and was eventually reorganized
into the Winchester Repeating Arms Company
Smith was employed by the U. S. Armory
service from 1824 to 1842, when he moved to
Newton, Connecticut. He was employed by various
gun makers up to the 1840s, when he moved to
Norwich, Connecticut. He is then listed as a partner
of Cranston & Smith. It is known that while in
Norwich, he engaged in the manufacture of whaling
guns and he is credited with the invention of the
explosive bullet used to kill whales.
DANIEL BAIRD WESSON (1825 – 1906)
He married Cynthia Maria Hawes, May 26,
1847 in Thompson, Connecticut. He partnered with
Horace Smith in Norwich, Connecticut in the early
1850s to develop the first repeating rifle, the Volcanic
rifle.
He is an associate or partner of Smith in
revolver making.
JOHN MOSES BROWNING (1825 – 1926)
He was an American firearms designer who developed many
varieties of firearms, cartridges, and gun mechanisms, many of
which are still in use around the world. He is the most important
figure in the development of modern automatic and semi-
automatic firearms and is credited with 128 gun patents—his
first was granted October 7, 1879.
Browning influenced nearly all categories of firearms
design. He invented or made significant improvements to single-
shot rifles, lever action rifles, and slide action firearms. His most
significant contributions were in the area of autoloading
firearms. He developed the autoloading pistol by inventing the
slide design found on nearly every modern automatic handgun.
He also developed the first gas-operated machine gun, the Colt-
Browning Model 1895—a system that would surpass recoil
operation in popularity. Other successful designs include the
M1911 pistol, the Browning .50 caliber machine gun, the
Browning Automatic Rifle, and a ground-breaking semi-
automatic shotgun, the Browning Auto-5.
DAVID “CARBINE” WILLIAMS
He was the maker of the first
known carbine.
ALEXANDER FORSYTH (1768-1843)
He was a Scottish Presbyterian clergyman who
invented the percussion ignition. He was educated at
King's College, Aberdeen, and succeeded his father as
minister of Belhelvie in 1791.
While hunting wild duck he was dissatisfied
with his flintlock fowling-piece due to its hang-fire; by
the time the bullet was discharged the duck had time to
dive before the shot reached them.
He patented his scent-bottle lock in 1807; this
was a small container filled with fulminate of mercury
ELISHA KING ROOT (1808–65)
He was the inventor, engineer,
manufacturer; born in Ludlow, Mass. In 1849
he became superintendent of the Colt
Firearms Company, eventually becoming
president. He remained there until his death.
Root invented a drop hammer in 1853, which
was soon used in every forge. He also
invented a revolving cylinder firearm and
developed numerous machines for tooling
firearms.
ELIPHALET REMINGTON (1793 – 1861)
He was born in 1793 in the town of Suffield,
Connecticut, to parents whose origins lay in Yorkshire,
England. He was a blacksmith, and at 23, he hand-made a
revolutionary sporting rifle using a firing mechanism bought
from a dealer, producing the barrel himself.
The gun received such an enthusiastic response
that Remington decided to manufacture it in quantity, and
formed the firm of E. Remington and Sons, which he headed
until his death in 1861 . By the mid-1800s the gun had
become immensely popular with American sportsmen and
was one of the standard guns used in what has been called
"the winning of the West".
The company continued to grow and to develop its
product and gradually began the manufacture of other
sporting goods, such as bicycles. At the present time, the
company is known as the Remington Arms Co., Inc.
JOHN MAHLON MARLIN (1836 - 1901)
He was an American firearms manufacturer
and inventor.
Marlin was born in Boston Neck, near Windsor
Locks, Hartford County, Connecticut as the son of
Mahlon Marlin and Jennette Bradford.
He worked at the Colt plant in Hartford during
the Civil War. Starting in 1863, he made pistols in New
Haven, Connecticut, expanding into manufacturing
pistols and then different types of firearms by 1872,
then called Marlin Fire Arms
Company, today Marlin Firearms.
Initially producing single-shot weapons only,
his company started manufacturing lever-action
repeating rifles in 1881.
JAMES WOLFE RIPLEY (1794 –1870)
He was an American soldier, serving as a
brigadier general in the Union Army during the
Civil War. He was instrumental in the early days
of the war in modernizing the artillery's ordnance.
However, Ripley also delayed the introduction of
repeating rifles into U.S. arsenals, an act has
been widely criticized by later historians.
SAMUEL COLT (1804 - 1862)
He was an American inventor and industrialist.
He was the founder of Colt's Patent Fire-Arms
Manufacturing Company (now known as Colt's
Manufacturing Company), and is widely credited with
popularizing the revolver. Colt's innovative contributions
to the weapons industry have been described by arms
historian James E. Serven as "events which shaped the
destiny of American Firearms.
Colt never claimed to have invented the
revolver, as his design was merely a more practical
adaption of Collier's revolving flintlock, which was
patented in England and achieved great popularity
there.
HENRY DERINGER (1786 – 1868)
He was an American gunsmith. He invented,
and gave his name to the Deringer pistol. Further
development and copying of his design resulted in the
derringer (note the double-r) pistol that was generically
manufactured widely by other companies.
He was born in Easton, Pennsylvania on Oct.
26, 1786 possibly to Johannes Heinrich (and Maria
Catherina) Thuringer. However, no family tree entry
indicates that the senior Deringer had a son named
Henry. He may have been born to Henry Deringer, Sr., a
colonial gunsmith who made Kentucky Rifles (and
Catherine McQuety Deringer). He married Elizabeth
Hollobush at the First Reformed Church in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania on April 5, 1810.
He gave his name to the whole class of
firearms (rifles and pistol).
JOHN T. THOMPSON

• pioneered the making of Thompson

SMG.
HIRAM MAXIM (1858)
built the first fully automatic gun and the silencer.
• Richard J. Gatling – patented his design of the "Gatling Gun", a
six-barreled weapon capable of firing a (then) phenomenal 200
rounds per minute.
• Oscar Mossberge – maker of high quality caliber .22 rifle,
sporting rifle and pump action shotgun.
• Fedor Tokarev – designed the service pistol for Soviet forces.
• Carl Walter – developed a reliable small caliber automatic pistol
in 1866.
• George Luger – designed the 9mm parabellum and cartridge.
• Eugene Stoner – designed the M16 assault rifle.
• Joseph Laumann – invented the first automatic handgun.
DEFINITION
• The term “firearm” has two definition – legal as well as technical.
• Legal definition – it may be found in Section 877 of Revised Administrative
Code as well as in Section 290 of National Internal Revenue Code and this runs
as follows:
•
• Firearms or arms are herein used, includes rifles, muskets carbines, shotguns,
pistols, revolvers and all other deadly weapon from which bullets, balls, shots,
shells or other missiles may be discharged by means of gunpowder or other
explosives. This term also includes air rifles except such as being of small
caliber and of limited range use as toys. The barrel of any firearms shall be
considered a complete firearm for all purposes thereof.
• While Republic Act 10591, it is define as:

• Firearm refers to any handheld or portable weapon, whether a small arm or light
weapon, that expels or is designed to expel a bullet, shot, slug, missile or any
projectile, which is discharged by means of expansive force of gases from
burning gunpowder or other form of combustion or any similar instrument or
implement. For purposes of this Act, the barrel, frame or receiver is
considered a firearm.
•
• Technical definition – a firearm is an instrument used for the propulsion of
projectiles by means of expansive force of gases coming from the burning
gunpowder.
PARTS OF
FIREARM
THE MAIN PARTS

A. Revolver C. Rifle
1. barrel assembly 1. barrel assembly
2. cylinder assembly 2. magazine assembly
3. frame or receiver 3. stock group

B. Pistol D. Shotgun
1. barrel assembly 1. barrel assembly
2. slide assembly 2. magazine assembly
3. frame or receiver 3. stock group
 Rear Sight Front Sight
Hammer Top Strap Barrel
Hammer Spur

Muzzle
Chamber

Extractor
 Rachet
Cylinder
 Cylinder Release / Thumb
Latch

Frame
Ejector Rod

Trigger Guard
Trigger

Grip Panel
 ACTIONS OF REVOLVER

• Single-action revolvers - the trigger performs only one task, when the trigger is pulled the
hammer falls, firing the handgun.
• Double-action revolvers - as the trigger is pulled two actions occur. The hammer comes back
and falls forward to fire the handgun.
 Ejection Port
Hammer Slide Barrel Muzzle

Mainspring Cap
Grip Safety Frame
Trigger Trigger Guard Rear Sight

Front Sight

Magazine
Slide Thumb Safety
Lock
Magazine
Release Button
 ACTION OF PISTOLS
• Semi-auto operation
When the pistol is fired, the slide moves to the rear, ejecting the spent cartridge and usually
cocking the pistol in the process. The cartridges located in the magazine are forced upward by the
magazine spring into the path of the slide. When the slide (under pressure from the recoil spring)
moves forward, it picks up and pushes the next cartridge into the chamber, ready to be fired again.

• Automatic operation
The firearm can fire continuously as long as the trigger is pulled.

• Selective
These fires either on automatic or semi-automatic by using the selector level of the firearm.
Ex. Glock Pistols
 Rear Sight Drum Carrying Handle Front Sight Assembly
Rubber Recoil Pad Ejection Port Barrel
Charging Handle

Dust Cover Bayonet Stud

Magazine Release Button

Trigger
Forward Assist Button

Trigger Guard Slipring

Gas Cylinder Stock

Flash Suppressor
Upper Sling Swivel Handguard
Selector Lever
Bolt Catch
 R
M
BASIC PARTS OF SHOTGUN
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
1. According to gun barrel
construction

a. smooth-bore firearms
– have no riflings inside the
gun barrel.

b. rifled-bore firearms –
firearms that have riflings
inside their gun barrel.
2. According to the caliber of the
projectiles propelled

a. artillery – can propel

projectiles more than one inch in
diameter.

b. small arms - can propel

projectiles less than one inch in
diameter. E.g. machine gun,
shoulder arms and hand arms.
3. According to mechanical construction

a. single shot firearms

b. repeating arms
c. bolt action type
d. automatic loading type
e. slide action type (trombone)
f. lever type (break-type)
5. Unusual or miscellaneous type – those types of firearms
 that are unique in mechanism and construction.
a. paltik pistols
b. paltik revolvers
c. paltik rifles
d. paltik shotgun

4. According to use
a. military firearms
b. pocket and home defense firearm
c. target and outdoor men’s firearms
Break for

30

minutes!!!
Chapter 4

Ammunition
LEGAL DEFINITION

Found in Chapter VII, Section 290 of National Internal

Revenue Code as well as in Section 877 of Revised Administrative
Code

- It refers to a loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns,

revolvers, and pistols from which a ball, bullet, shot, shell or other
missiles may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives.
TECHNICAL DEFINITION

It refers to a group of cartridges or to a single unit cartridge

– meaning a complete unfired unit consisting of a bullet, cartridge
case, gunpowder and primer. The term may also refer to
a “single round”.

Cartridge – is a complete round of ammunition for a firearm.

The term cartridge and ammunition can be used

interchangeably.
ORIGIN

The cartridge evolved about the turn of the 16th century. In

1635, the first cartridge was invented by King Gustavus Adolphus of
Sweden. He was credited with this invention. These were simple
packages, which he furnished to his troops during the 30 years of
war. The package was torn, and the content was poured down
inside the barrel. Most shooters during those days had to carry two
powder horns, the first is for the powder to be poured in the barrel,
and the second is for the fine grains powder for priming charge. The
invention of paper cartridge eliminated the package of the use of
horn in carrying the powder mixture in bottles or tube.
 The term cartridge evolved about the turn of 6th century.
The earliest small arms ammunition or cartridge consisted of a pre-
measured charge of powder wrapped in paper. The term cartridge is
derived from the word “charta”, the Latin word for paper. Later on, it
came through the French word “cartouche”, meaning a roll of paper,
which indicates that the original cartridge were not the brass gliding
metal tipped units which we are familiar with today.
The paper cartridge remained standard, for muzzle loading
firearms though the middle of the 19th century. The paper cartridge
was designed for combustible cartridge. It was employed in muzzle-
loading firearms, revolving chamber firearms, and in several breech-
loading firearms. The casing and enclosing the gunpowder was
made from nitrated paper, collodion, cloth, animal intestine or some
other materials which would not leave a residue in the chamber of
the gun barrel after firing.
CLASSIFICATION
OF
CARTRIDGE
S
ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF
PRIMER
1. Needle-fire cartridge – the primer is placed in the base of the
bullet. A long sharp firing pin is pierced the paper or foil case to
reach the primer.
2. Tit-fire cartridge – a copper case nipple containing the protruding
cup, through which a hole rear the breech block, to the struck and
detonated by the falling hammer.
3. Tail-fire cartridge – the opening of the rifle for loading is
compressed by spring, once the rifle has been loaded and the
breech is closed, operation of the trigger to crush against the
underside of the block, and detonate a flat percussion tail from
the rear of the cartridge.
4. Pin-fire Cartridge – the first cartridge of self-exploding type
developed by Monsieur Le Facheux of Paris, around 1836. The
primer was placed on the sidewall of a copper case and a brass
pin was installed in the opposite side of the case, the intended
pin rested on the primer then the hammer fall on the side of the
case, driving the pin into the primer.
5. Rim-fire Cartridge – developed by Louis Nicolas Auguste
Flobert of France, around 1845, the priming mixture is
contained or located in the cavity inside and around the rim of
the cartridge which is a very sensitive area. This cartridge is
usually applied to caliber .22 firearms.
6. Ring-fire cartridge – it is a type of cartridge used on the
sabotage case. This is a special type of cartridge wherein the
priming mixture is placed in a circular hollow ring about 1/3 of
the base of the cartridge.
7. Volcanic cartridge – a system made by Robin and Laurence
around 1854. The cartridge was a mini ball with a base cavity
filled with propellant. A paper disc holding a fulminate pellet is
closed at the back of the base, this type of cartridge is similar to
needle-fire but the firing pin can easily damaged.
8. Center-fire Cartridge – in 1858, the Moors cartridge marked the
development of this cartridge. The primer cap is forced into the
middle portion of the head of cartridge case.
ACCORDING TO TYPE OF
FIREARM
USED

1. Revolver cartridge – it has a rimmed base, which allows the

cylinder where the chamber is located to clamp its rim.
2. Pistol cartridge – extracting grooves are designed to allow
easier packaging of the rounds in the magazine.
3. Assault rifle cartridge – longer than a hand weapon and
generally bottle necked for larger powder capacity and
increased powder.
4. Shotgun cartridge – the case is generally made up of plastic or
paper designed to fire several projectiles spreading out to create
a come of fire.
5. Caseless cartridge – the powder is the casing itself, of the
projectiles. It requires varnishing to protect it from moisture and
moderate shocks. There are few residues left after the
gunpowder had exploded. The cross section is generally fragile
to cause for fragmentation.
ACCORDING TO TYPE OF CALIBER
The caliber of a gun is the diameter of its bore, measure in
fraction of an inch between two opposite lands for barrel with even
lands. The caliber of a firearm designated only as an approximation
of the bore diameter, and is usually closer to the groove diameter.
The different systems of measuring caliber of firearm are Metric or
European (millimeter) and English or American (inches) systems of
measurement.
In converting millimeters to inches – multiple the millimeters
by .03937 or divide by 25.4 while converting inches to millimeters –
multiple by 25.4 or divide by .03937.
SHOTGUN SHELL

It is the cartridge for shotgun. It is also called a “shell”, and

its body may be made up of metal or plastic or paper with a metal
head. The length of a shot shell is normally given in inches and is
based on the length of the spent hull.
PARTS OF SHOTGUN SHELL

1. Shot cup – it is a plastic cup that holds shot in pattern as it

leaves from the muzzle of the firearm.
2. Tube or case – prior to 1960, a paper tube were used, with
mouth closed by rolled crimps or with plastic body or hull with
mouth closed by die crimp, eliminating need for overshot wad.
3. Primer – it is the very sensitive part of the cartridge located in
the bottom portion of the case which ignites the powder
charge.
4. Propellant – a chemical compound used in firearms that burns
upon ignition. The gases produced by this rapid combustion
propel the pellet down the bore of the firearm.
5. Crimp – portion of the cartridge that is bent inward to hold the
shots in place.
6. Wads – it helps to contain the shot, seal off the shot payload
from the ignition gases to prevent deformation and protects the
barrel from lead building up. The four types of wads are base
wad, under powder, over powder and filler.
7. Shot/pellet – small spherical projectiles for shotgun.
KINDS OF SHOT/PELLET

1. Buckshot (BS) – consist of a number of lead balls that spread

out as they travel. These pellets are not very effective (in 00
buckshot, each one is .33 inch in diameter), but collectively they
result in large and destructive wounds. At longer distance,
however the shot spreads and fewer pellets hit the target.
2. Slug (SL) – instead of a group of lead balls, the shell contains
a single huge bullet with angled grooves cut into its side to spin
it, as it travels down the smooth bore of a shotgun. The
penetration of a slug is better than shot, but the wound channel
is not as wide as the shot.
3. Tungsten-Iron shot – it is formed either powdered tungsten and
powdered iron, they are blended together and pressed into
pellet, then sintered or bonded together by heating process.
The shot is coated with a rust inhibitor and it is harder than
both lead and steel.
4. Flechette Shot (FS) – a cluster of sturdy steel needles,
replaced the shot of the standard shotgun shell. These
flechettes have tiny fins at their base to stabilize them in flight.
Air resistance is greatly improved over shot, than in armor
piercing capability.
5. Armor-piercing Bullet (APB) – the discarding sabot slug
processes an aerodynamic shape that keeps it stable flight
even though it does not spin. It is smaller in diameter than a
standard slug, and surrounded within the shell by a tow-piece
plastic sabot. After exiting the barrel, the sabot splits in half
and falls away because of air resistance.
6. Steel Shot – it is made by cutting soft steel wire into short
lengths, which are formed into shot. The shot is then annealed
and coated with a rust inhibitor. Wads for steel shot
ammunition, are molded from high density polyethylene. It has
thick sidewalls to prevent the pellets from contracting the
shotgun bore surface. High velocity steel loads have a cushion
to reduce recoil.
7. Tungsten-Iron and Steel – this shell has a layer of steel over a
layer of tungsten-Iron. It gives a dense combined pattern at
longer ranges. It can be used in any shotgun recommended for
steel shot.
DIFFERENT
CARTRIDGES
AND ITS
PARTS
Chapter 5

Bullet
DEFINITION

It is a metallic or nonmetallic, cylindrical projectile propelled

from a firearm by means of an expansive force of gases coming
from burning gunpowder.
The term may also include projectiles propelled from
shotguns, although strictly speaking, these projectiles designed for
shotgun are called “shots” or “pellet”.
ORIGIN

The term bullet originated from the French word “ boulette”,

means “small ball”. The projectile of most small arms ammunition
primarily means a projectile from a rifled arm which is cylindrical or
cylindro-conoidal in shape as opposed to round projectiles which are
commonly called either a ball or shot.
CLASSIFICATION OF
BULLET
ACCORDING TO USE

1. Ball bullets – those have soft cores inside a jacket and are
used against personnel only.
2. Armor piercing bullet – those that have steel cores and are
fired against vehicles and other armored targets in general.
3. Tracer bullet – those that contain compound at its base which
is set on fire when the bullet is projected. The flash of smoke
from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to be seen,
especially at night time. This type of bullet is primarily used for
target acquisition.
4. Incendiary bullet – those that contain mixture, such as
phosphorous or other material, that can be set on fire by
impact. They are used against the targets that will readily burn
such as aircrafts or gasoline depots.
5. Explosive (fragmentary) bullet – those types of bullets that
contain a highly charged explosive. Because of their small
size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small
arms ammunitions.
ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL
CONSTRUCTION

1. Lead bullets – those which are made of lead or alloys of this

metallic lead, tin and antimony which are slightly harder than
pure lead.
2. Jacketed bullets – those with a core of lead covered with a
jacket of harder material such as: gilding metal, a copper
alloy of approximately 90% copper and 10% zinc.
3. Synthetic bullets – those made of plastic/plasticize and other
composition or those made of sand polymer mixed. Such
bullets were designed for special purposes.
BULLET DESIGNED FOR
HANDGUNS

1. Full metal jacket – lead core is enclosed by a strong metal

jacket on this non-expanding, deep-penetrating, general
purpose bullet which provides smooth, reliable feeding in all
types of semi-automatic handguns.
2. Jacketed hollow point – the exposed lead at the tip of the jacketed
hollow point, rapidly initiates uniform controlled expansion that
progresses to the depth of the hollow point cavity. It has excellent
accuracy and bullet integrity.
3. Semi-jacketed hollow point – it has more exposed lead at the tips,
which expand less than a jacketed hollow point bullet.
4. Full metal cone – the lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a light
copper jacket, which has a cone shape and a flat point. The result is
less expansion than JHP bullet, but more than an FMJ, and deeper
penetration than SP bullet.
5. Lead wadcutter – the full wadcutter profile of this solid lead cuts
clean signature in paper targets for precise scoring.
6. Lead semi-wadcutter – solid lead bullet with semi-pointed
nose. Formed by swaging process with sharp shoulder for
clean hole punching in paper targets. It is good choice for
general purpose shooting.
6. Soft point – Exposed lead soft point initiates reliable
expansion, provides deeper penetration than hollow point
bullets. Precisely engineered copper jacket and the swaged
lead core provide the necessary concentricity and balance
required for top-level accuracy.
7. Lead round nose – solid lead bullet with rounded ogive for
downrange accuracy.
BULLET DESIGNED FOR RIFLES

1. Full metal jacket – the lead core of this bullet is enclosed in a

heavy copper jacket, which results in little or no expansion and
deep penetration.
2. Full metal jacket boat tail – same with full metal jacket with
boat tail heel to further reduce drag to improve downrange
velocity.
3. Hollow point boat tail – extremely accurate hollow point bullet
with pointed aerodynamic design. Boat tail heel to further
reduce drag to improve downrange velocity. Precision balance
and exceptional concentricity greatly increase bullet stability to
assure superb accuracy.
4. Soft point – Exposed lead tip on this bullet and broader point
diameter provides rapid, controlled expansion at somewhat
lower velocities. Broad wound channel results from expansion
up to 200% of original bullet diameter.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF BULLET

1. Hard ball – a copper sheath, the jacket, over a core of lead. It

is the standard projectile type, expanding very little, but giving
good penetration.
2. Depleted Uranium – it is ideal for use in armor penetrators
because it has an exceptional performance against armored
targets.
3. Semi-wadcutter – a bullet with a flat nose in front of a sharp
wad-cutter style shoulder. This type of bullet, when the
shoulder is too sharp, this will have a clear cut hole on the
target.
4. Silver tip – Winchester trademarks for certain bullet designs.
The jacket will disintegrate into small pieces that will precisely
cause hemorrhage.
5. Fragmentation or explosive bullet – splits to fragment when
hitting soft tissues, creating big wounds but tends to retain its
form when penetrating armor.
6. Spitzer – a type of bullet having a sharply pointed nose. This
type of bullet when it hit the hard object likes bones inside the
body, it changes it bullet track hence, and the tendency is that,
the bullet traveled sideways which will create a wider size of
exit wound.
7. Dumdum bullet – outlawed for use in war, any bullet with the
core exposed.
8. Soft point or mushroom bullet – expands as it strikes an object
and produces much more serious shock and has
correspondingly greater stopping power.
9. Hollow point bullet – a bullet with a cavity in the nose designed
to increase the expansion when it hits the target.
10. Steel jacketed bullet – composed of a soft steel jacket, often
clad or plated with gliding metal to prevent rusting and reduce
frictional resistance in the bore.
11. X-bullet – is a solid copper projectile, heat treated for extra
toughness with no separate jacket and no lead core. It
designed by Randy Brooks.
12. Pointed bullet – more effective than round ball because there
are fewer surfaces presented to the air and thus the speed of
the bullet is less retarded so quickly.
13. Boat tail – a bullet with a base tapering to smaller diameter.
14. Gas check – a small metal cup fitted to the base of a lead
bullet, to protect it from the hot gases created by the burning
gunpowder.
15. Glaser safety slug – is high performance ammunition that
gives superior penetration in solid targets, while delivering
maximum stopping power, with minimum danger from over
penetration and ricochet.
SHAPES OF
BULLET
PARTS OF BULLET
1. Base – the portion of the bullet that receives the thrust and heat
from the burning gunpowder.
2. Bearing surface – the area of the bullet that contacts the barrel
riffling. A tight fit is required to prevent chamber pressure leaks
and to provide good contact with the rifling grooves.
3. Core – the bulk of the mass in the bullet.
4. Head height – length of the bullet from the shoulder to the tip.
5. Heel – the location of the bullet where the heel ends and the
bearing surface begins.
6. Jacket – is material that covers some or the entire core.
7. Meplat – is the diameter of the flat or blunt end of the nose of a
bullet.
8. Ogive – is the radius of curve between the bearing surface and
the point usually stated with respect to the caliber.
9. Point – the most forward point of the ogive.
10. Shoulder – is the place on the bullet where the parallel sides’
end and the ogive begin.
PARTS OF
BULLET
Chapter 6

Cartridge Case
DEFINITION

It refers to a tubular metallic or nonmetallic container which

holds together the bullet, gunpowder and primer. Another term used
is shell or casing.
The cartridge is the portion of cartridge that is automatically
ejected from automatic firearm during firing and these remains in the
crime scene.

Drawing - refers to the machine operation of making cartridge

cases.
FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASE

• It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one

unit.
• It serves as a waterproof container of the gunpowder and gas
seal at the breech end of the barrel.
PARTS OF CARTRIDGE CASE
a. Rim – limits the forward travel of cartridge into their chambers and
thus also limits the clearance between the heads and supporting.

b. Primer pocket – holds the primer securely in the central position,

provides a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the
cartridge and a solid support of primer anvils, without which the
latter could not be fired.
c. Vents/flash hole – the hole in the web which serves as opening or
canal that connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.
d. Head/body – constitutes the cork that plug the breech of the barrel
against the escape of gas.
e. Neck – it is occupied by the bullet.
f. Cannelure – the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into
the neck and body of the case at the location of the bases of the bullet;
they prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.
g. Shoulder – portion that supports the neck.
h. Base – bottom portion of the case which holds the primer and shell
head.
i. Extracting groove – circular groove near the base of the case or shell
designed for the automatic withdrawal of the case after firing.
j. Crimp – this is the part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the
bullet.
THREE TYPES OF CRIMP

a. Roll Crimp – the cartridge case neck was

rolled into the bullet material of groove in the
bullet, to secure it, and ensure even from
tension of the cartridge case. It need to be
trimmed to a uniform length and are primarily
used on cartridges that have headspace on
the rim or cartridge case shoulder.
b. Taper Crimp – it is used primarily in the
cartridge with headspace on the
cartridge case mouth, with lead bullets.
While it can be used to secure jacketed
bullets, this can led to bullet distortion.
With a taper crimp, the mouth of the
cartridge case run into a die, with a
tapered opening that squeeze the
diameter of the neck down, enough to
grip the bullet securely, but still leaves
enough space for headspace on the
chamber.
c. Stab/Rim Crimp – it is used only on jacketed
ammunition, which consist either several
impressed dimples or a groove, pressed into
the cartridge case mouth by a collet. The
crimp can either enter a groove on the bullet
or can just press into the bullet body, which
distorts the bullet. It is primarily used on
military or commercial heavy caliber hunting
ammunition, where rough handling may be
encountered.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING
TO
CASE SHAPE

• Straight
• Bottle neck
• Tapered (obsolete)
 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
CASE RIM

a. Rimmed – the diameter of the base of the cartridge is very much

bigger than the diameter of the body of the cartridge. (44 magnum,
303 British, 38 special, 357 magnum, etc.)
b. Rimless – the diameter of the rim is equal with the diameter of the
body of the cartridge case. (.30-06, .270, .308 etc)
c. Semi-rimmed – the diameter of the rim is slightly greater than the
diameter of the body of the cartridge case. (.25 ACP, .38 Super)
d. Belted – has a protruding metal around the body of the cartridge
case. (.7mm Remington Magnum, .300 Winchester, .375 H&H
Magnum)
e. Rebated – the diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of the
cartridge case. (.41 AE, 50 Beowulf)
Chapter 7

Primers
DEFINITION

It is a small, self-contained metallic ignition cap at the center

or at the cavity of a cartridge case that when struck by the firing pin
combusts and sends sparks through the flash hole of the cases and
ignites the powder charge. (percussion)
ORIGIN

Alexander John Forsyth (1847) is credited with being the

first to conceive the idea by using detonating compounds for igniting
powder charge in small arms by percussion. A Scottish Presbyterian
clergyman, he invented the percussion ignition.
While hunting wild duck he was dissatisfied with his flintlock
fowling-piece due to its hang-fire; by the time the bullet was
discharged the duck had time to dive before the shot reached them.
His first successful priming mixture was composed of Potassium
Chlorate, charcoal and sulfur in powder form.
PARTS OF PRIMER
a. Primer cup – the container of priming mixture.
b. Priming mixture – a highly sensitive chemical mixture contained in the primer cup.

c. Anvil – portion of the primer against which the priming mixture is crushed by blow of
firing pin.
d. Disc – a piece of small paper or disk of tin foil which is pressed to the priming
mixture.
CLASSES OF PRIMERS

a. Corrosive Primers (potassium chlorate)

- draws moisture from the air when ignited, and this moisture
speeds the rusting of gun barrel.

b. Non-corrosive Primers
- potassium chlorate was replaced by barium nitrates. It was
invented by Swiss army and inventor Karl Ziegler.
TWO KINDS OF PRIMER

a. Berdan Primer
The primer cup contains only the priming mixture and the
anvil is part of the cartridge case. It contains two of more vents and
requires special tools to remove them easily and not generally
reloaded. It was invented by Hiram Berdan in March 20, 1866.

b. Boxer Primer
The anvil is an integral part of the primer assembly and
contains only one flash hole. This kind of primer is commonly used
in present time for centerfire cartridges. It was invented by American
Inventor Col. Edward M. Boxer on June 29, 1869.
Chapter 8

Gunpowder
DEFINITION
It refers to the chemical substances of various
compositions, particles sizes, shapes and colors, which when
ignited by the primer flash, is converted to gas under high pressure
and propels the bullet or shot charge through the barrel to the target.
The term gunpowder is synonymous to the term propellant,
cordite and powder charge that can be used interchangeably.

About the weight of the powder charge in a cartridge, the

weight of the gunpowder is expressed in grains in English System of
while in Metric System, the weight of gunpowder is expressed in
grams.
CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION
1. Black powder – the oldest form of propellant and when fired,
produces large volume of grayish smoke and leaves
considerable residue in the barrel. The person credited for the
invention of such is Roger Bacon in 1248. It is composed of
potassium nitrates (75%), sulfur (10%) and charcoal (15%)

2. Smokeless powder – the powerful propellant used today and is

made up of nitrocellulose. The term smokeless is a misnomer
for they are neither powder nor smokeless. The powder is said
to be smokeless only because it does not give off huge cloud
of white smoke like black powder.
 In 1886, Paul Vieille, invented the smokeless gunpowder
with nitrocellulose, a single base propellant called Poudre D, made
from gelatinize guncotton mixed with ether and alcohol. It was cut
into flakes of the desired size.

In 1887, Alfred E. Nobel of Great Britain developed

smokeless gunpowder called Ballistite, a double base propellant.

In 1890, Sir Frederick Abel and James Dewar obtained a

patent on a modified form of smokeless gunpowder known as
cordite.
KINDS OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single base/nitrocellulose – contains only pure nitroglycerin

with nitrocellulose.
2. Double base – composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin as
major ingredients; accompanied by one or more minor
ingredients such as centralite, vaseline phthalate and inorganic
salts.
3. Triple base – the three principal ingredients used such as
nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin and nitro-guandine.
4. High Ignition Temperature Propellant – the main constituent of
high explosives from RDX group.
Chapter 9

Arms
Manufacturing
INTRODUCTION
The barrel, which is one of the most important parts of
firearm, is a cylindrical in shape with projecting length. It is made
of a carefully selected solid piece of metal, fitted for its chemical
and metallurgical structure which has the capability to withstand
explosion and tremendous pressure coming from the expansion of
heated gas coming from burning gunpowder. This provides a high
quality product after the various machine operations, until it
becomes a finish product and consequently as a real firearm.

Making of Rifled Barrels

• Drilling Stage – a solid piece of cylindrical metal is drilled by
special deep-hole drill; through the center of which lubricating
oil is forced under pressure.
• Reaming Stage – removes scars and scratches left by the drilling operation. The
reamer used is slightly greater in diameter than that of the drill therefore removes
excess metal from the entire surface of the bore. There are three types of
reamers used in reaming the bore of barrel; roughing, finishing and burnishing.
• Rifling stage – the creation of the land and grooves inside the bore to improve
projection of the bullet during firing.
• Cut rifling technique – the oldest method of making riflings invented in
Nuremberg at around 1942. A hook cutter is pulled through the bore numerous
times and indexed after every stroke to produce the riflings.
• Broaching system – broaching cutter that cuts a longitudinal spiral grooves
inside the barrel. It produces the desired number of lands and grooves in a
single stroke.
• Button system – it produces the desired number of lands and grooves
simultaneously but in a different manner. It does not cut longitudinal spiral
grooves inside but it produces the same by depressing a portion of the
internal surface of the bore thus creating the grooves.
• Lapping stage – this is the polishing operation wherein a lead plug is used in removing
many of the larger imperfections due to the cutting of forming operation.
COMPOSITION OF RIFLINGS
• Lands – refers to the raised metal between
grooves.
• Grooves – depressed portion of the gun barrel.
• Width of lands and grooves
• Depth of grooves
• Pitch of riflings – the number of inches traveled
by the bullet to make one complete run.
• Twist of riflings – the direction of twist whether left or
right.
MAKING OF BREECHFACE AND FIRING PIN
The breechface of all firearms are machine cut
in the first place, and in the higher grade weapons
are finished off by hand filing and grinding. Similarly,
the firing pin of all weapons are cut and shaped,
receiving different degrees of fire finishing according
to the grade of weapon in which they are to be used.

The breechface is the portion of the firearm

against which the cartridge case and the primer are
forced backwards upon firing while the firing pin is the
part of the firearm which strikes the primer of the
cartridge.
FACTORS THAT AFFECTS BREECHFACE
IMPRESSION
1.Powder charge of the cartridge
2.Softness of the primer cup and the
surrounding brass
3.Sharpness of the striations on the
breechblock
4.Presence of oil, grease or foreign matters
on the block
5.Factory stampings on the cartridge head
Chapter 10

Firearms ID
PRINCIPLE IN FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
• It is a refined toolmarks identification.
• The natural wear and tear of the tools is involved.
• When the soft surface come in contact with the hard surface is left
with the impressions or scratches from any irregularities on the
hard surface.
• Principle of individuality, i.e. no two things are absolutely identical.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLETS
a. Lands marks – depressed portion caused by lands that can
be found in the cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
b. Groove marks – raised or the elevated portions caused by
the grooves that can be found in the cylindrical surface of the
fired bullet.
c. Skid marks – found on the anterior portion of the fired bullets
and caused by the forward movement of bullet from the
chamber before it initially rotates due to the rifling inside the
barrel.
d. Stripping marks – found on bullet fired though loose fit
barrels wherein the riflings are already worn out.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS
1. Striated action marks are common to cartridge cases that have passed
through the action of an auto loading or repeating firearm. Striated
action marks can be produced on cartridge cases by contact with a
number of different areas within the firearm.
2. Impressed action marks, with a few exceptions, are produced when a
cartridge case is fired in a firearm. The two most common impressed
action marks are firing pin impressions and breech marks.
1. Chamber mark – found in the body of the shell due to the irregular
makings in the chamber.
2. Firing pin mark – found in the primer cup or the rim of the cartridge
case.
3. Shearing marks – secondary firing pin mark found near the firing pin
mark.
4. Extractor mark – found in extracting groove in automatic firearms.
5. Ejector marks – located in the rim in automatic firearms.
6. Pivotal mark – marks found on the shell caused by turning of the
cartridge.
7. Magazine lip markings – these are markings found at the low points of
the rim of the base of the shell and these are caused by the magazine
lips during the loading of the cartridge into the magazine for firing.

8. Breechface marks – found on the base of cartridge case as a result of

the rearward movement of cartridge case during firing.
Characteristics
of
Firearm
s
 CLASS CHARACTERISTICS
Those are characteristics that are determinable even
prior to the manufacture of firearms. These characteristics are
factory specifications and within the control of man. These serve
as basis for identifying certain group or class of firearms. These
are:
a.Bore diameter/caliber – the diameter which the bore was
reamed. It is the distance measured between two opposite
lands inside the bore. Caliber is of English origin while the
millimeter (mm) is a European origin.
b. Number of lands and grooves – the number of lands is always
equal with the number of grooves.
c. Width of lands – it is the remainder of the circumference after
subtracting the groove width.
d. Direction of twist – it cause the bullet to rotate as it passes
through the barrel for the bullet to have gyroscopic motion
during its flight.
e. Depth of groove – measured on the radius of the bore as seen in
cross section. It is equal to the height of the side of a lands.
f. Pitch of riflings – it is the twist of lands and grooves. It also refers
to the distance advanced by the riflings in a complete run.
TYPE OF RIFLINGS
a. Steyr Type – 4RGL
b. Smith and Wesson Type – 5RGL
c. Browning Type – 6RG2X
d. Colt Type – 6LG2X
e. Webley Type – 7RG3X
f. Army Type – 4RG3X
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS

Those are characteristics peculiar and not found in all other

firearms. These serve as the basis for identification of particular
firearm and identifiable only after the manufacture of the firearm.
These characteristics is beyond the control of the man and which
have random distribution inside the gun. Their existence in a firearm
is brought about by the tools used in their manufacture in their
normal operation resulting to the wear and tear, abuses, mutilations,
corrosions, erosions and other fortuitous causes. These
characteristics are generally found in the interior surface of the gun
barrel and breechface.
7 PROBLEMS OF FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
1. Given a bullet; to determine the caliber and type firearms
used.
2. Given a cartridge case; to determine the caliber, name of
manufacturer and the type of fire arm used.
3. Given a bullet and firearm, to determine whether or not the
bullet was fired from suspected firearm submitted.
4. Given a fired cartridge case and a suspected firearm, to
determine whether or not the cartridge case was fired from
the suspected firearm submitted.
5. Given two or more bullets, to determine whether or not the
bullets were fired from only one weapon.
6. Given two or more fired cartridge cases, to determine
whether or not the cartridge cases were fired from only
one weapon.
7. Given a firearm, to determine whether it is serviceable or
not.
BULLET HOLES
Glass – a super cooled liquid that possess high viscosity and
rigidity.

Two kinds of Crack

a. Radial Crack – primary fracture resembles the spokes of
a wheel radiating outward from the point of impact.
b. Concentric Crack – secondary fracture forming in an
approximately circular pattern around the point of impact.
3 R RULE

A principle used for radial crack which states that stress lines on radial crack will be
at right angle to the rear side of the glass.

RFC RULE

A principle used for concentric crack which states that stress lines on a concentric
crack will be at right angle to the front side, that is the side from which the impact or blow came.
 5 TEST FOR GLASS

1. Spectrographic test – used to determine the elements of the glass.

2. X-ray diffraction test – used to determine the type of glass pattern.
3. Physical properties examination – used to determine the density of
the glass by flotation method and refractive index by immersion
method.
4. Study of polish mark – a test for fine glass wares and optical glass.

5. UV light examination – used to determine the differences in physical

and chemical composition of glass specimen.
Chapter 11

Crime Scene
Processing
INTRODUCTION
The search of the scene for ballistic exhibits is one of the
most important phases of crime investigation. Crime of violence,
especially wherein firearms had been used, sometimes involves
struggle, a break, and the element of unpredictability. In
homicide, murder and armed robberies, the criminal is in contact
with the physical surroundings in a forceful manner. Traces of the
commission of the crime may be left in the form of fired bullets,
fired shells, and suspected firearm. These firearm evidences, or
ballistic exhibits as they are sometimes called, might be of value
in tracing the perpetrator or perpetrators of the crime so
committed. Together with these, there might be other traces that
may link him to the crime committed.
A well-planned and organized method of investigation
should guide the basic search. The search to be followed by the
investigator should be thorough and complete, and no details of
the surrounding area should be over-looked by the investigator.
There might be some types of evidence, which might be of the
highest significance to firearms investigation.
DIFFERENT METHOD OF
SEARCH
 1. STRIP METHOD

It involves the
demarcation of a series of
lanes down which one or
more persons proceed. Upon
reaching the starting point,
the searchers proceed down
their respective lane, reverse
the direction, and continue in
this fashion until the scene
has been thoroughly
examined.
2. DOUBLE STRIP METHOD

It is also known as grid

method. The researcher perform
first the strip method and after
which turns and proceed back
along new lanes but parallel to
the first movement. This
method offers the advantage of
being more methodological and
through; examined from two
different viewpoints, the area is
more likely to yield evidence
that might have been
overlooked.
3.SPIRAL METHOD

It is usually employed in
outdoor scenes and is normally
executed by a single person. It
involves the searcher’s walking
in slightly ever-decreasing, less-
than-concentric circles form the
outermost boundary
determination towards a central
point and vice-versa.
4. ZONE METHOD
It requires that area
should be divided into four
quadrants, each of which is then
examined using of the methods
previously described. Where the
area to be searched is
particularly large, a variation of
the zone method would be
subdivide the small quadrants into
a smaller quadrants.
5. PIE METHOD
It is also referred to
wheel method. The searchers
gather at the center and
proceed outward along radii or
spoke. The principal drawback
of this method is that the
distance between the
researchers increases as they
depart from the center.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCE
Anything that has material existence
and which may be used to establish the
nature of the offense or the identity of the
perpetrator and which may be presented to
the court for its evaluation or appreciation.
Properly prepared and presented
physical evidences may serve the same
purpose as taking the court to the scene of
the crime and reconstructing the events
which led to the commission of crime. A
thorough understanding of physical
evidence, its protection, preservation and
examination is important.
Evidence – is the means sanction by law, of ascertaining in a judicial procedure
the truth respecting a matter of fact.
“Evidence speaks by itself”
RECOGNITION OF EVIDENCE
At the crime scene, the prober must exercise keen observation and
extreme care in his search for these physical evidences or ballistics exhibits
like fired bullets, fired shells, firearm/s and allied items or objects. The
success of the case will depend heavily on how the prober conducts himself
in handling those ballistics exhibits. He has to do his job well at “proper
time” and “proper place”.

Proper time refers to when he is right there in the scene and proper
place refers to the right there at the scene. It is important therefore that the
investigator be familiar with the modern techniques in the proper
recognition, collection, marking, preservation and transmittal of these
physical evidences.
COLLECTION OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
1. Collect all articles, which are, or may be in some future date, be of
value as evidence.
2. Evidence which may tend to show or indicate or not a crime was
committed or may connect some particular person with the crime or
crime scene such as fatal gun, fired bullet, fired shell, metal fragment,
broken glass, holster, magazine, cartridge, gloves and masks.

3. Designate one officer to collect all evidence to centralized the

collection.
4. Don’t MAC the evidence.
M – mutilate the evidence
A – alter the very nature of evidence
C – contaminate the evidence
5. Sketch and photograph the crime scene.
COLLECTION OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
6. Photograph the articles before removing them.
7. In cases if the fired bullets lodge in an object, extreme care must be
exercise in removing such.
8. If the bullet has broken into fragments, secure fragments as many as
possible.
9. When firearm/s is/are found in the crime scene, note the following:
a. type of FA
b. Caliber
c. Serial number
d. Condition of FA
e. Position of FA relative to the body at the scene
f. Other details of FA
COLLECTION OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
10. When bullet/s is/are found at the scene, the following shall be noted:
a. Type
b. Caliber
c. Shape
d. Metal or bullet fragments
e. Place and date of recovery
11. When shell/s is/are found in the crime scene, note the following:
a. Number of shells
b. Caliber
c. Trademark or brand
d. Place and date of recovery
 COMMON MARKS FOUND ON
HEADSTAMP
• ACP – Arms Corporation of the Philippines
• Automatic Colt Pistol
• BAR – Browning Automatic Rifle
• RA or REM – Remington Arms Company
• RPA – Republic of the Philippines Arsenal
• LC – Lake City Arsenal
• FCC – Federal Cartridge Corporation
• EAA – European American Arms
• U or UT – Utah Ordnance Company
• WCC – Western Cartridge Corporation
• WRA – Winchester Repackaging Corporation
• Luger
 PROPER COLLECTION OF
FIREARMS IN THE CRIME
SCENE
By using a handkerchief, string or wire inserted through the
trigger guard of the firearm. Be sure that in picking up the suspected
firearm the muzzle end of the barrel is not pointed to anyone in the
vicinity.

More so, if it is revolver and this revolver is in full-cocked

position, there is always the danger of a little amount of jarring when
picking up as the gun might fire, causing additional shooting or
accident.
After picking up the revolver, a piece of crumpled paper or
carton maybe place just in front of the trigger after which the trigger
should be checked. This is done to prevent accidental or unnecessary
firing.
MARKING OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
1. Physical evidences should be properly marked or labeled for further
identification as they are collected and to complete the chain of
possession or custody of the ballistics exhibits.
2. Mark at the time that evidence is removed from its original position.
However, do not mark or move until photograph has been taken.

3. Keep a complete note on the marks placing it on every single or

individual object recovered in the crime scene.
4. Use distinctive initials of the recovering officer. Never use “X”.
5. Record the mark used, and the position of the marks present on the
object.
6. Record serial number or other distinct marks present on the object.
7. Always mark the container in which the object is placed even if the object
is already marked. (Tagging)
 MARKING FIRED BULLETS

Fired bullet should be marked by the

recovering officer with his initial together with
the corresponding date of recovery in the
OGIVE or NOSE or its ANTERIOR PORTION
with stylus or any pointed instrument. But is
cases that the fired bullet is badly damaged or
disfigured the marking could be place on the
base but never in the bearing surface or
cylindrical surface of the fired bullet.
 MARKING FIRED SHELLS

Same in marking of
fired bullets but the marking
should be place either
INSIDE, NEAR THE OPEN
MOUTH, OUTSIDE, NEAR
THE OPEN MOUTH OR
NEAR THE BODY OF THE
SHELL, but never place your
marks on the base of fired
shells.
 MARKING A SUSPECTED
FIREARMS
Same in marking of
fired bullets and fired shell
but the marking should be
place on all the three main
and inseparable part of the
firearm. In addition, a tag
may be made indicating the
type of firearm, make or
model, caliber, serial
number, date of recovery,
name of suspect or victim (if
known) and other features
of value.
 PRESERVATION OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCES
Physical evidence should be preserve for future identification and
presentation during the trial of the case. The container of ballistics exhibits
should be properly labeled by the prober and put down all the steps he has
taken in preserving all these physical evidences for future use. Preserving the
evidentiary value of physical evidence determine the acceptability and
reliability of evidence in court.

TRANSMITTAL OF PHYSICAL
EVIDENCE
 After the collection and marking of physical evidences, the prober
will transmit the evidences to their respective departments and submit the
same to the duty desk officer or designated receiving officer-in-charge.