1898 Philippine Constitution

First republican constitution in Asia

 Handwork of congress made up partly of delegates elected and partly delegates who were appointed by
Aguinaldo, as President, to represent provinces which would otherwise be unrepresented because of
distance, war conditions or other reasons generally recognized that the members were among the ablest
Filipinos o the time

Form of govt established under the 1898 PH Consti

1. Separation of the 3 powers of govt
2. Sovereignty resting upon the people
3. Govt to be popular, representative alternative and responsible
4. Freedom and equality of religious worship
5. Separation of church and state
6. Ample decentralization and administrative autonomy for local governments

Fate of the revolutionary govt

 Malolos Consti historical but no immediate practical significance – structure never fully implemented
because by 1899 the republic found itself fighting for its life almost from the moment it was born
 The first experiment in PH self-govt was abortive

Why the revolutionary govt failed

 Philippine revolution started by the masses supported by the resources of the upper classes or the elite
 Bureaucracy dominated by the conservative ilustrado class
 Marked by pragmatism and opportunism the elite promoted laws that excluded the revolutionary
masses
 Reforms gave way to old-style corruption and malpractices (Endriga 1993)

American Period (1900-1946)

1. Conditions Prevailing
1898: The Americans came during the PH-Spanish war; Filipinos were winning the war against Spain
PH-American war; American took control of Manila while the provinces remained under Filipino control
Spain sold the PH to the US for $20M under the Treaty of Paris
No organized bureaucracy due to war
1899: In the first PH commission came to investigate conditions in the country
Concluded that the US could not withdraw from the PH
Recommended the nature of govt to be established and careful selection of adm officials who should be of
highest character and fitness
War ended in 1902; the colonized the PH
Filipino nationalism still running high
PH for the Filipinos
2. Objectives/Purposes of colonization
- Political: Democracy
 - Economic: Phils as source of raw materials and market for finished products; protect their business
interests; free enterprise/capitalism
- Military: set up US bases
3. Justification for colonizing us
- Benevolent assimilation
- To educate, civilize and Christianize the Filipinos
- Train us in the delicate art of self-govt
- 1900: Phil Commission instructed to establish an educational sys and efficient civil serv sys, and organize the
judiciary and municipal govts
Two Main Strategies used to win Filipinos over
1. Access to public education; taught us the English language
2. Appointment to the civil service (History of the Civil Serv)
1901 – American colonial bureaucracy was established in the country
4. Major Characteristics of the PAS
- Highly centralized
a. Structure – no office or clearing house for its territories
- Philippines placed under the Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept, US govt while other territories were under
several different or all departments, frequently as many as five
- Provincial and municipal govts under close regulation by the PH Commission

PH Commission – Closely supervised the PH Assembly (Upper House)

Structures:
- Served as the highest govtl authority in the PH
- Exercised exclusive legislative power until 1907
- Closely supervised local govts
Composition:
- All Americans
- 1901: 3 Filipinos were appointed as members
- 1913: Majority were still Americans
- Gov Gen as chairman
- Vice Gov Gen and 4 Dept Secretaries served as members
- Note the union of legislative and executive powers

PH Assembly: Established in 1907 as the Lower House composed entirely of 80 elected Filipinos

2. Executive: Gov Gen as chief executive of colonial adm

Offices under the Gov Gen

1. Executive Bureau in charge of adm and political matters headed by the Exec Sec who served as the chief
assistant to the Gov Gen
2. Bureau of Audit
3. Board (Bureau)

Gov Gen – William Howard Taft

 3. Judiciary: Most Filipinized branch in terms of number and rank

b. Appointment processes
– All high officials of central govt (Gov Gen, Vice Gov Gen)
- All subordinate employees w/ certain exceptions appointed by the corresponding sec of dept or chief of
bureau after certification from a list of eligible furnished by the director of civil serv
- Minor officials on the serv were removed by the Gov Gen on various pretexts
c. Repoting process
- provs submitted annual reports to the exec bureau
- Bureau chiefs sent reports to respective dept secs who reported to the chief exec
- Gov Gen sent annual report to the Phil Com who in turn transmitted diff reports to the bureau of insular
affairs, war dept in Washington

Civil Service
- Americans put primary focus on the creation and operation of an efficient and non-political civil serv where
recruitment is based on merit and fitness
- Pol Adm Dichotomy Application: Filipino Bureaucrats to implement policies formulated by the Americans
that will promote their own interest
- Used to break the backbone of nationalism among Filipinos
- Incorporated subtle methods of indoctrination e.g., Filipinos asked to take oath of allegiance to US govt
before taking CS exam
- Exam more proforma than real test of skills: 10% allotted to US History, etc
- Subtle process of re-education: Questions on the Phil placed side by side with those of US and Europe
brought up some repugnant and intimation about the country

Features
- Passing the exam to ascertain relative capacity and fitness of applicants
- Security of tenure
- Removal or separation of regular EE for a cause only and be given due process
- Promotion when deserved
- Attractive hours of work
- Generous leave provisions
- Prestigious career

Factors affecting the effectiveness of CS

- Regime of law and not of man
- Corruption to be dealt with decisively
- Exclusion of politics particularly the spoils sys in appointment and removal from office and in bureaucratic
conduct

After more than just a decade armed resistant was gone

Nature and extent of Fil participation

 1. Municipal officers were elected by the people
2. Members of the PH Assembly were elected
3. A policy provided that whenever there was a need to elect an officer. Filipinos were to be preferred.
4. Judiciary most Filipinized in terms of rank and member
5. Until 1907, the highest position open to the Filipinos were political appointees (e.g., membership in the
PH commission and the judiciary)
6. Americans were placed in strategic posts of adm as (a) tutors to teach techniques and substance of
expertise to subordinate Fil bureaucrats: (b) high adm to exercise govt control (c) served as examplars of
American civilization and public service

Direction of actual adm entrusted to a permanent corps of American professional adm and experts

Hence, it was a govt of Americans assisted by Fil and for self-preservation, they served as our big brother

Filipinization of the American colonial bureaucracy (1913 – 1921)

1. Factors that led to early Filipinization

a. Provided for in the CS Act of 1900

b. economical for the US gov’t

c. Difficult to attract and retain American bureaucrats due to:

- Distance and climate

- No guarantee as to how long the US world remain in the country

- Absence of retirement scheme

Describe Filipinization under Gov Gen Harrison

- Phil commission completely given to Filipinos in 1913

- Engaged Filipino advisors especially through council of state
- Reduced of American high officials in the executive offices
- Issued policies such as (1) EO disallowing civil servants from engaging in private business (2) Civil serv
retirement act of 1916
- Entitled EE with 6 or more years of service to receive retirement allowance provided they tendered
resignation by that year and unless filled by the Gov Gen, this position vacated were considered abolished. If
filled, the new official will only receive 2/3 of his predecesor’s salary

e. More capable Filipinos

- Passed the CS exam
- New breed of civil servants sent to American universities for training

The upward rise of some Filipinos from the ranks validated the claim of the Americans that the sys was
equitable

Results of Filipinization
- Savings for the American Gov
- Recruitment of men unfit for office because of inexperience
- Centralization of power among few Filipino elites resulting ineffective check to gov excesses
- Graft and corruption attributed to rapid Filipinzation and centralization of power
- Mismanagement; gross inefficiency; problem with temporary appointments in clerical positions

Response of Harrison – addressed misdemeanors such as draft and corruption, malfeasance, abuse of
temporary appointing authority

Reforms
-Jones Act of 1916 overhauled the bureaucracy established in 1901
- created the ff exec depts.: Dept of Interior; Public instructor; justice; commerce and communications;
Finance; Agriculture and natural resources
- Although still under close supervision of the Gov Gen the power of appointment is to be exercised by and
with the consent of the Phil senate
- With this basic framework the Filipinos succeeded in obtaining effective control over the administrative
organization of the gov
- In 1921, an investigative mission came to the PH to evaluate the readiness of the Filipinos for
independence, look into the country’s finances and real effects of the Filipinization policy

Observations:
- Representatives of the American people join forces with the 1% elites/political and social parasites to aid
them in the exploitation or deliberate legal robbery of 99% representing the best of Fil people
- Deterioration in the am of public business in direct proportion to the Filipinization of the govt and with the
acquisition of power by the Nacionalista party
- In general, Fil were of good character and ability but were governed by the idea that is not improper to
utilize their official positions for their own benefit and that of their friends. In the performance of their
functions, they seemed to be affected by political considerations than by a sense of right
- Inefficiency, corruption and other misconduct in givt attributed to the erosion of the executive powers

Recommendation:
- Under no circumstances should the US govt permit to be established in the Phils a situation which would
leave the US in a position of responsibility without authority

The Harrison era tailored to provide a ritual of freedom for the Filipino politicians so as to test their abilities
but actually became instrumental to legitimize further compression of power

The task of subsequent Gov Gens was to put Fils in their proper place, making them plead and prove
themselves capable after the Wood-Forbes team found their performance wanting

In 1923, Wood became the Gov Gen and from then on up to the Phil Commonwealth in 1935 were years of
political consolidation for the Gov Gen. It had brought some crises in govt but strengthened the stranglehold
on the colonial Fil mind
- Tried to get back executive powers given to Fil
- In retaliation, the secretaries resigned, with the senate refusing to confirm the new appointees to replace
the former Undersecretaries took over the management of depts
 Philippine Commonwealth Gov’t (1935-1942)
1. Conditions prevailing/context

a) International Devts
- Japan’s invasion of Manchuria threatening to advance into heartland China
- German aggressiveness under Hitler
- Possibly of WW II
b) In the US
- Economic probs: decrease in international trade after WW I with increased protective tariffs
imposed by various countries which led to the collapse of the economy
- Shutdown of the Stock Exchange
c) Internal conditions/domestic front
- Predominantly agricultural, export/import economy (sugar, coconut, hemp)
- Decline in market prices for Phil exports which led local producers to resort to revenue-saving
measures to the detriment of their laborers’ lot
- Growth of radicalism which led to peasant and urban unrests/intensified anti-imperialist
sentiments and uprisings
- Widespread poverty attributed to low productivity of Phil agriculture and concentration of land
ownership in the hands of the few

- Condition for possible immediate grant of Phil independence – US interests were to be protected

2. Tydings-McDuffie Law authorized to by the Act of US Congress established the PH Commonwealth in 1935

- Replaced the govt under the Jones

The Establishment of the Commonwealth Period

- As of May, a plebiscite ratified the constitution
- The commonwealth of the PH was inaugurated on November 15, 1935, with Quezon as president
and Osmena as the vice president
- Provisions of turnover from American direct rule to commonwealth:
a. Position of High Commissioner relegated to the office of the Phil Dept while the Commonwealth
president was to occupy Malacanan, marking a symbolic shift of power
b. Forbes amendment: made explicit the right of American presidential intervention through the
High Commissioner on matters re decisions of the Insular Auditor, in order to protect the $200M a
year trade

As a result, American businessmen were spared of limits and tariffs on American products entering
the PH until independence

Interaction between the international situation and radical movement created a peculiar synthesis
in Quezon who capitalized on these issues to impose his own kind of leadership and administrative
machinery upon the PH
 Political acumen of Quezon – using the sentiments that Americans under Wood were the ‘advisery’,
Quezon rallied the diverse political groupings around a united front under his leadership;
neutralized his opponents; also made possible the centralization of political power around himself

Quezon – provincial governor in 1902 elected to the PH Assembly in 1907 became President in
1935

3. Objectives/program of gov’t of Quezon

- Political sovereignty, economic independence and social justice

Priority tasks/thrusts – social amelioration and economic dev’t

Little change in the pattern of Phils economic dependence on the US

Characteristics of the PAS

a. Executive power vested in a Filipino President

b. Gov’t run by Filipinos but under an American shadow gov’t through its American technical advisers and consultants
who saw to it that things were being done according to the directives of the Gov Gen

c. Importance of technology – Fils assisted by American technical advisers and consultants

d. Highly centralized

That the good/interest of the State must prevail over individual/personal interest = State-controlled economy

Issues and problems

- Middle and lower branches of gov’t could not decide even on matters involving local issues as they were
uncertain about the correctness of their action
- Indecisiveness attributed to the shifting and different emphasis and management styles of the Gov Gens
which was not conductive to the dev’t of an independent leadership at the local levels
- Substantial weakening of professionalism in the civil service due to the various experiences it had under the
various American Gov Gen
- Personal views differed from official pronouncements/Fil leaders maintained certain appearances while
granting substantial concessions to the Americans
- Ambivalence on the part of Fil Leaders as they were caught between espousing a nationalist and pro-
independence posture and being afraid as to the future of the Phil eco, esp its expert industry and the
security of the country once the American support was withdrawn
- Centralism which ultimately meant delays in administrative processes and consequent “personalized
services” were needed to avoid them
-Graft and corruption, nepotism, incompetence, inefficiency
 Reforms/Changes
- Strengthened Civil Service by (a) putting into the 1935 Phil Consti a provision on the Civil Service (Art XI)
expanding its coverage to embrace all branches and subdivisions of the gov’t powers ; (b) elevated the
status of the Bu of CS maing its head a Commissioner with corresponding increase in power (c) writes into
law virtually every safeguard of the merit system
- Institution of a position classification, a landmark in the concept of a CS
- A salary schedule of 10 grades, each which was defined in terms of duties, responsibilities, required
qualifications and experience
- However, salary adjustments that came with classification scheme did not materialize due to war and the
line-item budget control of salaries that was then adopted
- Since the gov’t was still answerable to a higher power, it was essential to show its abilities and concern for
good gov’t hence, incompetence and corruption were dealt with decisively and nepotism was prohibited

Second exercise of self-rule/govt aborted again by WW II

Japanese Colonial Administration

A. Conditions Prevailing
- highly oppressive puppet government
- peasant agrarian unrest (hukbalahap)
- Filipinos that sabotaged govt processes were condoned as nationalistic
-Filipino govt role to appease imperial govt
- mickey mouse money
B. Objectives of govt and the role of the PAS
- World domination expansion of territory
Justifications – Phils for Fils to enjoy economic prosperity, regional unification
C. Characteristics of PAS
- Adopted a policy of cooptation of Filipino leaders to preserve appearance of continuity and legitimacy
Structure – highly centralized
a. Executive Commission was under the command and orders of the Commander-in-chief of the Japanese imperial
forces
b. Appointed Japanese advisers and assistant advisers in each of the six departments
c. Judicial courts also under the supervision of the Commander-in-chief
- Highly centralized policy and decision making since everything had to be approved by the Imperial Forces
- “Puppet Gov’t”

Organizational Structure
Commander-in-chief

Japanese Imperial Forces

Judicial Courts
Jap Adv & Asst Adv
6 Depts
 Department of Interior Econ dept of educ
- Some of the guiding principles of administration were parallel to those of education, namely:
a. To rectify the tendency of Fils to rely upon the US and make Filipinos understand the position of the Phils
in the sphere
b. In carrying out administrative policies, foremost preference shall be given to satisfying the demands of
the Imperial Forces and importance be given to maintenance of peace and order (role of PAS)

Process – everything to be approved by the Head of the Imperial forces

Personnel Administration – Filipinos were put into office but had to go through indoctrination to the Japanese colonial
govt
Semblance of the CS in terms of:
a. Continuity of structures and functions of the CS under a military govt
b. Giving of examinations to recruit new employees
c. Inclusion of Japanese language in the exam including the ideological aspect of Japanese occupation
d. Qualifications for higher positions and promotions entailed sympathetic collaboration with the Japanese
Prevailing instability forced President Laurel to involve himself directly even on the minor details of governance

Appointment process
- High officials and other technical and primarily confidential officials and employees appointed by the Chairman of the
Executive Commission upon the recommendation of the Commissioner concerned
- Division chiefs and ranking officials of bureaus and offices appointed by the Commissioner of the dept, subj to the
approval of the Chair of the Exec Comm from among those certified as eligible by the Director of Civil Service
Systems and Procedures –
D. Justifications
- Philippines for Filipinos
- Liberate Fils from American oppression
- Let Filipinos enjoy their own prosperity and culture
- Remove colonial mentality/overdependence on the US and Great Britain

EXECUTIVE COMMISSION - Body that served as the central administrative org

VARGAS (THE EXECUTIVE SECRETARY OF QUEZON) – Was appointed as Chairman of the Exec Commission
Issues and problems
a. Inefficiency and corruption due to:
- Inflation
- Underemployment
- Dissatisfaction
- Guerilla sympathies
- Anti-Japanese sentiments
Sabotage of Govt in the forms of administrative delay and obstruction condoned as moral and patriotic/form of
retaliation

Low salary/reduced salary due to compulsory savings

- Japanese money almost valueless which made civil servants resort to petty misappropriation, acceptance of bribes for
performance or non-performance of official duties and other corrupt practices to augment their income
-Incompetence due to disruption of education and collaboration, not merit, as a means to govt employment

- CS exam used as indoctrination tool

- Basic problem of administration was that it had to secure agreement of the military even in matters involving civilian
affairs

Post-War Republic (1947-1965)

1. Context/Conditions Prevailing
a. Political
- end of WW II
- USSR and the US emerged as superpowers (cold war) US, needed to preserve itssphere of interest in Southeast
Asia
- Victory of Chinese revolution in 1949, and thus communism giving impetus to America’s aggressive campaign
against communism
- Hukbalahaps/peasant movement gaining momentum in Central Luzon
- In the guise of containing spread of communism, the US retained its military presence in te country
b. Economic – PH as one of the most devastated countries in the world

- The Phils granted independence by the US on 04 July 1946 but American influence continued primarily thru
military and economic aid under the guise of “special relations”

Two immediate tasks of the Phil gov’t

1. Nation Building
- Struggle to rebuild – approximately P40B invested to reconstruct physical capital
- Rehabilitation funds from the US through the Tydings Rehab Act
2. Economic Mobilization
- Foreign and flowing - $803M (=debt)

State of the Philippine Economy

- Collapse of the economy in 1949 which necessitated the creation of the Central Bank to manage
and control the finances of the country; fixed exchange rate to $1=P2
- Primary concern of the gov’t; to strengthen itself so as to lessen, if not completely arrest, the
erosion of people’s faith in its legitimacy as there were doubts as to the extent of Philippine
independence

Characteristics of the PAS immediately after the war

1. Low prestige due to its perceived collaborator role during the Japanese occupation
2. Corruption and sub-standard salaries forced other bureaucrats to seek private employment
3. Meager resources
4. Large measure of cynical corruption attributed to:
- carry-over attitudes and habits during the war
- amorality of early post-war period when pay was low, prices were high
- inhibitions were few and sanctions were hardly enforced
- advent of spoils system due to partisan interests

Reforms instituted: fundamentally political and administrative

1. Reorganization Committee of 1947
a. Main Output – Laid down principles which reorganized the PH bureaucracy on a simplified unifunctional basis,
thereby distributing the functions of the executive branch to several departments and clipping the powers of the
President
- All administrative activities of the same major purpose to be grouped under single-headed responsibility
- All executive and administrative functions to be transferred from boards and commissions to an individual
responsibility while quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial and advisory functions to be retained by the latter
- To prevent top-heavy administration dept proper should be kept small to perform the functions of staff work, planning,
direction and supervision
2. Functional delineation/principles of organization
- President as the general manager of administration and highest policy making official
- Dept Secretaries as the supervisory and policy making officials for the offices under their respective departments
- Bureau Directors or chiefs of offices as heads of primary functional units that will execute the programs/projects of
their offices
3. Other reforms
a. Appointment of Dept Secretaries by the President to be confirmed by Congress through the commission on
appointment
b. Strengthened the CS by extending its coverage to all GOCC’s under the supervision of the Office of the President (OP)
c. Abolished the Dept of Interior and its functions absorbed by the Dept of National Defense and various offices under
the OP

Bell Mission (1950)

- Had a tremendous impact on the structuring of civil war economy and pub ad
Objective of the Mission
- A survey of all aspects of PH economy with the objective of recommending immediate measures to help
raise production and living standards in the Philippines
Main findings and analyses

a. Economic condition continuously deteriorating which was attributed to:

- lack of diversification of the economy

- income inequalities

- inflationary conditions due to large budgetary deficits and excessive debts of GOCCs

- excessive demand for foreign exchange to pay for imports and profits and fund transfers

For the economic problems, the officials were blamed for it, but measures to halt deterioration not put into effect

b. Public lacked confidence in the capacity of the govt to firmly protect its interest

c. Situation being exploited by communist led to inc disorder

d. Civil Service

- Although not large in size, many appointments were made as political rewards without concern for qualifications

- Paid to service to recruitment based on merit

- Inefficiency and corruption widespread

- Impossible to attract able men into the service due to low salaries

- Tremendous temptation to supplement their salaries from other sources

e. Condition of the administrative sys blamed on disorders caused by war which made it difficult to restore the efficiency
of the Phil Commonwealth govt

Reasons cited for the state of the Philippine PAS

1. Political neutrality, personal integrity and routine ability not enough for the numerous and different demands on the
administrative sys

2. Nation building and economic development required technical and professional skills and innovations which were still
lacking since these positions were reserved for the Americans

3. Protection of the merit sys was not enough development of merit in the form of substantive technical skills for the
performance of the new functions of the government was more important

Specific PA recommendations

a. CS be placed on merit basis and salaries raised to provide a decent standard of living

b. Philippine government to remove barriers to employment of foreign technical experts and take steps to improve
training facilities for technical staff

c. In accordance with the request of the Phil Government, the US to send a technical mission to assist it in carrying out
its agricultural and industrial development, fiscal controls, public adm and social welfare programs

d. upward revision of tax structure to put the national budget at a balance and thus allow the substantial increase in
salaries

e. improve CS by supervisory training courses, a job rotation sys and provision of staff assistance in administrative
management

f. Hiring of specialists in public administration who would train local talents

Recommendations

- Put much emphasis on the technical aspects of economic problems

- Problems were economic but solutions could be found in public administration improvement and reorganization
particularly the removal of inefficiency and corruption

- Bell Trade Act was imposed upon the Phils, which allowed the entry of duty-free American products to the country
tilting the balance of trade in favor of the US/no import duties

- Prohibited the Phils from protecting new industries manufacturing or selling products that may be in competition with
US goods

- Pegging of exchange rate of P2=$1

- Quotas on Phil exports to US and free trade

- Parity clause allowing US citizens and corporations access to natural resources and operation of public utilities

Outcomes of the Bell report

1. Theoretical or ideological retooling-paved the way for the establishment of the institute of Public Administration in UP
in 1952 under a contract with the University of Michigan

2. Creation of the govt survey and reorganization commission (GSRC) in 1954

3. Civil Service Law of 1959

Pervasiveness of American support and influence in the structuring of the CS up to 1968 even in such matters as a.) test
asministration security/USAID for the fast printing of test booklets for 1967 Teachers’ Exam and 1968 CS tests b.)
creation of the GSRC

Reactions of Filipino officials – too many American technical advisers

3. Government Survey and Reorganization commission or GSRC (1954)

- Given a broad mandate to be able to

a. promote better execution of laws and more effective management of the government and expeditious administration
of public business

b. Increase the efficiency of the operations of the govt to the fullest extent possible

- Organizational reforms proposed:

a. Highest priority be given to the reorganization of the National Economic Council underscoring the interdependence
between planning and national devt

b. Reforms in such sectors as agriculture and natural resources, commerce and industry, economic planning, education
and culture , labor, public works and communications revenue system and statistics and allied research

- recommended the need for local autonomy under the concept of delegated responsibility under a centralized control
of policy. i.e., day-to-day operations the domain of local govts while formulation of national policies remained with the
President/central-local relations
4. Revised Civil Service Law of 1959

- Provided that the “Phil Civil Service embraces all branches , subdivisions and instrumentalities of the govt incl GOCCs”

- enshrined American values such as anti-patronage, efficiency, professional management and human relations

Results of American dominance in the formulation of economic and PA policies

1. The US economic assistance carried out through American advisers in every govt transaction plunged the country into
an agricultural economy and bolstered American interests in the country

2. Govt forced to appropriate counterpart funds to support various programs recommended by American mission to the
Phils thereby affecting the prioritized programs of the Philippine govt

3. American grants not subject to traditional ways of auditing and accounting but to standards of foreign party. Project
proposals were submitted not to the Budget Commission but to the Philcusa-USOM/Phils

Macapagal Administration (1961-1965)

A. Qualifications/background of Macapagal
- poor boy from Lubao, a farming town in Pampanga, no influential connections
- education : earned law and economic (PhD) degrees as a working student
- work experience: cub reporter in a Manila daily; civil servant for 20yrs (Bu of Lands, DFA); law practitioner, offering free
legal service to the poor, guerilla, law prof at San Beda and UST
- political career
1. congressman in the 1950s
- sponsored social legislations (minimum wage, barrio autonomy rural health, agricultural credit) earning the
title “Champion of the Masses” or “Champion of the Common Man” chair of Com on Foreign Affairs
2. Vice-president
3. President (3rd president to win against an incumbent) US support thrown behind eventual victor
B. Conditions prevailing when Macapagal took over the presidency
1. Political
- assumed Presidency a few years after Huk movement subdued by Magsaysay and the Americans; hence
American sentiments still riding high
- agrarian unrest continued
2. Economic
- economy encumbered by almost a decade of foreign exchange, trade and price controls
C. Major thrusts/programs
1. Invigorating the Economy
- adopted a policy of decontrol
- results: increase in exports, foreign exchange reserves and GNP but led to depreciation of the peso and created
difficulties for manufacturers needing foreign materials and fueled inflation; decline in real wages of workers
- changes in the bureaucracy
a. increased gov’t salary and other benefits through legislation
b. creation of Program Implementation Agency (PIA) under OP, problem with NEC
c. creation of financial institutions such as the Phil Veterans Bank
d. to stimulate cottage industries , creation of the National Cottage Industry Devt Administration (NACIDA)
 2. Land Reform
- secret committee composed of friends and experts that drafted a land reform bill
- did not include the section on land reform in the draft SONA given to legislations
- certified the bill as urgent and called for special sessions 7 times until it was finally enacted
- bill not radical at all “miracle rice” to increase rice production

Proclamation No. 28, s 1962 moved the celebration of the PH independence day from July 4 to June 12. First celebration
of the June 12 independence day under Macapagal.

D. Relationship with Congress

- Congress led by political rivals (Nacionalista Party) spuming his legislative initiatives and making confirmation
of appointment of his officials arduous, who later on transferred to the Liberal Party due to pork barrel

E. Relationship with the CS

- more peaceful
- only post-war president who did not overhaul the entire bureaucracy because he was not given the authority
to reorganize by congress
F. Three major areas of the PAS that were given attention by the Macapagal administration
1. Appointments
- respected the career system
- did not replace casuals in large numbers
- did not even place his ranking supporters in key positions until the terms of the incumbents has ended or they
had voluntarily resigned
- first appointees were career officials with reformist spirit/safeguarded the career service
2. Professionalization of the CS
- promulgation of the IRRs of CS Act of 1959 which strengthened recruitment, grievance and performance rating
procedures decentralized CSC operations by establishing regional offices throughout the country and by creating
personnel offices in all government agencies
- conduct of several competitive exams aimed at creating rosters of civil service eligibles; can also be regarded as
conciliatory measures to legitimize the thousands in office thru political connections
- expanded jurisdictions of the CSC by including GOCCs and special groups like SUCs; legislative and judicial
branches
- nullified two laws which threatens the merit system: (1) RA 1079 which eliminated the two-year prescription
on civil service eligibility earned after an exam; (2) RA 1080 which extended that eligibility to everyone who had passed
govt licensing exams such as for doctors, lawyers, accountants, etc.
- other programs to strengthen the merit system include promulgation of a merit promotion plan, performance
rating system, and complaints and grievance procedures, regular conduct of govt-wide training programs; required 9
graduate units of PA as prerequisite for promotion to supervisory positions
- political interference : 50-50 plan which undermined these measures; midnight appointments (Garcia Adm)
3. Moral Regeneration
- active campaign against corruption: Stonehill scandal; removed even high officials if proven guilty; created the
President’s Anti-Graft Comminttee (PAGCOM)
Other Programs
1. Initiated the construction of tenement housing for the masses
2. promoted nationalism by the propagation of Filipino as the national language and using it in diplomatic
credentials, passports, stamps, etc.
 After the Presidency
- Retired to private life to write his memoirs and other books
- Elected to the Constitutional Convention of 1971
- Actively opposed Marcos and marched with cause-oriented groups to protest its abuses
- Died in 1997

Marcos Democratic Gov’t (1965-1972)

1. Personal background
- Family
- student/Academic qualifications
- war veteran
- marriage
2. As a politician
- consistent outstanding congressman
- policies sponsored : incentives to commerce and industry; civil rights; govt aid to farmers professional ethics in politics
and civil service military veterans and their families
- Senate President: Critical of the incumbent administration – spoke against increase in foreign debt and the govt’s
decontrol program, its support for the Americans in Vietnam, its break with Malaysia and its corruption and waste
- Transferred to the Nationalista party became its guest Presidential candidate and won

Marcos’ first term as President (1965-1969)

1. Immediate actions
- restore relations with Malaysia in 1967
- moved for the establishment of the ASEAN
2. Espoused policies which he criticized bitterly during his campaign
- faith in free enterprise/decontrol policy
- contracting more foreign loans
- relied on US aid and purchases related to the Vietnam war to stabilize balance of payments
- reversed his campaign promise not to dispatch Filipino troops to Vietnam
- continued his predecessor’s disastrous economic policies without initiatives in social amelioration
- declared Pampanga, Huk’s stronghold, as pilot area for Macapagal’s Land Reform Act; land distribution budget
matched by a military budget twice the defense budget for 1967
3. Major accomplishments
a. rice self suffiency
- inter-agency coordinating body under the OP; addressed issues of lack of financial resources, relative unconcern for the
administrative machinery, strong partisan politics and inter-agency squabbles
- not sustainable : rice technology based on expensive and ecologically unsafe inputs of pesticides and fertilizers
- became a factor for his re-election
- lessons: success of gov’t programs can be attributed to political leadership’s competence when matched by single-
minded dedication to a goal; undertaken by career civil servants through a network of coordinating councils at all levels
b. infrastructure/public works (roads, low cost school buildings, airports, irrigation, bridges)

Role of Imelda
2. Changes in the PAS
a. Personnel – retrenchment of casuals and temporary employees. PAS expanded
- political debts paid thru appointments of associates in policy making, primarily confidential, highly technical positions
and ordinary job seekers who became the new casuals
- upheld unexpired terms of people in gov’t corporations and regulatory bodies and left the rest of the bureaucracy to
the CSC
- established several examination programs (1) regular exam covering general clerical field, career service, supervisors,
statisticians and stenograpers; (2) seven-year teacher exam prog; (3) exam program for professions involved in
economic dev’t
b. organizational – given power to reorganize the bureaucracy in 1968; created Police Commission (1966) and the
Presidential Agency on Reforms and Government Operations (PARGO)
6. Performance
- lackluster ; continued many of the policies of Macapagal without the latter’s social concerns and basic honesty

Second term : Pre-Martial Law (1969-1972)

1. Conditions prevailing
- economic conditions worsened
- corruption increased
- foreign loans increased
- increasing unemployment as businesses collapsed
- devaluation of the peso
- freese in gov’t hiring and promotions, no salary increase
- share of military in the udget increased
- less security of the foreign and program
2. Gov’t responses
a. overhauled the 1935 Constitutions and the CS
- called for a constitutional Convention
b. reorganization
- Marcos granted by Congress the authority for a govt-wide reorg in 1968
- created the PCR in 1969 to study and evolve an integrated reorg plan (IRP) according to the ff principles:
1. group, coordinate, consolidate or integrate departments and bureaus
2. abolish departments, offices, agencies or function which may not be necessary or create those which are necessary
for the efficient conduct of govt functions, services and activities
3. eliminate overlapping and duplication of services , functions and activities of the government
4. transfer functions, appropriations equipment, properties, records or personnel from one department, bureau, office,
agency or instrumentality to another
5. create, classify, combine, split and abolish positions
6. standardize salaries, materials and equipment
7. do whatever is necessary and desirable to effect economy in the government
Functions of the CSC reiterated in the IRP
- To strengthen the merit system and develop “professionalized effect and honest civil service and set
standards governing selection, training and discipline of civil servants”
IRP submitted but not taken up by Congress
a. Massive demonstrations denouncing corruption in gov’t, its subservience to US and accelerating poverty and
inequality among the people which was used by Marcos to paint a picture of the Phil society in turmoil and created
preconditions to justify martial law
- radicals winning and mobilizing students, professionals, peasants and workers as shown by the re-establishment of the
CPP, jeepney strikes
- international devts such as oil cartel put the economy of the country in disarray that required strong countermeasures
- govt too weak to respond to demoralization and other problems
- bombings and provocations of the police against the students which led to violent confrontations in the streets
- Vietnamese victory and retreat of the US in SEA : internal security of SEA countries threatened
- Military takeover in Korea and Thailand
Justifications
- To lead a revolution from the center which would cut the powers of the oligarchy and deliver social justice
to the poor majority
- Respond to the need for a strong government
- Dubbed as the New Society as it sought to restructure the old system

Real purposes to declaring Martial Law

- To extend his term of office as President which under the 1935 Phil Constitution was about to expire, no
normal legal process to enable him to continue in office
- Amass more wealth
Effects of martial law on democratic rights and institutions
- Political enemies put in prison
- Bill of rights such as those of assembly suspended
- Abolished legislature
- Independence and integrity of judicial undermined
- Silenced mass media

Hunger Strike
 Facing a military tribunal for murder, subversion and illegal possession of firearms, Ninoy refused to recognize
their jurisdiction and so started a 40-day hunger strike on April 4, 1975 while in prison
 Took actions to legitimize his regime e.g., elections in 1973, ban-Marcos provisions disappeared from the 1973
Constitution which was ratified by viva voce in village assemblies; underwent amendments thru demonstration
plebiscites whenever it suited him
 Within a few months of martial law, the real motives of Marcos became obvious e.g., oligarchy not destroyed
but only those factions that were opposed to him
 Seeming priority given to reorg and corresponding actions needed for implementation : adopted and
implemented the IRP under PD No. 1
- IRP served as the basis for a sweeping restructuring of the government

Major characteristics of martial rule

1. Authoritarianism
2. Technocracy
3. Centralization
4. Highly politicized bureaucracy
5. Militarization of the bureaucracy
6. Proliferation of GOCCs
7. Human rights violations

Trajano was a student of the Mapua Institute of Technology whi unfortunately met his end at the hands of Imee’s
henchmen.
During a forum at the PLM, the then 21 year old student questioned Imee on her capability to lead the youth and that
she only became the head of the Kabataang Barangay because she was the President’s daughter. He also questioned her
on the human rights abuses being committed by her father. He was kidnapped, interrogated, and tortured to death by
military intelligence personnel.

On March 20, 1986, Agapita Trajano filed her complaint for false imprisonment, kidnapping, wrongful death, and a
deprivation of rights, and on behalf of Trajano’s mother for emotional distress in the United States District Court for the
District of Hawaii. Court’s findings was that Trajano was tortured and his death was caused by Marcos-Manotoc and
concluded that this violation of fundamental human rights constitutes a tort in violation of the law of nations under 28
U.S.C. $1350, and attorneys’ fees pursuant to PH law

Major reforms adopted under the IRP

1. Decentralized the national government for improved administration by (a) reducing the number of agencies directly
under the supervision of the OP, and (b) establishing the 12 uniform administrative regions
2. Standardized the org and common operational activities of the departments incl staff services to consist of planning
finance, and management, administrative and technical services
3. Facilitated the preparation and execution of national devt programs by merging the NEC and the PES into a single
planning entity, the NEDA.
4. Abolished the positions of officials with cabinet rank formerly fixed by law, giving the President the power to
designate at his pleasure which position is of Cabinet rank by executive decree
5. Established the Career Executive Service (CES) and conducted training programs to develop a core of professional and
morally upright administrations
6. Old GOCCs integrated for abolished but new corporations were formed, attached to allied dept
7. Expanded executive depts. From 19 to 21 (with the creation of the Min of Public Information and Min of Human
Settlements) contrary to the recommendation to reduce depts. from 19 ot 15
8. Introduced the 3-tiered system in the CS (first, second and third levels) which allowed for the lateral access of
personnel
9. Created new provinces of Tawi-Tawi, North Cotabato, Maguindanao and Sultan Kudarat supposedly in response to the
political conditions in the area

Issues and problems

1. Highly centralized decision making which relied heavily on technocratic rationality w/o the essence of citizen
participation
2. Actual power concentrated in the hands of only a few of Marcos allies/local companies connected to political
leadership flourished (cronyism)
3. Plunder of the economy: excesses of the Marcoses and their allies; conjugal dictatorship; lack of accountability
4. Rapidly growing foreign debt
5. Reorg became a continuing process due to facility of passing laws which destroyed the original logic of the Plan
- amended by 11 PDs between Sept and Dec 1972; 13 in 1973’ 31 in 1974 and 12 in 1975 for a total of 75 in the first
three years alone
6. IRP as complemented disintegrated as a result of bureaucratic politics
7. Proliferation of GOCCs/govt into all sectors of the economy crowding out the private sector