TRANSFORMER OIL

The oil in transformer construction serves double purpose of cooling and insulating. For use
in transformer tanks, oil has to fulfill certain specifications and must be carefully selected.
All oils are good insulators, but animal oils are either too viscous or tend to form fatty acids,
which attack fibrous materials (e.g. cotton) and so are unsuitable for transformers.
Vegetable oils are apt to be inconsistent in quality and, like animal oils, which alone are
suitable for electrical purposes, some have a bituminous and others a paraffin base. The
crude oil, as tapped is distilled, producing a range of volatile spirits and oils ranging from
the very light to the heavy, and ending with semi-solids like petroleum jelly, paraffin wax,
or bitumen.

The chemical composition of oil consists of four major generic class of organic compounds,
namely, paraffins, napthelenes, aromatics and olefines. All these are hydrocarbons and
hence insulating oil is called a pure hydrocarbon mineral oil. It is desirable to have more of
saturated paraffins, less of aromatic and/or napthalenes and none of olefines.

11.1 Characteristics of Oil :

Refer Table-11.1 for the characteristics of oil as per IS:335-1983 are listed below :

Table-11.1 :

S.No Characteristics Limit / Requirement

o
1 Density at 27 C, max 0.89 g/cm3
2 Kinematic viscosity at 27o C, max 27 cSt
o
3 Interfacial tension at 27 C, min. 0.04 N/m
Flash point, Pensky-Marten (closed),
4 140oC
min.
5 Pour point, max. -9oC
Neutralization value (total acidity),
6 0.03 mg KOH/g
maximum.
7 Corrosive sulphur Non-corrosive
Electric strength (breakdown
voltage) minimum.

8 30 kv (rms)
(a) As received
50 kv (rms)
(b) After filtration
Dielectric dissipation factor (Tan ) at
9 0.005
90oC, max.
Specific resistance (resistivity), min.
30 x 1012 cm
10 (a) At 90oC
500 x 1012 cm
(b) At 27oC
 Oxidation stability :

(a)Neutralization value after

0.40 mg KOH/g
11 oxidation , max.
0.10% by weight
(b) Total sludge after oxidation,
max.
The oil shall not contain antioxidant
12 Presence of oxidation inhibitor
additives
13 Water content (as received), max. 50 ppm by weight
11.1.1 Physical Properties :

• Density - This has significance when transformer is operated in a very low

temperature zone. The maximum value of density fixed at 270C ensures that water in
the form of ice present in oil remains at the bottom and does not tend to float on the
oil up to a temperature of about -100C.

• Viscosity - determines the rate of cooling, and varies with temperature. A high
viscosity is an obvious disadvantage because of sluggish flow through small
apertures which it entails.

• Interfacial Tension (IFT) - This is a measure of the molecular attractive force

between oil and water molecules at their interface.

• Moisture Content - The amount of free and dissolved water present in the oil is its
moisture content and is expressed in ppm. Presence of moisture is harmful since it
adversely affects the electrical characteristics of oil and accelerates deterioration of
insulating paper.

• Flash Point - The temperature at which the vapour above an oil surface ignites
spontaneously is termed as flash point. A flash point not more than 1600C is usually
considered for safety reasons.

• Fire Point - The temperature at which an oil will ignite and continue burning is
about 25% above the flash point, or about 2000C.

• Pour Point - It is the temperature at which oil will flow under the prescribed
conditions. If the oil becomes too viscous or solidifies, it will hinder the formation of
convention currents and thus cooling of equipment will be severely affected.

11.1.2 Electrical Properties :

• Electric Strength (BDV) - It is the voltage at which breakdown occurs between two
electrodes when oil is subjected to an electric field under prescribed conditions.
Electric strength is the basic parameter for insulation system design of a
transformer.

• Resistivity (Specific resistance) - This is the most sensitive property of oil

requiring utmost care for its proper determination. Resistivity in -cm is numerically
equivalent to the resistance between opposite faces of a Cm3 of the liquid. Insulation
 resistance of windings of transformer is also dependent upon the resistivity of oil. A
low value indicates the presence of moisture and conductive contaminants.

• Dielectric Dissipation Factor (DDF) - It is numerically equal to Sine of the loss

angle (approximately equal to Tangent of loss angle for dielectrics) and is a good tool
to indicate the quality of an insulation. A high value of DDF is an indication of the
presence of contaminants or deterioration products such as water, oxidation
products, metal soaps, soluble varnishes and resins.

11.1.3 Chemical Properties :

• Purity - The oil must not contain impurities such as sulphur and its compounds, as
sulphur causes corrosion of metal parts and accelerates the formation of sludge.

• Acidity - Among the products of oxidation of transformer oil are CO2, volatile water-
soluble organic acids, and water. These in combination can attack and corrode iron
and other metals. The provision of breathers not only prevent the ingress of damp
air, but helps on out-breathing to absorb any moisture produced by the oxidation of
oil.

• Oxidation Stability - It is the measure of neutralization value and sludge after oil is
aged by simulating the actual service conditions of a transformer. It is important to
find out for new oil but not for oil in service and shows the presence of natural
inhibitors which impart anti-oxidation characteristics to oil.

11.2 Sampling :

The condition of oil should be checked before use. Samples of oil from the transformer
should be taken from the bottom of the tank as both water and water saturated oil are
heavier than clean and dry oil and sink to the bottom of the container. The sample bottles
should be rinsed with oil.

11.2.1 Receptacles for samples :

Receptacles for samples should preferably be bottles of clear glass with ground glass
stoppers and of 1 litre capacity. Sample bottles should not be filled to the top. They shall be
clean and dry. If the electrical test cannot be carried out immediately, these bottles shall be
hermetically sealed to prevent contamination of oil. Touching the inside of a receptacle with
a damp hand or wiping round with an apparently clean dry cloth may seriously reduce the
breakdown strength of a sample of good oil.

11.2.2 Samples from tank :

When taking samples from the tank, remove all dirt from the sampling valve of plug. To
ensure that the valve is clean, allow some oil to flow into a separate receptacle before
collecting sample for testing for its dielectric strength as per the latest edition of IS:6792. It
is expected that every sample passes the test, if the normal transit and storage precautions
are taken.

11.3 Testing of Transformer Oil :

There are nine number tests recommended in the code of practice for maintenance and
supervision of mineral insulating oil in equipment (IS:1866 - 1983). These tests can be
further subdivided into three groups as shown in the following flow chart for the purpose of
action if test results are outside permissible limits as mentioned in Table-11.3

TESTS

Tan , Resistivity,
Break Down Voltage Dissolved Gas
Interfacial Tension &
Test & Water Content. Analysis
Acidity Tests.

Interpretation Interpretation Interpretation

Monitoring is
Oil needs Filtration Oil needs Reclamation necessary to find
or Replacement out the gravity of
incipient fault.

Transformer needs
Result of Filtration Result of Reclamation
attention during
or Replacement.
usual outages.

Removal of Free Removal of Acids,

Transformer needs
Water, Dirt, Rust, Sludge, Oxidation and
immediate
Metallic cuttings, oil decay products, oil
attention.
Filter dust, etc. aging products, etc.
Group-I Group-II Group-III
Note : Tests like Moisture, Flash point and Sedimentation are also required to further probe
into deteriorated condition of the oil.

Table-11.3 (Groups I & II) :

Equipment Permissible Action if outside

S.No Test
Voltage limits permissible limit
145 KV and above 60 KV rms
Electric strength (Break
Down Voltage)
1 72.5 KV - 145 KV 50 KV rms Recondition / Filter
(As per IS:6792)
Below 72.5 KV 40 KV rms
 15 ppm
145 KV and above
Water Content.
2 20 ppm Recondition / Filter
72.5 KV - 145 KV
(As per IS:2362 - 1973)
Below 72.5 KV
25 ppm
No Sediment and /
Sediment and / or or precipitable
3 All Voltages Recondition / Filter
perceptible sludge. sludge should be
detectable.
Recondition / Filter if
Specific resistance the Tan value permits,
4 All Voltages 0.1x1012 Cm (Min)
(Resistivity at 900C). reclaim or replace if
not.
145 KV and above 0.2 (Max.)
Dielectric dissipation
5 Reclaim or Replace.
factor (Tan ) at 900C.
Below 145 KV 1.0 (Max.)
Neutralization value 0.5 mg KOH/gm
6 All Voltages Reclaim or Replace.
(Total Acidity) oil (Max.)
Decrease in the
flash point 150C
(Max.) of the
7 Flash Point All Voltages Reclaim or Replace.
initial value,
minimum value
(1250C).
Interfacial tension at
8 All Voltages 0.018 N/m (Min.) Reclaim or Replace.
270C
Note : Dissolved Gas Analysis (DGA) test is conducted to ascertain the healthiness
of Transformer and not of the Oil.

11.4 Significance of Various Routine Tests :

The significance of various routine tests such as Break Down Voltage Test, Test to find the
Water Content, Resistivity, Di-electric Dissipation Factor (Tan ), Acidity, Interfacial Tension
are described below.

11.4.1 Break Down Voltage (BDV) Test :

Break Down Voltage is the voltage at which the oil breaks down when subjected to an AC
electrical field with a continuously increasing voltage contained in a specific apparatus. The
voltage is expressed in KV.

Because of traditions, availability of the equipment and the simplicity of the

method, the BDV of an oil still ranks as the most common field and laboratory oil
screen test. However in reality the significance of the test is that it will only detect
free water, dirt and conductive particles not acids or sludges. Thus this test does not
give true indication of the deteriorated condition of the oil. An oil which is significantly
oxidised may show a high dielectric strength in the absence of moisture. The electric
strength is also affected by the presence of foreign particles, such as cellulose fibres, which
absorb moisture and orient themselves across point of stress and cause arcing. The
presence of oil deterioration particles, water and foreign contaminants results in a general
overall reduction in the efficiency of the apparatus. Normal methods of oil filtration only
maintain the electric strength but do not improve the deteriorated oil. It is therefore
inadvisable to solely rely on the electrical strength of the oil by periodic tests without
verifying its other characteristics.

BDV can reveal conductive contaminants, such as the rust or other metallic cuttings, dirt,
cellulosic fibres, filter dust or free water but it will not pinpoint the presence of dissolved
water below 80% saturation, acids or sludges.

Keeping in mind higher operating temperatures experience has shown that erroneous
conclusions can be drawn if the oil is tested at a temperature in excess of 400C because of
the phenomena of water solubility.

Sample of BDV should be protected from contact with light, air and moisture. The sample
should be drawn quickly kept in a sealed container and tested within a matter of few hours.

11.4.2 Water Content Test :

Water content is expressed as parts per million (ppm) w/w in oil. Water may originate from
the atmosphere or be produced by the deterioration of the insulating material. Its presence
in oil is harmful as it lowers the electric strength and resistivity of the oil and accelerates the
deterioration of the solid insulating materials, particularly paper.

A mineral oil of low water content is necessary to achieve adequate electrical strength to
maximize the insulation system life and to minimize metal corrosion.

11.4.3 Resistivity Test :

It is the ratio of the DC potential gradient in volts per centimeter paralleling the current flow
within the specimens to the current density in amperes per square centimeter at a given
instant of time and under prescribed conditions. This is numerically equal to the resistance
between opposite faces of a centimeter cube of the liquid. It is expressed in Cm.

Resistivity of transformer oils monitors the amount of conductive contaminants, such as

metal, salts, water, aldehydes, ketones and alcohols. Water content and acidity influence
the values of the specific resistance. An indication of the presence and effect of water
content can be obtained from a resistivity comparison at 270C and 900C. For any given oil
there is generally a relationship between Tan and resistivity. If the Tan increases, there is a
reduction in resistivity.

11.4.4 Dielectric Dissipation Factor (Tan ) Test :

Dielectric Dissipation Factor is a Tangent of the angle by which the phase difference
between applied voltage and resulting current deviates from /2 radian when the dielectric of
the capacitor consists exclusively of the transformer oil.

Measurements of Tan , Resistivity and to a lesser extent the interfacial tension of the oil
enable contamination due to polar substances to be detected and periodically assessed.
[Polar substances are oil soluble compounds resulting from the oxidation of the oil itself, or
from the solution in the oil of external contaminants or materials used in the construction of
the equipment].

Power factor has been a traditional field test. However this test measures the leakage
current through the oil, which is a measure of the contamination or deterioration. It does
tell the presence of polar materials but other tests must be made to determine what polar
compounds are present.

When water is held in solution no appreciable effect on the oil's power nor dielectric
strength may take place. However since oil oxidation further increases oil's ability to
dissolve moisture, some type of sludges have very little effect on the overall power factor.
This test is very sensitive to the presence in oil of the soluble contaminants and aging
products. Changes in this characteristic can be monitored regularly.

11.4.5 Acidity Test :

It is the measure of the free organic and inorganic acids present together in the oil. It is
expressed in terms of the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the total free
acids in one gram of the oil.

This is most common method that measures the acidity in transformers. The organic acids
are detrimental to the insulation system and can induce rusting of iron when moisture is
also present. An increase in neutralization number is an index to the rate of deterioration of
the oil. Sludge will be the inevitable product of an acid situation that is neglected.

A low acidity in oil is required to minimize electrical conduction and metal corrosion and to
maximize the life of the insulation system. How high acidity value can lead to sludge
formation is demonstrated in the following Table-11.3.5 (Historical Database indicating
relationship between Acidity and Sludge formation in Oil filled Transformers - 11 Years test
on 500 Transformers).

Table-11.4.5 :

Acidity
Percent of
S.No Units Sludged
mg of KOH/gm of 500
Oil
1 0.00 to 0.10 00 00
2 0.11 to 0.20 38 190
3 0.21 to 0.60 72 360
4 0.61 and above 100 500
11.4.6 Interfacial Tension Test :

It is a force necessary to detach a planar ring of platinum wire from the surface of the liquid
of higher surface tension that is upward from the water - oil surface. It is expressed in N/m
or Dynes/Cm.

The characteristic changes fairly rapidly during the first stages of aging. Afterwards the rate
of change decreases as the value themselves become lower.
The old workhorse of transformer oil quality testing is the less the tension. Interfacial
tension test results are thus related to the degree of the oils oxidation. The very first sign of
the sludge in solution may be in the range of 0.027 to 0.030 N/m while a badly sludging
deteriorated oil has an IFT of 0.018 N/m or less.

IFT test measures the tension at the interface between two immissible liquids oil and water
and is expressed in N/m. This test is extremely sensitive to the presence of oil decay
products and soluble polar contaminants from solid insulating materials.

Good clean oil will normally lay on top of water and will yield an IFT of 0.040 to 0.050 N/m.
Oil oxidation contaminants will lower the IFT even further. These contaminants are
hydrophilic which means they have an affinity for water molecules as well as for oil
molecules. At the interface the hydrophilic materials extend across to the water so that a
vertical linkage is established and thus the lateral linkage [Which makes up the surface
tension] is weakened. The interface is now less distinct and the tension at the interface is
reduced. The greater the concentration of contaminants less the tension. IFT values and
sludge formation can be understood from the following Table - 11.4.6 (Historical Database
indicating relationship between IFT and Sludge formation in Oil filled Transformers - 11
Years test on 500 Transformers).

Table-11.4.6 :

Interfacial
Tension Percent of
S.No Units Sludged
500
N/m
1 Below 0.014 100 500
2 0.014 to 0.016 85 425
3 0.016 to 0.018 69 345
4 0.018 to 0.020 35 175
5 0.020 to 0.022 33 165
6 0.022 to 0.024 30 150
7 Above 0.024 00 000
11.5 Relationship between Various Tests & Factors affecting Test Results :

The factors which affects the various test results are given in Table - 11.5 for a better
understanding of the results from interpretation point of view.

Table-11.5 :

Factors not
Factors Responsible
S.No Test Responsible for
for Results
Results
1 Break Down Voltage Free water, dirt, Dissolved water below
conductive particles 80% saturation, acids
and contaminants such and sludges.
as rust, metallic
 cuttings, filter dust.
Sludges, oxidation
products, oil decay
Dielectric Dissipation
2 products, Dissolved water.
Factor (Tan )
contaminants, free
water.
Contaminants such as
3 Resistivity metal salts, water in all -
forms, acids.
Hydrophilic
contaminants like
soluble polar impurities,
4 Interfacial Tension
oil decay products
dissolved sludge, -
oxidation by products.
Organic and inorganic
5 Acidity acids, KOH consuming -
impurities.
Free water, dissolved
6 Water -
water, combined water.
11.6 Dissolved Gas Analysis :

Gases may be formed in all oil-filled electrical equipment due to natural aging, but also to a
much greater extent as a result of faults; i.e. heat flux generated in the core winding. The
principal mechanisms of gases formation includes Oxidation, Vapourisation, Insulation
decomposition, Oil breakdown, and Electrolytic action.

Operation with a fault may seriously damage the equipment and it is valuable to be able to
detect the fault at an early stage of development.

Usually, under normal conditions, the gas dissolved in the transformer oil has the following
composition : Nitrogen - 70 to 79%, Oxygen - 20 to 30%, and Methane - 0.1 to 0.2%;
Hydrogen & Acetylene are absent. A sharp change in the composition (for example, 50 to
70% Hydrogen, 3 to 10% Methane, 10 to 25% Acetylene, 4 to 8% Oxygen) testifies to a
grave internal fault accompanied by arcing (insulation puncture, shorted turns, flashover in
the contact system of the tap-changer, etc.). In case of minor faults not accompanied by
violent oil decomposition and gas evolution, the gas composition may be : 2 to 5%
Hydrogen, 0.5 to 1% Methane, 0.5 to 2% Acetylene, 85 to 92% Nitrogen and 5 to 8%
Oxygen. Such gas composition bears witness to a fault, such as shorted parallel conductors
in the windings, poor contacts in the tap connections or soldered joints, or closed paths in
the magnetic system of the core, which, if not remedied, may eventually lead to serious
trouble.

In case of a fault, its type and its severity may often be inferred from the composition of the
gases and the rate at which they are formed. In the case of an incipient fault, the gases
formed remain partly dissolved in the liquid insulation; free gases will divide between the
gaseous and liquid phases by diffusion. Diffusion and achievement of saturation both take
time, during which serious damage to the equipment can occur undetected.
Periodic analysis of oil samples for the amount and composition of dissolved gases forms a
means of detecting faults. (Normally once in a year for transformers 10MVA & above rating)
.

Depending upon the energy released in the core upon the occurrence of faults, the gases
are also different. Normally the faults are of four types as per the energy releases are
concerned.

a. Arcing - Arc breakdown of insulating oil is charcterised by the production of hydrogen

and acetylene as the predominant fault gases. They are accompanied by some ethylene and
lesser amounts of other thermal products, depending to some degree, on the amount of
power follow through which accompanies the arc. The presence of Acetylene is the key
indicator of an arc.

b. Partial Discharges (Corona) - Low-energy electrical discharges produce mainly

hydrogen and methane, Hydrogen is the key indicator. Other fault gases like ethane and
ethylene may also be present in small quantities.

c. Overheated Oil - Decomposition products include ethylene and methane, with smaller
quantities of hydrogen and ethane. A large quantity of Ethylene is a key indicator and,
if the fault is severe, traces of acetylene may be present.

d. Overheated Cellulose - Large quantities of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are
evolved from overheated cellulose. Other gases will also be present if the fault involves an
oil-impregnated structure. As cellulose will degrade under normal transformer operating
temperatures, CO and CO2 will be found in significant quantities in healthy transformers. A
significant increase in the CO/CO2 ratio is usually a key indicator of overheated
cellulose.

11.6.1 Threshold fault gas levels :

Threshold fault gas levels of various gases for transformers which have been in service for a
few years, as suggested by Dornenberg and Strittmatter and the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation are mentioned below :

Dornenberg U.S Bureau

Fault Gas
S.No & of
Contents
Strittmatter Reclamation
1 Hydrogen - H2 200 ppm 500 ppm
2 Methane - CH4 50 ppm 125 ppm
3 Ethane - C2H6 35 ppm 75 ppm
4 Ethylene - C2H4 80 ppm 175 ppm
5 Acetylene - C2H2 5 ppm 15 ppm
Carbon monoxide-
6 500 ppm 750 ppm
CO
Carbon dioxide -
7 6,000 ppm 11,000 ppm
CO2
The age and history of the transformer must be considered in evaluating dissolved fault gas
data. The important factor is the rate of change of fault gas levels.
11.6.2 Analysis of Gas Dissolved in Oil :

A convenient basis for fault diagnosis is the calculation of ratios of the concentrations of the
gases present. The ratios used in the interpretation methods summerised in Table-11.6.2
are :

C2H2 , CH4 , C2H4

C2H4 H2 C2H6
This shows various limits of the ratios corresponding to normal aging and to various types of
fault from which a diagnosis of the nature of a fault may be obtained. The table also shows
a code for each range of the ratios of the characteristic gases; numerals have been
allocated so that 000 represents normal aging conditions.

Table-11.6.2 :

Code of Range of Ratios

Ratios of Characteristic
C2H2 CH4 C2H4
Gases
C2H4 H2 C2H6
< 0.1 0 1 0
0.1 to 1 1 0 0
1 to 3 1 2 1
>3 2 2 2
Case Characteristic Fault Typical Example
No
0 No fault 0 0 0 Normal ageing
Discharges in gas-filled cavities
Partial Discharges of low resulting from incomplete
1 0 1 0
energy density impregnation, or supersaturation
or cavitation or high humidity.
Partial discharges of high As above, but leading to tracking
2 1 1 0
energy density. or perforation of solid insulation.
Continuous sparking in oil between
bad connections of different
3 Discharges of low energy * 1-2 0 1-2 potential or to floating potential.
Breakdown of oil between solid
materials.
Discharges with power follow
through. Arcing-breakdown of oil
4 Discharges of high energy 1 0 2 between windings or coils or
between coils to earth. Selector
breaking current.
Thermal fault of low General insulated conductor over-
5 0 0 1
temperature < 150oC ** heating.
6 Thermal fault of low 0 2 0 Local over-heating of the core due
temperature 150oC to 300oC to concentrations of flux.
 Increasing hot-spot temperatures
*** varying from small hot-spots in
core, shorting links in core,
over heating of copper due to eddy
Thermal fault of medium
7 0 2 1 currents, bad contacts/joints
temperature 300oC to 700oC
(pyrolitic
Thermal fault of high carbon formation) up to core &
8 0 2 2
temperature > 700oC **** tank circulating currents.
For the purpose of this table there will be a tendency for the ratio C2H2/C2H4 to rise
* from a value between 0.1 and 3 to above 3 and for the ratio C2H4/C2H6 from a value
between 0.1 and 3 to above 3 as the spark develops in intensity.
In this case the gases come mainly from the decomposition of the solid insulation, this
**
explains the value of the ratio C2H4/C2H6.
This fault condition is normally indicated by increasing gas concentrations. Ratio
CH4/H2 is normally about 1, the actual value above or below 1 is dependent on many
***
factors such as design of oil, preservation system, actual level of temperature and oil
quality.
An increasing value of the amount of C2H2 may indicate that the hot point
****
temperature is higher than 1000oC.