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 Chapter 1.

SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES

-Chapter 1

SEISMIC PRINCIPLES

FIG. 1-1 COMPONENTS OF STRESS

In the above figure, the stress acting upon the faces can be resolved into
components. xy denotes stress parallel to the x- axis and perpendicular to y –axis.
The stress with the same subscripts is known as normal stress, and with different
subscripts are as shearing stress.

Strain:

Strain can be defines as the change occurred in shape and dimension due to
stress. There are certain fundamental type of strain, e.g. normal strain and shearing
strain.

Dilatation:

The change in volume per unit volume is called dilatation and it is represented
by .

Hook’s Law:

Within elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain. If we define Hook’s Law in


isotropic media, we get:

ii =  + 2 ii, i = x,y,z

Where  and  are known as Lame’s constant.

Elastic constant:

Young’s modulus, E = xx /xx

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–1


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES
For most materials, E is of the order of a mega bar (1012 dyne/cm2).
Poisson’s ratio ,  = yy = zz
xx xx

Under hydrostatic pressure, P,

xx = yy = zz = -P

xy = yz = zx = 0

Bulk modulus, K, is the ratio of the pressure to the dilatation.

K = -P/

Substituting these values into the Hook’s law, the following relations can be
obtained.

E = (3 + 2) ; ii =  . ; K = 3 + 2


( + ) 2( + ) 3

Above relations are strictly within static equilibrium state, where wave
equation comes in to remove that restrictions.

Seismic Wave

Wave is a ‘disturbance’ which travels through the media. When the


disturbance () is in terms of volume change, we denote =, and rotational is =c
along the x-axis.
The above is geometrical aspect of waves,  is also the function of time (t).
Rock particles deformation motion components using Laplacian transformation:

∂2ψ/∂t2 = 2ψ = ∂2 ψ /∂x2 + ∂2 ψ /∂y2 + ∂2 ψ /∂z2 …………………………..(1)

In one dimension Z in the second law of Newton of motion equation:

1/V2∂2 ψ /∂t2 = ∂2 ψ /∂z2 …………………………………………………. (2)


Solution:
ψ
= ei(wt – kz z)
= cos(wt-kzz) + i sin (wt-kzz) ……………………………(3)

kz : wave number of Z component


+ : propagation in +Z direction
- : propagation in –Z direction
Assumption:
Homogeneous isotropic medium

The simplest form of time variation can be expressed by sine or cosine, such as:

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–2


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES
 = A cos 2 k (x – Vt);
 = A sin 2k (1x + my + nz - Vt);
 = B/r cos 2k (r + Vt)

Where A or B/r means the amplitude of the wave ().

He following terms are frequently used in seismic survey.

Wave length,  = 1/k,


where k is wave number, k = 2/

Period, T = /V

Frequency,  = V/

Type of Seismic Waves:

a) Body wave (P wave and S wave)


b) Surface wave (rayleigh and Love wave)

P wave is known by various name such as dilatational, longitudinal, irrotational,or


compressional. It is the first event during an earthquake recording. P wave is defined
as,

 =   + 2

S wave or shear, transverse, rotational wave is the second event observed in an


earthquake records. S wave is defined as,

  

 is always larger than .

If B/d =  ,

2 =2 / 2 =  x  . =  . = ½-
  + 2 + 2 1-

As  tend to zero, value increase up to maximum value, 1/2


Thus, the S wave ranges from zero up to 70% of P wave velocity.
S wave does not propagate through fluids, as  = 0.

Surface wave include Rayleigh waves or Love waves known as ground roll,
which travel along the free surface of the solid materials.

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–3


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES
The amplitude of the Rayleigh waves decreases exponentially with depth.
Surface waves are usually found in reflection records with velocities ranging from
100 – 1,000 m/sec. Approximately.
For the interpretation purpose, the surface waves are essential to eliminate
during recording and processing. Propagation of the Love wave is horizontal and
transverse with the speed of S wave. It is very seldom to get the Love wave in the
course of seismic prospecting because only vertical ground motion is recorded. Love
wave is taken up during the earthquake seismology observation.

Seismic Noise

In seismic records, there are two types of information, signal and noise.

Coherent Noise follows across few traces, whereas incoherent noise is


dissimilar on all traces. However, closely spaced geophones will give some extent
coherent look incoherent noise or random noise. In case of random noise, sum of n
random signal is proportional to n because random noise is out of phase. Whereas
sum of n- coherent in phase signal is equal to n. Therefore,

S/N = n / n = n
Attenuation of noise is done by adding several random noise, which cancel
with each other as they are out of phase. Common depth point method is widely used
and is very effective in cancelling several kinds of noise.

Wave Fronts and Ray

FIG. 1-2 WAVE FRONTS AND RAYS


Wavefronts are the expanding spheres of energy emanating from the source.
Rays are lines that represent the direction of propagation of the wavefronts, and are
perpendicular to the wavefronts.

If we begin at the source and connect points on successive wave fronts by


perpendicular lines, we have the directional description of the wave propagation. The

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–4


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES
connecting lines form a ray, which is a simple representation of a three-dimensional
phenomenon.
Remember that when we use a ray diagram we are referring to the wave
propagation in that particular direction; that is, that wave fronts are perpendicular to
the ray at all points.

Spherical Divergence

1/V2∂2 ψ /∂t2 = 1 ∂/∂r (r2 - ∂ ψ /∂r)


r

Solution is ψ = 1 f (r –Vt)
r

A : SPHERICAL WAVE FRONT


B : PLANE WAVE FRONT
ASSUME A ≈ B
VALID FOR r LARGE
OR NORMAL INCIDENCE
SPHERICAL DIVERGENCE
CORRECTION MADE IN
PROCESSING

FIG. 1-3 SPHERICAL DIVERGENCE

Elasticity

Seismic exploration naturally depends on the propagation of waves in elastic


media. We shall consider the elastic properties of rocks as if they were homogeneous
and isotropic, elasticity theory becomes more complicated without these assumptions.
In seismic exploration the continuities in the measured effects serve to indicate
any departures from uniform conditions which are interpreted in terms of depth,
nature or attitude of geologic units below the surface.
The elastic properties of matter are described by elastic constant formula as
follows:

 = k – 2/3 = E . (5)
(1 + )(1 - 2)

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–5


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES

k =  + 2/3 = E . (6)
(1 + )(1 - 2)

n =  = E . (7)
2(1 - 2)

E = (3 + 2) (8)


( + )

 =  . = E -1 (9)
2( + ) 2

Where: k - Bulk modulus


n - Shear modulus (Rigidity)
E - Young’s modulus
 - Poisson’s ratio
, - Lame’s constants

Elastic wave is composed of several sorts:

Body wave is the wave which is transmitted through the body of material and
consisted of two waves:

 Longitudinal wave or P-Wave for which the motions of the particles of


medium are parallel to the direction of propagation.

Vp =  k – 4/3 n =   + 2
   = density

 Transverse (Shear) or secondary wave or S-wave for which the motion


of particles of the medium are perpendicular to the direction of
propagation
Velocity of S-wave is:

Vs =  n/ = E 1 .
 2(1 + )

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–6


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES
Motion characteristics Motion characteristics

Compressional or P wave Rotational or Shear waves

FIG. 1-4. COMPRESSIONAL AND SHEAR WAVES

Surface wave is the wave at boundary, and consisted of two waves:

 Rayleigh waves (R) are waves at surface of semi-infinite elastic solid.


The motion is a sort of combination of longitudinal and transverse
vibrations giving rise to an ellipsoidal motion of the particle; the
velocity of R-wave is:

VR = 0.9194  / if the special case of  = ¼

Particle motion is elliptical and retrograde, that is the motion at the top of the ellipse is toward the
source. The magnitude of the motion decreases with depth.

FIG. 1-5 RAYLEIGH WAVE (GROUND ROLL)

 Love wave (L-wave) are transverse waves propagated in surface,


which depend on the wavelength and vary between that of transverse
waves in the surface layer and that of transverse waves in the lower
medium. The ratio of velocities of longitudinal wave (P-wave) and
transverse wave (S-wave) is:

Vp = k/n + 4/3 =   + 2 =  (1 - )
Vs  (1/2 - )

If  = 0.25, the ratio will be Vp/Vs =  3 = 1.73

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–7


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES
For other values of Poisson’s ratio, the velocity ratios are:
 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Vp/Vs 1.41 1.50 1.63 1.87 2.45 

If  = ¼, the ratios of the velocities of the 3 types of waves are:

VP : VL : VR = 1 : 0.5773 : 0.5308

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients - Zoeppritzs Equation

The relative portions of the energy transmitted and reflected are determined by
the contrast in the acoustic impedances of the rocks on each side of the interface. It is
difficult to precisely relate acoustic impedance to tangible rock properties but, the
harder the rock the higher is the acoustic impedance.
The acoustic impedance of a rock is the product of its density and the velocity
of longitudinal or compressional seismic wave through it, V, designated Z.
Consider a P-ray of amplitude A 0, normally incident on an interface between two
media of differing velocities and densities.
A transmitted of ray of amplitude A2 travels on through the interface in the
same direction as the incident ray, and a reflected ray of amplitude A 1 returns to the
source along the path of the incident ray.

(A) NORMAL INCIDENCE (B) P AND S WAVES

(A) REFLECTED AND TRANSMITTED WAVES ASSOCIATED WITH A WAVE


NORMALLY INCIDENT ON AN INTERFACE OF ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE CONTRAST
(B) REFLECTED AND REFRACTED P- AND S- WAVES GENERATED BY A P-WAVE
OBLIQUELY INCIDENT ON AN INTERFACE OF ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE CONTRAST

FIG. 1-6 ZOEPRITZ’S EQUATIONS

The transmission coefficient is the ratio of the amplitude to the incident amplitude:

T = A2/A1

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–8


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES
When a P-ray strike an interface at an angle, both reflected and transmitted P-
rays are generated as in the case of normal incidence. However, some of incident
compressional energy is converted to the reflected and transmitted shear rays which
are polarized in vertical plane. Zoeppritzs equation gives the amplitudes of the four
components as a function of the angle of incidence. The converted rays contain
information that can help identifying fractured zones in the reservoir rocks. In this
text, however, we shall discuss compressional waves only.

Snells Law

Snells Law, originally applied to light and optics, applies equally well to
seismic waves and the earth. For a reflected ray, Snells Law states that the angle 
between the reflected ray and the normal to reflecting surface is equal to angle
between the reflected the incident ray and the normal to reflecting surface. In
seismology, of course, the reflecting surface is the boundary between two layers
having different acoustic impedances.

(A) SNELL’S LAW (B) CRITICAL ANGLE

(A) Part of an obliquely incident ray is reflected at the angle of incidence. And part is
transmitted at an angle that depends on the ratio of the velocities in the two layers.
(b) A head wave is generated in the upper layer by a wave propagating through the lower
layer along the boundary.

FIG. 1-7 SNELL’S LAW AND CRITICAL ANGLE

Critical Angle and Head Waves

When the velocity is higher in the underlying layer there is a particular angle
of incidence, known as the “critical angle”, c , for which that angle of refraction is
900. This gives rise to critically-refracted ray that travels along the interface at the
higher velocity V2 with equation as follows:

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1–9


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES

(Sin c/V1 = (Sin 900)/V2


c = Sin-1(V1/V2)

This wave, known as a “head wave”, passed up obliquely through the upper layer
toward the surface, as shown in figure 1-7 (b).

Reflection Travel Time

The underlying principle of reflection method is as simple as that of


calculating the distance of, say a wall by time required for en echo to be reflected
back from the wall and the speed of propagation of sound waves.
Let’s calculate travel time and thickness of subsurface layer parallel to surface
(see figure 1-8):

E X G

hO

FIG. 1-8
R

Travel time = T(ERG) = t = ER + RG


V0 V0

= 2  (X2/4 + h20 t =  ( X2 – 4h20)


V0 V0

h0 = 1  (V20t2 – X2)
2

The portion of the incident energy that is not reflected is transmitted ray
travels through the second layer. The transmitted ray travels though the second layer
with changed direction of propagation, and is referred to as a refracted ray.
Snells law of refraction states that the ratio of sine of the angle  to the velocity is a
constant. For a refracted P-ray;

(Sin 1)/V1 = (Sin 2)/V2

Sin 1 /Sin 2 = V1/V2

were the subscripts refer to layer 1 and layer 2, respectively. See figure 1-7 (a).
Refraction

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1 – 10


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES

In the refraction method of seismic prospecting, the quantity observed is the


time between the initiation of the seismic wave by an explosion and the first
disturbance indicates by seismic detector at a measured distance from the shot point.
In general, the refractions take place according to Snell’s law (see figure 2-2):

i,r (or 1,  2) - the angles between the normal to boundary and the rays
V0 ,V1 - velocities of different medium

In horizontal plane and discontinuity, refraction will be determined by (see Fig.2):

FIG. 1-9

TE = T(EABG) = f (x, ho, V0 ,V1)

= EA + AB + BG
V0 V1 V0

= 2 ho . + X - 2 h tan 0.1
V0 cos0.1 V1 V1

= X + 2 ho - 2 ho sin0.1 sin0.1
V1 V0 cos0.1 cos0.1 V0

TE = X + 2 ho ( 1 - sin20.1 )
V1 V0 cos0.

Travel time = TE = X + 2 ho cos0.1


V1 V0

Thickness ho can be calculated as follows:

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1 – 11


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES

Intercept time (I):

I= 2 ho cos0.1
V0

ho = I V0 = I V0 V1 .
2cos0.1 2  V1–V0
2 2

ho = 1 I V0 V1 .
2  V21 – V20

Huygens Principle

This principles states that every point on the primary wave front surface is a
source of secondary wavelets. The position of the wave front at a later instant then is
found by constructing a surface tangent to all secondary wavelets. This concept is a
very powerful tool for understanding all types of wave propagation, from
electromagnetic waves to seismic waves.
Huygens principle, illustrated in figure 1-13, regards each point on the
advancing subsurface wave as a source that generates a new wavefront, which radiate
in all directions. It explains one of the most important mechanism by which a
propagating seismic pulse loses energy with depth.

Spreading primary wavefronts Secondary wavefronts

FIG. 1-13 HUYGENS PRINCIPLE


Diffraction

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1 – 12


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.
 Chapter 1. SEISMIC
PRINCIPLES

When seismic waves strike any irregularity along a surface such as a corner or
a point where there is a sudden charge of curvature, the irregular feature acts as a
point source for radiating waves in all directions in accordance.
Figure 1-14 illustrates a buried corner at A, from which waves, exited by
radiation downward from a source at the surface, spread out in all directions paths
which are rectilinear as long as the velocity is constant. A diffracted wave reaches the
surface first at a point directly above the edge because the path is the shortest at this
point. The amplitude of a diffracted wave falls off rapidly with distance from the
nearest point to the source; diffracted events are frequently observed on seismic
records but not always recognized.

FIG. 1-14

EXPLORATION GEOPHYSICS FOR GEOLOGIST AND ENGINEER 1 – 13


Course Instructor: DR. Prihadi S.A.

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