MATERIALS

VALVE BODY MATERIALS

The choice of material is usually based upon requirements for pressure, temperature, resistance to corrosion,
abrasion and method of manufacture. A material which is resistant to abrasion may have little resistance to
corrosion for a particular fluid. Some fluids necessitate the use of special, costly materials or materials which
pose manufacturing difficulties in order to prevent severe corrosion damage to the valve. The majority of
process flu- ids do not impose excessive requirements with regard to pressure, temperature and corrosion,
which is why cast iron and cast carbon steel are the most common materials used. When specifying materials it
is always advisable to quote a well-known standard designation. In the tables below are reported the common
materials used for valve body. The UNS and ASTM designations are quoted for each material.

CARBON AND STAINLESS STEEL

Major chemical Forging spec. Casting spec.
Group Material Generic Name UNS spec.
constituents (ASTM) (ASTM)
Carbon steel CS C-Mn-Fe K03504 A105/A105N A216 WCB
A352 LCA
Low tempera-
LTCS C-Mn-Fe K03011 A350 LF2 A352 LCB
ture carbon steel
A352 LCC
316 13Cr-12Ni-
S31600 A182 F316 A351 CF8M
Austenitic St. St. 2Mo
300 series 316L 13Cr-12Ni-
S31603 A182 F316L A351 CF3M
2Mo
Duplex 2205 22Cr-5Ni-3Mo-N S31803 A182 F51 A890-J92205
Stainless steel Super Duplex A351-CD4MCu
25Cr-7Ni-4Mo-N S32750 A182 F53
2507 A890 5A
Super Austenitic A182-F44 A351-
20Cr-18Ni-6Mo S31254 A182 F44
6Mo CK3MCuN

SPECIAL AND EXOTIC MATERIALS

Major chemical Forging spec. Casting spec.
Group Material Generic Name UNS spec.
constituents (ASTM) (ASTM)
Incoloy 800 33Ni-42F e 21 Cr N08800 B564-N08800 -
Nickel-Iron
Alloy 42Ni-21.5Cr-3Mo
Incoloy 825 N08825 B564-N08825 A494-CU5MCuC
-2.3Cu
Nickel Nickel 99/95Ni N02200 B160-N02200 A94-Cz-100
Monel 400 N04400 B564-N04400 A94-M35-1
Nickel-Copper 67Ni-30Cu
Monel 500 N05500 B564-N05500 -
Inconel 600 72Ni-15Cr-8Fe N06600 B564-N06600 A94-CY40
Nickel 60Ni-22Cr-9Mo-
Inconel 625 N06625 B564-N06625 A94-CW-6MC
Superalloys .5Cb
Hastelloy C-276 54Ni-15Cr-16Mo N10276 B564-N10276 A94-CW-2M

Titanium 98Ti R50400 B381-GR2 B367-C2

Titanium
Ti6-4 90Ti 4÷6Al R56400 B381-GR5 -
MATERIALS

VALVE TRIM MATERIALS

When selecting materials, always keep within the temperature limitations specified and make sure that the
material combinations are suitable. Because the material for the valve trim is often selected with regard to its
resistance to abrasion or cavitation, it is essential that the material combination is compatible, i.e. they resist
wear and galling in combination. The process fluid may, or may not, possess lubricating qualities which can assist
with both wear and galling. Lube oil or ethylene glycol will assist some combinations whereas steam or paraffin
will have little effect. 304 and 316 stainless steel can be surface treated to increase the hardness to about 1100
Hv. The treatment does not impair the corrosion resistance. The ability to improve the hardness dramatically
means both materials can be used as trim and self-mated without the associated risks of galling.
Soft, non-metallic materials are used for valve seats or seat inserts when it is necessary to have a completely
leak-free valve. Choice of the correct material requires detailed knowledge of the process fluid and conditions.

TRIM MATERIALS
Major chemical con- Forging spec.
Group Material Generic Name UNS spec.
stituents (ASTM)
Carbon Steel CS + E.N.P. C-Mn-Fe + E.N.P. Electroless Nickel Plating 75 µ to ASTM B 733
Low Temperature
LTCS + E.N.P. C-Mn-Fe + E.N.P. Electroless Nickel Plating 75 µ to ASTM B 733
Carbon Steel
26
Incoloy 800 33Ni-42F e 21 Cr N08800 B564-N08800
Nickel-Iron Alloy
Incoloy 825 42Ni-21.5Cr-3Mo-2.3Cu N08825 B564-N08825
Nickel Nickel 99/95Ni N02200 B160-N02200
Monel 400 N04400 B56-N04400
Nickel-Copper 67Ni-30Cu
Monel 500 N05500 B564-N05500
Inconel 600 72Ni-15Cr-8Fe N06600 B564-N06600
Nickel
Inconel 625 60Ni-22Cr-9Mo-.5Cb N06625 B564-N06625
Superalloys
Hastelloy C-276 54Ni-15Cr-16Mo N10276 B564-N10276
Titanium 98Ti R50400 B381-GR2
Titanium
Ti6-4 90Ti 4÷6Al R56400 B381-GR5
Alloy steel 4140 1Cr0,25Mo0,40C0,81Mn UNS G41400 AISI 4140
MATERIALS

SEAL MATERIALS

The choice of seal material is critical to the ultimate success of any sealing system. The "valve normal" operating
conditions are usually well-established and can be used for seal selection. However, operation through process
upsets is often forgotten; how much do pressure and temperature change? How quickly and for how long? If a
sealing system is intended to survive a short upset excursion and remain effective, the conditions must be
evaluated during initial selection. Other non-operational conditions may have a dramatic effect on seal life :

1st cleaning with steam

2nd cleaning with chemicals
3rd sterilizing

The valve seal does not differentiate between operational and non-operational conditions. It is exposed to
temperature, pressure, fluid and spindle/stem movement, or the lack of movement. The correct material
selection can only be made after the valve "life style" has been thoroughly examined. Failure to consider any
aspect of "life style" can result in unscheduled stops for maintenance, loss of production and high costs for
spare parts.
Standard seal material options as follows:

GENERAL

GENERAL ( SEALING )
Generic SERVICE TEM-
DESIGNATION APPLICATION
Name PERATURE
Graphite can be produced as plain fibre and braided to form a
self-lubricating high temperature packing, up to 340 °C for
general applications. In an inert environment, ambient air
excluded, temperatures up to 500 °C are possible. Graphite can
Graphite
be braided with PTFE fibres and lubricated for medium
pressure universal applications up to 260°C Pressures up to
400 barg over the full pH range are possible. Typical
applications include
high pressure steam valves.
Spiral wound Stainless steel 316 with graphite filler
Metallic
Ring Joint NSSL can provide RJ in any material designation
MATERIALS

ELASTOMERS

ELASTOMER ( SEALING )
Generic SERVICE TEM-
DESIGNATION APPLICATION
Name PERATURE
Also known as acrylonitrile rubber, nitrile content can vary
from18% to 50%. Higher nitrile content rubbers are suitable for
petrol and petroleum products. An oil-resistant synthetic
Nitrile rubber N.B.R. 0° to + 80°[C] rubber produced from a copolymer of acrylonitrile and
butadiene. Its main applications are in fuel hoses, gaskets,
rollers, and other products in which oil resistance is required.
HNBR has also been widely employed in industrial sealing for
oil field exploration and processing, as well as rolls for steel
Hydrogenated H.N.B.R. -40° to + 150°[C]
and paper mills. HNBR fulfill “Explosive decompression
Nitrile
Application” requirements.
Compounds with excellent resistance to petroleum products,
acids, alkalies and many solvents . Viton is generally
compatible with hydrocarbon compatible with Ketones such as
Viton® F.K.M (F.P.M.) -40° to + 150°[C] ace- tone and organic such as acetic acid. O-rings made of
Viton are typically color coded as black, but new gaskets, seals
28
and O- rings should be green FKM or black FKM, but with a
green mark on the outer edge. The name is a registered
trademark of DuPont Performance Elastomers L.L.C.
Chemraz® Fluoro-elastomers are more expensive than neoprene or nitrile
Karlez® F.F.K.M. -20° to + 220°[C] rubber elastomers partly because they provide additional heat
and chemical resistance.

- Designations as per ISO 1629 / ASTM D 1418

MATERIALS
THERMOPLASTICS

THERMOPLASTIC ( SEALING )
SERVICE
NSSL DESIGNATION APPLICATION
TEMPERATURE
Attacked by molten alkaline metals, such as
sodium, and some halogenated compounds.
Cannot be moulded, with the exception of some
of its very similar alloys. Seals are machined from
solid. its unsurpassed lubricating qualities assist
P.T.F.E Polytetrafluoroethylene -100° to + 180÷220°[C] with dry operation. PTFE has poor resilience but
excel- lent chemical resistance. The resilience
problem can be overcome by applying a PTFE
coating to a more elastic core, such as graphite,
natural or synthetic rubber, silicone rubber or
Viton®.
Reinforced PTFE seats are made with glass filled
Polytetrafloroethylene.
R.P.T.F.E./glass -100° to + 180÷250°[C] PTFE (20%). They are harder than virgin PTFE.
glass filled
White in colour with green or blue speckles.
R.P.T.F.E. / Polytetrafl uoroethylene Reinforced PTFE with 20% carbon and 5%
-100° to + 180÷250°[C] Graphite. These seats are black in colour
carbon graphite carbon-graphite fi lled
Delrin® bridges the gap between metals and
ordinary plastics with a unique combination of
Polyoxymethylene creep resistance, strength, stiffness, hardness,
-57° to + 85°[C]
POM (Delrin®) acetal resin dimensional stability, toughness, fatigue
resistance, solvent and fuel resistance, abrasion
resistance,
low wear and low friction. No oxygen service.
Limited in temperature service, Nylon G12 is
Nylon 12G Polyamide -50° to + 120°[C]
suggested for high pressure instead of PTFE
At high temperature material with good abrasion
resistance and low coefficient of friction. Good
Devlon® Polyamide -100° to + 150°[C]
resistance to hydrocarbon products. Similar to
Nylon 12G but with a wide range of temperature.
Low wear at high bearing, low coefficient of
15% Graphite Filled friction, long term thermal stability, outstanding
Vespel® Sp21 -100° to + 340°[C]
Polyimide performance with or without lubrication, good
strength.
PEEK is a semi-crystalline thermoplastic with
excellent mechanical and chemical resistance
properties that are retained to high
PEEK Polyetheretherketone -100° to + 260°[C] temperatures. The Young’s modulus is 3.9 GPa
and its tensile strength 90 to 100 MPa. PEEK is
used to fabricate items used in demanding
applications, including
bearings piston parts, valves and pumps.
PCTFE (Kel-F®) Polyclorotrifluoroethilene -250° to + 150°[C] Recommended for cryogenic services.
Outstanding abrasion resistance, superior impact
Ultra High Molecular resistance, non-sticking and self-lubricating
UHMWPE -200° to + 80°[C]
Weight Polyethylene properties and excellent mechanical properties,
even
in cryogenic conditions
- Designations as per ISO 1043.1 / ASTM D 1600
MATERIALS

ABOUT CORROSION

The name NACE (originally known as the National Association of Corrosion Engineers) has become synonymous
with the requirement to combat Sulphide Stress Cracking, SSC, even though NACE produces more information
on all forms of corrosion. The NACE Standard MR-01-75 is applied to equipment which is exposed to hydrogen
sulphide. In very broad terms, sulphide stress cracking is a problem for materials which have been hardened and
tempered to increase strength. The main thrust of the NACE requirements is to limit material hardness.
In oilfield applications, fluids are divided into two major groups:

1. sweet
2. sour

Sweet fluids contain no hydrogen sulphide. Sour fluids contain hydrogen sulphide, usually as a trace element.
The percentage of hydrogen sulphide and the partial pressure are important factors in the probability of SSC.
NACE excludes the use of cast iron for pressure containment as well as the use of free-machining variety of
steels. For carbon steels, the hardness is restricted to 22 HRc, which is approximately 238 BHN. Welded
components must be stress relieved to ensure the heat-affected-zone (HAZ), meets the hardness limit.
Alternatively, the carbon content can be restricted to less than 0.18% which effectively removes the gardening
possibility. With carbon steels, compliance with NACE does not create problems. Major problems are present
with alloy steels. Consider bolting : AISI 4140, ASTM A193 B7 is the most popular bolt/stud material. NACE limits
the hardness to 22 HRc when the normal hardness would be 24 to 32 HRC. The reduction in hardness produces
a reduction in strength; the ultimate strength will be reduced from 850/1000 MPa to about 770 MPa
maximum. This means a bolted connection will only have approximately 90% of the strength. Equipment
working close to the pressure limit may require alternative, better materials. The austenitic stainless steels
cannot be work hardened to increase the strength. Again, this can be a major problem for bolting and similar bar
components. SSC is gen- erally a problem experienced by materials in tension. Valve seats, pressed into the
body, will be in compression and should not be susceptible to SSC.
When NACE requirements are applied to a valve the design must be checked, not just the materials. Changing from B7
studs to B7M studs may create new problems while eliminating the SSC issue.

A list of some popular materials with their respective hardness limitations can be found in Table 13.2 of NACE.

Typical example of Intergranular

Cracking due to Stress Corrosion
in correspondence of the grain
boundary
MATERIALS

ABOUT CORROSION

Causes of premature fracture influenced by the corrosion of a structural component.

Two basic corrosion reactions, anodic and cathodic, dominate the SCC process in conjunction with mechanical
stress. The chemical composition of the environment, including pH and the presence of hydrogen recombination
poisons that affect the cathode reaction product, and the composition and metallurgical condition of the metal
determine which of the two partial corrosion reactions is dominant. Anodic SCC (active path corrosion) involves
the dissolution of metal during the initiation and propagation of cracks. Cathodic SCC (embrittlement by
corrosion product hydrogen) involves the deposition of hydrogen at cathodic sites on the metal surface or on the
walls of a fissure or crack and its subsequent absorption into the metal lattice.
MATERIALS

ABOUT CORROSION

Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) is a term used to describe service failures in engineering materials that occur by
slow environmentally induced crack propagation. The observed crack propagation is the result of the combined
and synergistic interaction of mechanical stress and corrosion reactions. This is a simple definition of a complex
subject, and like most simplifications, it fails
to identify the boundaries of the subject. As
a result, before this problem can be dis-
cussed in detail, one must clearly define the
type of loading involved, the types of
materials involved, the types of
environments that cause this type of crack
propagation, and the nature of the
interactions that result in this phenomenon.
The term stress-corrosion cracking is
frequently used to describe any type of
environmentally induced or assisted crack
propagation.

Effect of strain rate on SCC and hydrogen-induced

32 cracking

MATERIAL ENVIROMENT
Carbon steel Hot nitrate, hydroxide, and carbonate/bicarbonate solutions
High-strength steels Aqueous electrolytes, particularly when containing H2S
Austenitic stainless steels Hot, concentrated chloride solutions; chloride-contaminated steam
High-nickel alloys High-purity steam
a-brass Ammoniacal solutions
Aluminium alloys Aqueous Cl-, Br-, and I- solutions
Titanium alloys Aqueous Cl-, Br-, and I- solutions; organic liquids; N2O4
Magnesium alloys Aqueous Cl- solutions
Zirconium alloys Aqueous Cl- solutions; organic liquids; I2 at 350 °C (660 °F)

In general, SCC is observed in alloy-environment combinations that result in the formation of a film on the metal
surface. These films may be passivating layers, tarnish films, or dealloyed layers. In many cases, these films re-
duce the rate of general or uniform corrosion, making the alloy desirable for resistance to uniform corrosion in
the environment. As a result, SCC is of greatest concern in the corrosion-resistant alloys exposed to aggressive
aqueous environments.
MATERIALS

ABOUT CORROSION

Schematic of a typical time to failure as a

function of initially applied stress for smooth
sample stress corrosion cracking tests

Schematic diagram of typical crack propagation

rate as a function of crack tip stress intensity
behavior illustrating the regions of stage 1, 2,
and 3 crack propagation as well as identifying
the plateau velocity and the threshold stress
intensity.

Crack Initiation at Surface Discontinuities. Stress-corrosion cracking frequently initiates at preexisting or

corrosion-induced surface features. These features may include grooves, laps, or burrs resulting from fabrication
processes. Examples of such features are shown in Fig. 1; these were produced during grinding in the
preparation of a joint for welding. The feature shown in Fig. (a) is a lap, which subsequently recrystallized during
welding and could now act as a crevice at which deleterious cations concentrate. The highly sensitized
recrystallized material could also more readily become the site of crack initiation by intergranular corrosion. A
cold-worked layer and surface burrs, shown in Fig. (b), can also assist crack initiation.

Metallographic examination:
❶
optical micrographs showing
defects on the inner surface
of type 304 stainless steel
pipe near weld root (a) and
near through crack (b).
DEFINITIONS
Annealing
Heating steel to, and holding at a suitable temperature, followed
by relatively slow cooling. The purpose of annealing may be to
remove stresses, to soften the steel, to improve machining, to
improve cold working properties, to obtain a desired structure.
The annealing process usually involves allowing the steel to cool
slowly in the furnace.
Anti-static design
A design which provides electrical continuity for the moving
valve components and across the valve body to the connected
piping.
ANSI
The American National Standards Institute, the National
Standards Authority of the USA.
API
The American Petroleum Institute
ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM
American Society for Testing and Materials
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is standardised, technically, at 101.325
kPa (absolute), equivalent to 14.696 psi( a). Remember! This is
the pressure at sea level. Equipment working at altitude will not
experience the same atmospheric pressure. Also the local
atmospheric pressure changes with the weather. Local values
are
34 likely to vary from 94 to 108 kPa at sea level.
Austempering
Quenching from a temperature above the transformation range
to a temperature above the upper limit of martensite formation,
and holding at this temperature until the austenite is completely
transformed to the desired intermediate structure, for the
purpose of conferring certain mechanical properties.
Austenite
A face centred cubic crystal structure found in chrome-nickel
stainless steels.
Austenitic stainless steel
Steels containing high percentages of certain alloying elements
such as manganese and nickel which are austenitic at room
temperature and cannot be hardened by normal heat-treatment
but do work harden. They are also non-magnetic in the annealed
condition and very corrosion resistant. Chromium content
usually falls between 16 and 26% and nickel content less than
35%. Typical examples of austenitic steels include the 18/8
stainless steels and 14 % manganese steel. Work gardening or
welding may induce some magnetism.
Back pressure
The pressure at the safety valve outlet. This can be expressed as
a percentage of the fluid inlet pressure or as a specific pressure.
Back pressure is very important and has a significant effect on
valve performance.
Blowdown valve
A valve which permits pressurised fluid to be released to the
environment.
Bolted gland
A gland which is attached to the bonnet by two or more bolts or
studs. Because of the difficulty of maintaining exact alignment
on adjustable versions some form of spherical bearing on the
packing follower is recommended.
Bonnet
The component attached to the valve body through which the
stem or spindle passes and has locations for mounting the
actuator. The bonnet includes the packing box which is
equivalent to the stuffing box on a pump or compressor. The
bonnet can be threaded, flanged, union, clamped, breech-lock or
welded to the body. Special valves can have the bonnet retained
by shear rings. Braided packing
Strands or filaments, all running in the same longitudinal
direction, that are twisted together to form square or
rectangular sections. Various types of braiding are possible to
produce harder, stiffer or softer, more pliable, packing. The
braiding can be applied over a soft or hard central core.
Reinforced corners can be incorporated. The strands can be
coated with solid or fluid lubricant to extend operating
conditions. Metallic strands can be included for reinforcement
and to improve heat transfer. Braided packing can be extruded
to compress the section and control the finished size. Braided
packing is generally supplied as a continuous length, 5 to 20 m,
depending upon the cross section. Sealing rings are produced by
cutting the required length from the coil.
Breakaway force
The force required on a linear motion sealing element to open
the valve against maximum differential pressure.
Breakaway torque
The torque required on a rotary motion sealing element to open
the valve against maximum differential pressure.
Bright drawing
The process of drawing hot rolled steel through a die to impart
close dimensional tolerances, a bright, scale free surface, and
improved mechanical properties. The product is termed bright.
Built-up back pressure
The pressure experienced at the safety valve outlet when
passing 100% flow, due to friction losses in attached pipework
and any static back pressure.
Butt fusion weld
A thermal welding technique used with some non-metallic
piping systems. Materials such as polypropylene can be welded
by using electric heaters. Machines can join 1200 mm diameter
pipe.
Butt weld joint
A welded joint between two components usually of the same
diameter and with identical weld preparations; for example, a
connection between two pipes or a pipe and a fitting. Welded
pipe can be manufactured with a butt weld joint. A pipe or a
fitting can be butt welded to a flat surface without a weld
preparation but this form is not acceptable to many purchasers.
Butt weld pipe joints can be the highest integrity connection, if
proved by suitable NDE, or NDT, such as 100% radiography.
Butt fusion weld
A thermal welding technique used with some non-metallic
piping systems. Materials such as polypropylene can be welded
by using electric heaters. Machines can join 1200 mm diameter
pipe.
C
The chemical symbol for the element carbon; alloyed with iron
to produce cast iron and steel. Carbon increases the strength of
iron and steel and can increase the hardness.
DEFINITIONS
Carbo-nitriding
A case-hardening process in which steel components are heated
in an atmosphere containing both carbon and nitrogen.
Carbon steel
A steel whose properties are determined primarily by the
amount of carbon present. Apart from iron and carbon,
manganese up to 1.5% may be present as well as residual
amounts of alloying elements such as nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, etc. It is when one or more alloying elements are
added in sufficient amount that it is classed as an alloy steel.
Case-hardening
The process of hardening the surface of steel whilst leaving the
interior unchanged. Both carbon and alloy steels are suitable for
case-hardening providing their carbon content is low, usually up
to a maximum of 0.2%. Components subject to this process,
particularly in the case of alloy steels, have a hard, wear-
resistant surface with a tough core.
Cast iron
A definition can be applied that cast iron is an alloy of iron and
carbon in which the carbon is in excess of the amount that can
be retained in solid solution in austenite at the eutectic
temperature. Carbon is usually present in the range of 1.8% to
4.5%. In addition, silicon, manganese, sulfur and phosphorus are
contained in varying amounts. Various types of cast iron are
covered by many of the National Standard authorities and
include grey, malleable and white irons. Elements such as nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, vanadium can be added to produce
alloy cast irons.
CE
Carbon equivalent, an assessment made of carbon and carbon
manganese steels used in a sour environment (H2S present),
according to the percentages of the constituents:
CE = C + Mn/6 + (Cr + Mo + V )/5 + (Ni + Cu)/15
Change-over valve
A valve with three connections which allows one circuit to be
connected to one of a possible two circuits. The circuit not
connected is isolated. Valves of this type are frequently built into
equipment such as duplex filters. The change-over valve allows
one filter element to be used while the other is cleaned or re-
placed. In the case of duplex filters, two change-over valves are
ganged together. An inlet change-over valve is ganged with an
outlet change-over valve so that two filters work with one inlet
and outlet process connection. Very special change-over valves
are available to be used with safety relief valves. One process
connection may be connected to one of two safety relief valves
(SRVs). The valve ensures that at least one SRV is in circuit at all
times. Both SRV cannot be isolated simultaneously.
Charpy test
A test to measure the impact properties of steel. A prepared test
piece, usually notched, is broken by a swinging pendulum. The
energy consumed in breaking the test piece is measured in
Joules. The more brittle the steel the lower the impact strength.
CEN and ISO provide test methods.
Chokes
A manual valve used for continuous throttling applications; a
heavy duty needle valve. An American term used mainly in
connection with crude oil production.
Co
Chemical symbol for Cobalt. It may be present in steels as an
impurity added with nickel. It is added specifically to tool steels
to improve hot strength. Cobalt becomes highly radioactive
when irradiated; specifications for nuclear applications restrict
the cobalt concentration to very low levels.
Closed-loop control system
A control system in which the measurement of process variables
corrects, if necessary, the position of a control element. Con-
sider a householder sitting in the living-room of a house with
gas/water central heating. The living-room is fitted with a room
thermostat for temperature control. The householder goes to
the kitchen leaving the living-room door open. Cold air from the
hall enters the living-room reducing the temperature. The
thermostat detects the fall in temperature and sends a signal to
the boiler to maintain the water temperature. If the radiator was
fitted with a thermostatic control valve, the sensor would detect
the fall in temperature. The thermostatic valve would open and
allow more hot water to flow through the radiator. The hot
water temperature would fall prompting the boiler to turn on or
increase the fuel flow.
Cold working
Altering the shape or size of a metal by plastic deformation.
Processes include rolling, drawing, pressing, spinning, extruding
and heading. It is carried out below the re-crystallization point
usually at room temperature. Hardness and tensile strength are
increased with the degree of cold work whilst ductility and
impact values are lowered. The cold rolling and cold drawing of
steel significantly improves surface finish.
Control valve
A valve which opens and closes in response to an external signal
and is powered by an external source. Similar to a regulator but
requires an external supply of electricity, compressed air or
pressurized liquid. The control signal may be electric analogue,
electric digital or fluid analogue.
Controlled atmosphere
A gas or mixture of gases in which steel is heated to produce or
maintain a specific surface condition. Controlled atmosphere
furnaces are widely used in the heat treatment of steel as scaling
and decarburization of components is minimized by this process.
In the case of steel this refers to a component that has been
case-hardened where the centre is softer than the hard surface
layer or case. It can also be applied to the central part of a rolled
rimming steel.
Controlled bore pipe
Pipe which is specially manufactured to close tolerances.
Ordinary pipes may have a 12.5% tolerance on the wall thickness
which leads to considerable variation in the bore size. Controlled
bore pipes use strict manufacturing controls to ensure the bore
size varies from 1.5% or 3.2 mm in the larger sizes.
Cr
The chemical symbol for the element chromium, sometimes
abbreviated to "chrome". Chrome is added in small quantities to
steel, less than 3%, to improve the effectiveness of heat
treatment and hardening and to increase the strength. When
the content is increased to between 10 and 30%, the steel
acquires stain resistance or becomes stainless, i.e. less likely to
oxidize.
DEFINITIONS
Creep
The gradual permanent change in dimensions of solid materials
when exposed to long term tensile stress. Non-metallic materials
tend to creep much faster than metallic materials. High
temperature is not necessary but it will accelerate the effect.
Cu
The chemical symbol for the element copper, which is usually
present in steels as a trace impurity. It is added to some chrome-
nickel alloys to impart precipitation hardening properties. It is
added to some stainless steels to improve the strength and
corrosion resistance at the expense of elasticity, and possibly
castability.
Damper
A hydraulic device which can be fitted to power-actuated valves
to eliminate spindle/stem vibration and/or control actuation
speed.
Dashpot
A device which relies on fluid friction to produce a force which
opposes the motion. This can be a piston in a cylinder or a disc in
a close-fitting housing. The opposing force increases as velocity
increases.
Data sheet
A formatted sheet or sheets which fully describes the operating
conditions the valve will experience. Operating conditions are
not limited to the internal process fluid. External environmental
factors can play a decisive part in the valve selection and the
36 design of auxiliary equipment
Dead band
The range through which the controlled variable can reverse and
change in magnitude without initiating a regulator response.
Duplex stainless steels
A high strength, corrosion resistant group of stainless steels, iron
-chrome-nickel alloys, where the crystal structure is a mixture of
body-centred cubic ferrite and face-centred cubic austenite. The
balance between the two crystal groups is usually about 50-50
but heat treatment can change the proportions. The ferrite con-
tent is usually controlled to avoid cracking or lack of toughness
or susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking but a minimum
percentage is required to ensure the strength
Ductility
The property of materials which permits it to be reduced in
cross-sectional area, while experiencing tensile stress, without
fracture. In a tensile test, ductile metals show considerable
elongation eventually failing by necking, with consequent rapid
in- crease in local stresses.
Dye penetrant inspection
Colloquially known as "dye-pen", a method for detecting surface
porosity or cracks in metal. The part to be inspected is
thoroughly cleaned and coated with a dye which penetrates any
surface flaws that may be present. The surface is wiped clean
and coated with a white powder. The powder absorbs the dye
held in the defects indicating their location
Elongation
A measure of the ductility of a material; how much a material
can stretch before it fractures
Ferrite
A body-centred cubic crystal structure found in chromium alloys.
Fatigue
The effect on materials of repeated cycles of stress. The
dangerous feature of fatigue failure is that there is not
necessarily an obvious warning, a crack forms without
appreciable deformation of structure making it difficult to detect
the presence of growing cracks. Fractures usually start from
small surface nicks or scratches or abrupt changes in shape
which cause Iocalized stress concentrations. Failure can be
influenced by a
number of factors including size, shape and design of the
component, condition of the surface or the overall operating
environment.
Ferritic stainless steel
A term usually applied to a group of stain resistant steels with a
chromium content in the range of 12 to 30% and whose
structure consists largely of ferrite. Alloys with chromium
content at the bottom of the range will not be "stainless" in the
generally accepted sense of the term. Such steels possess good
ductility and are easily worked but do not respond to any
hardening or tempering processes and have poor high
temperature proper- ties.
Fire-safe
A valve which is suitable for installations where the risk of being
engulfed by fire cannot be ignored. Valves are tested to a
specification and qualified, see Chapter 15. Most valves which
qualify are ball and butterfly. Linear valves are often said to
suffer from stem thermal problems but some wedge gate valves
have qualified. Most wafer and lug valves are generally not
suitable.
Flanged connection
A pipe joint which uses two discs held together by bolts. Many
flange designs are available for high and low pressure. Flanged
connections are usually the preferred method of joining pipes
for 3" nb, DN 80 and larger.
Flow coefficient Cv, Kv
A factor, determined experimentally, which indicates the flow
capacity of incompressible fluid during non-choked, non-flashing
flow of a valve with a unit differential pressure. Two flow
coefficients are in common use; the American Cv and the metric
Kv. Equations 1.1 and 1.2 relate to liquid flow. Liquid flow
coefficients are based on turbulent flow conditions for a water-
like liquid.
Equ 1.1 Cv= Q sqr sg/ where:
Cv = US flow coefficient (USgpm/psi)
Q = liquid flow (USgpm)
sg= liquid specific gravity (non-dimensional)
Ap= differential pressure (Ib/in 2)
Flow-to-close, FTC
The direction of flow which tends to close the valve. In single-
seat valves, it is the direction in which fluid flows over the
sealing element and then out through the seat.
Flow-to-open, FTO
A linear motion valve fitted in a system so that the fluid flows
through the seat and passed the plug to the outlet. The hydraulic
process forces tend to open the valve.
Fluid
The term fluid is a generalization. It describes a group of "states''
liquids, vapors, gases and plasmas. The term could be used to
describe mixtures of these states and also mixtures with solids.
Fluid is a vague term and should be used with great caution. It is
not, as many people seem to think, synonymous with liquid.
DEFINITIONS
Forging
A process of working metal to a finished shape by hammering or
pressing and is primarily a "hot" operation. It is applied to the
production of shapes either impossible or too costly to make by
other methods or needing properties not obtainable by casting,
such as inherent integrity. Categories of forgings include
hammer, press, drop or stamping.
Full bore
A valve which has the same flow area as the attached pipework.
This concept is not as simple as it seems. Pipework is produced
in discrete sizes and a valve will be matched to a particular wall
thickness with a similar pressure/temperature rating. Always
check actual sizes. Refer to Reduced-port for an indication of
problems.
Gas
A state of matter, achieved by heating beyond the superheated
vapour phase to a temperature higher than the critical
temperature, in which the molecules move randomly to fill the
volume available. A gas cannot be converted to liquid by simply
increasing the pressure. The volume of a gas changes easily to
accommodate changes in the confining volume. The pressure
and temperature of an ideal or perfect gas can be calculated by
using the characteristic equation and Boyle's and Charles' Laws.
Ideal gas properties can be converted to real gas properties by
including compressibility factors in the characteristic equation.
Gases can exist in mixtures, air, and can be dissolved in liquids,
like fresh water or seawater. Compressors are designed to
handle gases. Special compressors, like refrigeration
compressors, are de- signed to handle gases and vapours,
sometimes with trace quantities of liquid.
Gauge pressure
A pressure measurement relative to the local atmospheric
pressure. Normal pressure gauges indicate this relative pressure.
Units are usually suffixed with "g", but this common practice is
frowned upon by the Standards Authorities.
Gland
The flange or special nut which retains and/or compresses the
packing in the packing box.
GMAW
Gas Metal-Arc Welding, another name for MIG welding, Metal
Inert-Gas welding.
GOST-R
Federal Agency on Technical Regulating and Metrology, the
National Standards Authority of Russia.
Grey iron
Grey cast iron, also known as "flake iron", is the normal cast iron
used for many applications and is available in many grades
(strengths).
GTAW
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, another name for TIG welding,
Tungsten Inert-Gas welding.
Guide bushing
A replaceable bushing, considered as a stationary trim
component, within a valve to align the moving element with the
seat.
Hard facing
A method of increasing the wear resistance of a metal by the
deposition of a hard protective coating. Alloys such as Stellite or
Colmonoy, or a metallic carbide or a ceramic oxide are most
often used for the coating. Increased corrosion resistance is an
additional benefit.
HAZ
Heat affected zone; the parent material immediately next to a
weld; the material which could have been "heat-treated" by the
welding process. Welding can change the local hardness and/or
modify the grain structure of the parent material.
Hazardous fluids
These are fluids, which by nature of their chemical properties,
create a potential for human injury, damage to property, to the
environment or a combination of these. There is no European or
International agreement on which fluids should be classed as
hazardous. The UK Health and Safety Executive has a document,
EH40, regarding the safety of personnel. In America there is a
useful document produced by the National Fire Protection
Agency, NFPA 325M. Another good source of information is the
requirements for the transportation by road of dangerous
goods, commonly known as ADR. A similar agreement applies to
rail transportation, RID. These documents are published in the
local language, not just English, French and German, and cover
over 20 countries. For flammable fluids useful data can be found
in IEC 79-12 which identifies gases and vapours for potentially
explosive atmospheres for electrical equipment. Dust clouds can
create a potential hazard and these should be checked rather
than assuming dust to be safe.
High pressure change-over valve
A type of regulator which automatically selects between two
feed systems depending upon the downstream pressure. For
rapidly filling vessels a low pressure high flow supply, from a
centrifugal pump, can be used. As the vessel pressure
approaches the pump closed valve head, the change-over valve
changes supplies to a low flow high pressure source, possibly
from a positive displacement pump.
HRc
Rockwell hardness on Scale "C"
H2S trim
A valve with all contact materials in compliance with NACE
MR-01-75, latest edition.
Hydraulic lock
A situation usually encountered in gas systems when liquid has
become trapped in a confined volume which should only contain
gas, and prevents the movement of components.
Inclusions
Usually non-metallic particles contained in metal. In steel they
may consist of simple or complex oxides, sulphides, silicates and
sometimes nitrides of iron, manganese, silicon, aluminium and
other elements. In general they are detrimental to the
mechanical properties but much depends on the number, their
size, shape and distribution.
Intercrystalline corrosion
Chromium-nickel austenitic stainless steels are prone to this
form of corrosion when they are welded and subsequently in
contact with certain types of corrosive media. When the metal is
heated to within a temperature range of 450 to 800~
precipitation of the chromium carbides takes place at the grain
boundaries in the area of the weld and these areas no longer
have the protection of the chromium on the peripheries of the
grains. This type of corrosion is also known as Weld Decay and
Inter- granular Corrosion. The most common way to avoid the
problem is to select a grade of steel that is very low in carbon i.e.
0.03% or less, or one that is stabilised with niobium or titanium.
DEFINITIONS
Isolating valve
A valve which is intended to be wide open or closed, with no
flow regulation functions.
Izod Impact test
A test specimen, usually of square cross-section is notched and
held between a pair of jaws, to be broken by a swinging or falling
weight. When the pendulum of the Izod testing machine is re-
leased it swings with a downward movement and when it
reaches the vertical the hammer makes contact with the
specimen which is broken by the force of the blow. The hammer
continues its upward motion but the energy absorbed in
breaking the test piece reduces its momentum. A graduated
scale enables a reading to be taken of the energy used to
fracture the test piece. To obtain a representative result the
average of three tests is used and to ensure that the results
conform to those of the steel specification the test specimens
should be machined and polished accurately. Charpy testing is
now more popular.
Knoop hardness test
A micro hardness test in which a pyramid shaped diamond is
pressed into the surface.
Lamination
A problem which can occur with rolled raw materials, like steel
plate. The bulk material is not homogeneous and can separate
into layers.
Lantern ring
A spacer/bush used in packing boxes to allow the injection of
38 lubricant, the collection of leakage and the application of a
water seal, to the spindle/stem. Lantern rings are usually
metallic but plastic or ceramic can be used. A short spacer with
material
removed from the central portion to provide storage or collec-
tion volumes in the bore and around the od. Internal and exter-
nal volumes are connected by a series of holes or slots.
Leakage rates
For substances hazardous to the environment the allowable
leakage rates are controlled by local, national or country group-
ing legislation. There is no complete list of hazardous substances
but a list entitled Red List Chemicals or NFPA 325, is available for
guidance. Local inspectors evaluate the site and issue an operat-
ing licence which specifies maximum emissions. More than one
licence may be necessary for a site.
For substances hazardous to personnel, but not to the environ-
ment, the allowable leakage rate is dependent upon local condi-
tions; it is the concentration in the air which is important. Totally
enclosed processes, with little or no air movement, will achieve
high concentrations with low seal leakage. Open processes, with
very large air volumes and continuous air movement, will be
able to tolerate larger leakage rates without creating dangerous
concentrations. Leakage will generally be dispersed downwind.
Lubricator
A connection on the packing box to facilitate packing lubrication.
Martensitic stainless steel
An alloy of iron, carbon and chromium which can be hardened
by heat treatment, are magnetic but are not as corrosion resis-
tant as other grades of stainless steel. The chrome content is
usually between 10 and 18% with a carbon content over 1%.
Carbon allows the material to be very hard and provides a
degree
MIG welding
Metal arc Inert-Gas welding is an electric arc welding process
where the arc is struck with the filler metal. The weld site is pro-
tected from atmospheric contamination by an inert gas shield,
argon, helium or carbon dioxide being the most popular.
Mo
Molybdenum is alloyed with high strength steel to improve the
high temperature physical properties. It is added to stainless
steels to increase resistance to pitting corrosion. "Moly" has a
favourable influence on the welding qualities.
NACE
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (of America). Al-
though the NACE organisation provides guidance on all types of
corrosion its name has become synonymous with sour service
applications where hydrogen sulphide may be a problem.
Nb
The element niobium (used to be known as Columbium) is added
to some steels to stabilise carbon, in a similar way to titanium,
but has the added benefit of improving elevated temperature
strength.
nb
Nominal bore, the nominal size of a valve or pipe in inches.
Nominal bore pipework has a fixed outside diameter and vari-
able wall thickness to accommodate different pressure ratings,
up to 12". Pipe sizes over 12" are designated by the outside di-
ameter. In low pressure pipe the bore size may be larger than
the nominal bore. In high pressure pipe the bore size can be
considerably smaller than the nominal bore and the actual
diameter must be checked when calculating flow velocities. The
wall thickness of pipe is subject to manufacturing tolerances and
+12.5% is fairly typical. The pipe bore is therefore variable to
some extent. The pipe wall thickness available for stressing and
corrosion is also variable. DN is the metric equivalent of nb.
NDE
Non-destructive examination
NDT - Non-destructive testing
All those forms of testing that do not result in permanent dam-
age or deformation to the part being tested. Typical examples
include magnetic crack detection, ultrasonic inspection, X-ray
inspection and gamma radiography. Some types of hardness
testing do not leave any damaging impressions.
Nipple
A short length of pipe, usually of small diameter, 2" nb, DN50, or
smaller.
Non-rising stem
Used on linear motion valves with inside screws. The nut is built
into the sealing element which moves due to rotation only of the
stem.
Non-rotating tip
The disc, plug or needle of a linear valve is attached to the stem
but does not necessarily rotate. It is a good way to reduce wear
when tightening the tip against the seat.
Normalising
A heat treatment process that has the object of relieving internal
stresses, refining the grain size and improving the mechanical
properties. The steel is heated to 800 to 900~ according to
analysis, held at temperature to allow a full soak and cooled in
still air.
DEFINITIONS
Normally closed
An isolating or control valve which requires control pressures
above atmospheric to open. If the actuating system fails and the
control pressure is reduced to atmospheric, the valve will close.
A control valve can also be called direct-acting.
Normally open
An isolating or control valve which requires control pressures
above atmospheric to close. If the actuating system fails and the
control pressure is reduced to atmospheric, the valve will open
wide. A control valve may also be called reverse-acting.
NPS
Nominal pipe size (see nb)
NPT
National Pipe Thread (of America), is a tapered pipe thread
which seals the fluid. Thread tape or sealant is applied to the
thread during assembly. The basic 60° thread form is cut on a
taper of 0.75" per foot on diameter. The standard provides sizes
up to 24" nb, but in practice 6" is about the largest used in proc-
ess applications, Many users will not accept threaded fittings
over 3".
Obturator
The moving sealing element in a valve.
Oxidation
The most common form of chemical reaction which is the com-
bining of oxygen with various elements and compounds. The
corrosion of metals is a form of oxidation, rust on iron and steel
for example is iron oxide. Refined metals can be considered as
unstable compounds; the natural stable state is their original
mineral ores.
Packing box
The part of the bonnet which contains the seal or packing to
reduce leakage along the valve stem.
Packing lubricator
An optional fitting on the bonnet to allow the packing to be lu-
bricated while working.
Packing tape
Packing boxes can be sealed using thin tape which is rolled to fill
the box. Usually only PTFE and graphite is available in this form.
Panel mounting
A facility supplied on smaller valves which enables the valve to
be mounted with the connections behind the panel. Usually
applied to valves with screwed glands, extra nuts are provided to
clamp the panel.
Pipe
A conduit for carrying fluid which is designated by its nominal
bore, nb, or its nominal diameter, DN. Pipes below 14" nb have
unusual outside diameters i.e. 6.625", 10.75", etc. Pipes 14" and
above use the od as the size. Pipe with an appropriate wall thick-
ness can be threaded with standard pipe threads.
PN
Pressure nominal, a European designation, in bar-g, of the maxi-
mum working pressure at ambient temperature. Pressure- tem-
perature rating tables or graphs must be reviewed for the actual
material at specific operating temperatures. Metallic materials
are usually suitable up to 65° without de-rating.
Some non-metallic materials may need de-rating over 20°C.
Positioner
A control valve actuator used for accurate control applications.
The positioner supplies air to the diaphragm or piston actuator
to adjust the valve in response to control signals. The positioner
is coupled to the valve/actuator stem and monitors the valve
position to ensure the valve does adjust in response to the con-
trol requirement. The feedback of valve stem position allows
very precise valve control.
Positive Material Identification, PMI
Certain critical components may have the material of construc-
tion identified beyond any doubt. A piece of the component can
be removed and given to a witnessing inspector who carries the
sample to a laboratory and watches the analysis. Alternatively,
the component is analysed by a portable instrument which con-
firms the chemical composition.
PRE
Pitting resistance equivalent, calculated from a formula, depend-
ing on the material considered :
PREN= Cr + 1.5 x (Mo + W + Nb) for stainless steel
PREN= 3.3 x Mo + 16 x N2 for duplex and super duplex steel
PREN= Cr -0.8 x Cu + 1.5 (Mo+ W) for nickel alloy weld wire
Precipitation-hardening steels
There are relatively few precipitation-hardening steels compared
to other alloy categories. A group of iron-chrome-nickel alloys
with relatively small nickel proportions. In the annual condition,
alloys can be austenitic or martensitic. Heat treatment hardens
the martensitic crystal structure.
Pressure containing part
A valve part which is in physical contact with the process fluid or
any actuating fluid. These parts may be subject to corrosion or
erosion by the fluid. Parts include: valve body, bonnet, stem and
spindle.
Pressure retaining part
A valve part which is stressed by internal fluid pressure due to its
function of holding one or more pressure containing parts in
position. Pressure retaining parts are not in direct physical con-
tact with the process or actuating fluids and are not subject to
corrosion or erosion by them. Pressure retaining parts may be
subject to corrosion or erosion by atmospheric pollution. Parts
include: bonnet fasteners, glands, gland fasteners, stems, spin-
dles and stem nuts.
Pressure-temperature ratings
Metallic and non-metallic materials used for valve manufacture
usually weaken and become more elastic as temperature in-
creases. Some materials become brittle as temperature de-
creases. These factors are well known and have been studied
extensively by classification societies and standards authorities.
Allowable stress values have been correlated with working
temperature by pressure vessel standards and codes. The
most popular Standards are EN 13445, ASME VIII and ANSI B
16.34. BS 5500 has been replaced by PD 5500 and is popular
outside Europe. These Standards use different formulae to calcu-
late the stresses arising from fluid pressure; the allowable stress
values are not interchangeable. Pressure-temperature ratings
are usually qualified as non-shock, may be time limited or have
specified full-cycle pressure limitations.
DEFINITIONS
RAL
The German organisation, Reichsausschuss Lieferbedingungen,
was instigated to standardise precise technical terms to allow
rationalisation of purchasing (long before the EU Single Market
Project). Now the RAL prefix is used for colour shades in accor-
dance with international standards such as BS 381C.
Reduced-port
Always described as reduced-bore, a valve in which the seat area
or the ports leading to the seat are smaller than the nominal
pipe area in which it is fitted. In globe valves the ports may be
smaller and the seat may be larger than the nominal pipe area.
Gate valves may have 50% flow area, globe valves even less. The
increased velocity in the port or seat can result in increate ero-
sion, corrosion and noise. Accelerated material loss is not limited
to solids handling. Increased liquid velocities can damage the
protective oxide layer resulting in unexpected corrosion. Some
valves do not have circular ports. Sudden changes in area can
create violent turbulence leading to greatly increased erosion
and corrosion
Rising stem
On linear motion valves the stem rises through the yoke when
the valve is opened.
RJT
Ring Joint Type; a hygienic union pipe connector. Not to be con-
fused with RTJ.
Rockwell hardness testing
40 A method for testing the hardness of metals by determining the
depth of penetration of a steel ball or a diamond sphero-conical
indentor. The value is read from a dial and is an arbitrary num-
ber related to the depth of penetration. For testing hard steels, a
sphero-conical diamond is used with a 150 kg load, the result is
read from the black scale on the dial and is prefixed with the
letter C. A hardened tool steel would typically give a reading of
62 HRc. For softer metals Scale B is used with a 1/16" diameter
steel ball and a standard load of 100 kg.
SAW
Submerged Arc Welded, a type of electric welding process used
on thick wall pipe and tube. The submerged arc process pro-
duces a very high quality, clean weld. Powdered flux is poured
into a dam which is clamped either side of the seam. The end of
the welding electrode is covered by the flux and air is effectively
excluded. The powdered flux melts to protect the molten filler
metal. Both flux and filler metal solidify on cooling. Unused pow-
dered flux is collected for re-use. When cold, the flux forms a
solid slag which peels off the weld metal. Typical pipe sizes
would be in the range of 400 mm diameter and larger with wall
thickness of 6 to 32 mm. For corrosive applications the filler
metal should be the same chemical composition as the parent
metal or slightly more noble. For critical applications clarification
will be worthwhile.
SCC
Standards Council of Canada, the National Standards Authority
of Canada.
Screwed bonnet
A bonnet which is threaded and screwed directly into the valve
body.
Screwed gland
A gland which screws into a female thread in the bonnet. It can
be either adjustable or non-adjustable.
Se
The element Selenium, added to some steels to improve
Machining.
Seal weld
A threaded pipe connection, usually a taper thread but could be
applied to a parallel thread, which is made dry without sealants.
A fillet weld is added at the external joint face to prevent any
leakage. This type of construction is only acceptable when the
process fluid is not corrosive. The pipe threads, which provide
the strength for the joint, are not protected and are susceptible
to crevice corrosion or galvanic corrosion if the metals are sig-
nificantly different.
Seamless
Pipe or tube which does not have a welded seam. Some rolled
plate and strip products have no seam because the edges are
joined by pressure welding when the metal is hot.
Seat
The pressure-retaining contact seal between the stationary and
moving parts of the valve. A valve may have more than one seat.
Seat leakage
The leakage through the seat when the valve is closed. Leakage
is standardised in many cases please refer to applicable specifi-
cations.
Self-energised packing
Packing which uses the fluid pressure to create the sealing forces
to prevent leakage. Higher pressures result in higher sealing
forces.
Shutdown valve, SDV
An isolating valve, part of the ESD system, which closes to isolate
equipment or a process during the shutdown sequence.
Smooth finish
A flange facing finish which is smooth but not polished. The fin-
ish would normally lie between 1.6 and 3.2 µm. No visible tool
marks should be discernible.
Socket fusion weld
A thermal welding technique used with some non-metallic pip-
ing systems. Materials such as polypropylene can be welded by
using electric heaters.
Socket weld fittings
Fittings for connecting pipes, which use a single fillet weld
around the od of the pipe/tube for mechanical attachment and
sealing. The pipe/tube is inserted into the fitting, then welded. It
should only be used with safe fluids. The weld cannot be X-rayed
to verify integrity.
Soft-seat
A soft insert of plastic, elastomer or other readily deformable
material, in the valve body or the moving element which de-
forms on contact with the other sealing surface to provide low
or zero seat leakage.
Solution annealing
A heat treatment to allow precipitated constituents to return in
to the solution. Quenching "freezes" all the constituents in the
required state.
Sour
A description of the environment or the process fluid; hydrogen
sulphide, H2S, is present.
DEFINITIONS
Specification
A document issued as part of a contractual agreement for equip- ment. Most specifications refer to standards and
amend or ex- tend requirements to suit the particular application. Some speci- fications are "vague" in the sense that
requirements are aspira- tions and cannot be verified. Before writing a specification, au- thors could be usefully guided
by consulting Standard writing rules, like BS 0 (Standards, specifications for structure, drafting and presentation.). A
specification which is vague or ambiguous will be interpreted to the suppliers" advantage. A specification which is
capable of interpretation, is of little value to purchaser. SSC
Sulphide stress cracking; a type of corrosion mechanism which attacks components made of high strength materials
which de- rive their strength from heat treatment to relatively high hard- ness levels. Sulphide stress cracking is usually
associated with hydrogen sulphide in connection with crude oil and natural gas production.
Stainless steel
An alloy of iron and chromium which is usually, at least, 50% iron and up to 30% chromium. Carbon is usually present
from very low concentrations, 0.03% to 1.0% or more. Stainless steel can be divided into five groups: martensitic, ferritic,
austenitic, du- plex and precipitation-hardening.
Standard
A specification, issued by a National Standards Authority, a gov- ernment sponsored organisation, which is characterised
by strict editorial control and verifiable requirements. Standards should consist of clauses which mainly use "shall" to
indicate a "requirement" which must be met. Compliance with standards must be verifiable, otherwise the effort is
wasted. "Should" is used to describe recommendations; "may" indicates a course of action which is acceptable. Clauses
which require an agreement should be kept to an absolute minimum.
Steel
An alloy of iron and carbon with small quantities of silicon, man- ganese, moly or nickel. Phosphorous and sulphur are
usually present, in quite small quantities, less than 0.05%, as impurities which impair the physical and chemical
properties. If the carbon content is between 0.4 and 1.2% approximately the steel can be hardened by heat treatment
although steels with lower carbon contents can be heat treated, inadvertently, during welding.
Stem
The shaft which reciprocates in linear valves and actuators.
Stem connector
A clamp, usually in two halves, to connect the valve stem to the actuator stem.
Stem leakage
Leakage through the stern (or spindle) seal when the valve is open or closed. Some valve designs seal the packing box
when open; others when closed. Rotary valves generally are unable to seal the packing box.
Stock finish
The standard surface finish applied to flange facings by the flange manufacturer. Stock finish is a shallow spiral groove
ma- chined as one continuous cut across the face. The angled crests created apply a strong grip to the gasket to resist
blow-outs. Flanges up to 12" have a 1/16" radius groove cut with a feed rate of 1/32" per revolution. Larger flanges use a
1/8" radius tool and 3/64" per revolution.
Stress relieving
A heat treatment including heating and soaking at a suitable temperature e.g. 600 to 650°C followed by
cooling at an appro- priate rate in order to reduce internal stresses without substan- tially modifying the
steel's structure. This treatment may be used to relieve stresses induced by machining, quenching,
welding or cold working.
TIG welding
Tungsten arc Inert-Gas welding is an electric arc welding process, where the arc is struck with a dedicated
tungsten electrode across to the workpiece. A separate filler rod or wire is fed into the weld pool which is
protected by an inert gas shield.
Toughness
The ability of a metal to rapidly distribute within itself both the stress and strain caused by a suddenly
applied load, or more simply expressed, the ability of a material to withstand shock loading, It is the
opposite of "brittleness" which carries the impli- cation of sudden failure. A brittle material has little
resistance to failure once the elastic limit has been reached.
Trim
The internal components of a valve in contact with the process fluid.
Ultrasonic
Sound above the range of human hearing; typically frequencies greater than 20 kHz. These high
frequency sounds can be de- tected by piezo-electric crystals.
Vickers hardness test
This test, more commonly known as the Vickers test, finds greater use in the laboratory than the
workshop. It employs a pyramid shaped diamond with an included angle of 136 °which is impressed into
the specimen using loads of 5 to 120 kg making a small square impression. This test is used for finished or
polished components because the impression can be very small. The dia- mond pyramid hardness
number is obtained from a calculation based on measuring the diagonals of the impressions
in the material. Test results are usually quoted as VPN, Vickers Pyramid Number, or just HV.
W
The chemical symbol for tungsten, which used to be called Wolf- ram. Tungsten can greatly improve the
hot properties of tool steels. It is added to some chrome-nickel alloys to aid carbide formation.
Welded bonnet
For applications requiring very high integrity the bonnet can be welded to the body. Care must be taken
to ensure the weld can be inspected adequately to verify the soundness.
Weldolet
A specially-designed, mass-produced, forged fitting for making tees in pipe runs. It produces a better
result, from stressing and fluid flow criteria, than butting a branch directly to the run pipe. The trade
name has passed into common usage to represent fittings of this style produced by other manufacturers.
Versions are available for connections on bends, branches at an angle and adding screwed connections.
WPS
Welding procedure specification
WQC
Welder qualification certificate