Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 91

Anthesis Related to

Cell Division and


Source-Sink Relationships

Matthew DeBacco
https://uchicagomed.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/de-mitosis-lg.jpg https://uchicagomed.files.wordpress.com/2015/05/de-mitosis-lg.jpg
Goals of Anthesis
1. Increasing cell division- allows for more
cells to be present in a pumpkin and a
theoretical increase in yield
– More cells = more weight
2. Increasing sink strength- helps the
plant allocate more nutrients to the
pumpkin
– By increasing cell division and duration, this
will require more nutrients.
http://johnlewis.scene7.com/is/image/JohnLewis/232277070?$prod_grid3$

Simplified Directions
• Storage
– Brown vial in fridge
– Blue vial in freezer
• Mixing (day of application)
– Mix full contents of both vials into 30mL (1oz.) of distilled
water.
• Application
– Spray/Mist on actual small pumpkin 48hrs after pollination

http://www.sfsonicpower.com/sites/all/themes/newswire/images/battery_maintanance_icons/battery_maintain_icon_3.png

http://www.keepcalmandposters.com/posters/2413221.png http://biznology.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/artworks-000058593031-9xetyb-original.jpg
Grower-Provided Anthesis Data
• All data provided was voluntarily
shared with permission to make it
publically available.
• There was no incentive provided to
any of the growers. The following are
their honest comments:

https://whywereason.files.wordpress.com/2011/08/incentive.gif
Grower-Reported Data
“I will say the Anthesis-applied pumpkin was still growing,
where the other fruits slowed way down.”
-Andy Box

“The Anthesis-treated pumpkins that I had going grew better


than anything I ever had.”
-Allen Bradly

“The results have convinced me to try Anthesis again next year.”


-Jerry Snyder

http://www.gannett-cdn.com/-mm-/382e7a583110dfb611e22bc73f3f8339b9df2203/c=0-0-1629-
1224&r=x404&c=534x401/local/-/media/GreatFalls/2014/08/11/leadphotogroupchat.jpg http://earlylearningcentral.ca/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/pumpkin-measuring.jpg
1600
Anthesis and Untreated (Control) Pumpkins in R² = 0.9965

1400
Andy Box's 2015 Patch
Estimated Weight (pounds) Using the

R² = 0.9902

1200
Team-Pumpkin Chart

R² = 0.9983

1000

800

Anthesis Treated
600
Untreated 1
400
Untreated 2

200
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Days Old
Graph 1 Summary
1. Figure 1: It is clearly evident that the Anthesis-treated pumpkin was
of comparable size up to the critical day 35.
2. After day 35, the Anthesis-treated pumpkin had an increased growth
rate that was sustained for the remainder of the season, resulting in
his top-producing pumpkin for the year.
3. Both of the untreated control pumpkins have a very similar growth
curve for the season and ended up within 4.9% of each other.
4. The Anthesis-treated is noticeably greater past day 40 and finished
13.0% greater than the average of the untreated pumpkins.
5. The graph supports the grower’s comments that the Anthesis-
treated pumpkin continued to grow while the other fruits decreased
in growth rate.
6. Trend lines use the Logarithmic Regression with R2 values provided.
700

650 Growth Curves for Anthesis and Non-Treated Pumpkins


600
Grown in 150sq.ft.
Estimated Weight (pounds) using the

550

500
Team-Pumpkin Chart

450

400

350

300 Anthesis Treated '15


250 Untreated '14
200 Untreated '13
150

100

50

0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Days Old
Graph 2 Summary
1. Growth curves for Anthesis-treated and untreated (control) pumpkins
grown in the same 150 sq.ft. location by Bart Toftness during three
different years with almost daily measurements taken.
2. The growth curve shows that the Anthesis-treated pumpkin (diamond
shape) was smaller up to day 37 than the untreated ones, suggesting a
delay in cell expansion.
3. After day 37, the growth rate is accelerated and continues for an extended
period of time, leading to an improvement in late season growth that
increases final size of the pumpkin.
4. Day 60 and beyond, there is a continual upward trend of growth with no
indication of a plateau.
5. Even though the Anthesis-treated pumpkin is the oldest, the delay in
harvest was grower’s choice, as it was still showing positive gains and was
allowed to remain on the vine until a later weigh-off.
6. The Anthesis-applied pumpkin grew the biggest pumpkin out of this space
even though, up to day 30, it was the smallest.
Anthesis 2015 Harvest Data Summary
Top 10 Average for Anthesis-Treated Pumpkins 1819.85 lbs.
Top 20 Average for Anthesis-Treated Pumpkins 1643.25 lbs.
… …

Total Number of Personal Bests 8


for growers using Anthesis
Total Number of Top 2015 Pumpkins 6
using Anthesis
(not counting personal bests)
… …
Pumpkins over 2,000 pounds 2
Pumpkins 1,900-2,000 pounds 2
… …
Tomatoes grown over 5 pounds 4
Graph 3 Summary
• All pumpkins are of comparable size up to day 35.
• After day 35, Anthesis-applied pumpkins have
accelerated growth rate that was sustained for
the duration of the growing season, resulting in
top-producing pumpkin.
• Based on day 80 numbers, untreated pumpkins
varied by 11.6% from each other while Anthesis-
treated is noticeably greater past day 40 and was
23.2% greater than the average of the untreated
pumpkins.
Supporting Science
• Often claims are made with little supporting data.
• I have spent many, many, hours researching and
reading scientific papers to generate Anthesis and have
attempted to provide a summary of that time below.
• As a result, I have provided the sources used to
generate my findings and support the results that have
been seen with the grower-supplied Anthesis data.
– *Note: I have not changed the formulation (or cost) of
Anthesis across all years it has been available.

http://www.sciencemag.org/sites/default/files/styles/article_main_large/p http://asjeditors.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/stack-of-
ublic/images/cc_careers_highlighting-lines-16x9.jpg?itok=uLoOl1H5 https://jcoynester.files.wordpress.com/2014/04/demand-evidence-and-think.jpg papers.jpg
1st Goal of Anthesis
1. Increasing cell division- allows for
more cells to be present in a pumpkin
and a theoretical increase in yield
– More cells = more weight
Cell Division = Mitosis
• Cells making identical copies of themselves

https://dr282zn36sxxg.cloudfront.net/datastreams/f-d%3A2611548d82f15409dfa0558a89cb81ae4ac2f4853857993918f39514%2BIMAGE_TINY%2BIMAGE_TINY.1
http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au/book/export/html/70
Cell cycle

http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/genetics/vgec/diagrams/22-Cell-cycle.gif
(Fomenkov, 2015)
Ethylene Impacts S-Phase
• Applied ethylene affects the number of S-phase
cells only when the level of ethylene is low.

http://image.slidesharecdn.com/cellcyclemitosis-121121183432-phpapp02/95/the-cell-cycle-13-638.jpg?cb=1353595391
Mitosis

http://www2.le.ac.uk/departments/genetics/vgec/diagrams/38%20mitotis%20phases.jpg
Cell Growth = Cell Expansion
• Same number of cells, but each cell is
increasing in size (swelling)

http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/imgs/512/151/2530862/2530862_gb-2008-9-7-226-1.png
Cell Expansion
• Contributes by far the most to fruit growth

http://postharvest.tfrec.wsu.edu/pages/N4I1B
(Zhang, 2006)
Pollination is a Critical Time

• Final fruit size is


directly related to the
number of cells
produced in the
period immediately
following pollination.

http://facweb.furman.edu/~wworthen/bio111/plantb10.jpg
(Fanwoua, 2012)
Cell Expansion (alone)
• From pollination until maturity, cell volume can
increase about 11,000 fold.

http://frigg.physastro.mnsu.edu/~eskridge/astr101/kauf28_1.JPG
https://m1.behance.net/rendition/modules/45655451/disp/bbaa72c9b1867efdfd1e3504eb55f657.jpg

Fruit Size is determined by…


• Number of cells and
• Size of individual cells

http://img.webmd.com/dtmcms/live/webmd/consumer_assets/site_images/articles/health_tools/fat_fig
http://images.calorieking.com.au/branding/dc/runtime/portionsense/140.jpg hting_foods_slideshow/webmd_rf_photo_of_grapes_and_raisins.jpg
(Zhang, 2006)
Improved Cell Division
Has Led to Fruit Enlargement
• The evolution of fruit size in Asian pears (P.
pyrifolia) has mainly resulted from shifts in the
ability of cells to divide rather than to enlarge.

http://www.specialtyproduce.com/sppics/922.png
Cell Division
Mitosis
• Genetic variation in final
fruit size (large vs. small fruited
melons) was mainly
accounted for by
variation in final pericarp
cell number caused by
differences in cell
division duration.

Figure 6: Pericarp growth following anthesis. http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/detailedresult.php?img=2685393_1471-2229-9-49-6&req=4


(Fanwoua, 2012)
Final Pericarp Mass
• The duration of cell division had the strongest
influence on final cell number and final
pericarp mass.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Drupe_fruit_diagram-en.svg/2000px-
http://www.fruitsinfo.com/images/fruit3.gif Drupe_fruit_diagram-en.svg.png
(Aly, 1999)
http://static.flickr.com/50/159047357_4cba94d98f.jpg

(Fanwoua, 2012)

Limited Time for Cell Division


• Duration of cell division after anthesis ranges
from 1-2 weeks in cucurbits and tomatoes.
– Age at which cells cannot divide = 16 days
• Under normal conditions

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-DxHXoZ70QWw/TfaPndvpj5I/AAAAAAAAAOQ/GcFuJjwxTtw/s1600/16DaysLogo-1.png http://bti.cornell.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/catala_tomato_fruit_dev.jpg
(Savage, 2015)
Pumpkin Cell Division-Very Early Stages
• Pumpkin mass at flowering was not significantly different.
• Cell division in the inner layers (mesocarp and
placental region) stopped before the fruit was 1kg
(~2 pounds).

http://demandware.edgesuite.net/sits_pod38/dw/image/v2/ABAQ_PRD/on/demandware.static/-/Sites-
http://www.bigpumpkins.com/DiaryImages/2008/Lrg/99686.jpg masterCatalog_Burpee/default/dwc5987761/Images/Product%20Images/prod000857/prod000857.jpg?sw=570&sh=673&sm=fit
(Savage, 2015)
Pumpkin Cell Division-Very Early Stages
• However, division in the outer
wall appeared to last longer.
• Based on the curve fit of
the data, cell division in
the outer wall could have
continued until pumpkins
were close to 100kg (~220
pounds).
What impact can plant hormones have?

http://ib.bioninja.com.au/_Media/plant-hormones_med.jpeg
http://i.ytimg.com/vi/A2qoQgrkE_U/hqdefault.jpg

Ethylene
• Often thought of as just a ripening hormone…

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Ethylene-CRC-MW-dimensions-
http://labs.bio.unc.edu/Kieber/Figures/Ethylene.jpg 2D.png/160px-Ethylene-CRC-MW-dimensions-2D.png
http://5e.plantphys.net/images/ch20/wt2002b_s.jpg

Why not Gibberellic acid (GA)?

http://www.extension.org/sites/default/files/w/e/e1/GA_cluster.jpg http://www.sciencephoto.com/image/442065/350wm/C0118720-Effect_of_Gibberellic_Acid_on_Cabbage-SPL.jpg
Why Ethylene and not Gibberellin?
-Direction of cell growth is
influenced by effects on
cellulose microfibril
orientation.

-Giberrellins lead to growth


mainly in the longitudinal
direction (elongation)

-Ethylene promotes a more


random orientation and
growth in all three
dimensions (swelling)
(Based on Raven et al. 1992)

http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au/edition1/?q=figure_view/290
Timing is Very Important
• Applying the same
product at different
stages of plant
development results in
very different outcomes

http://www.macforensicslab.com/ProductsAndServices/images/icon_Timing.jpg http://img.pandawhale.com/post-8936-Woman-at-beach-Perfect-timing-N0Ig.jpeg
http://ripening-fruit.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/images/tomato_ripening_cherries_big.121132938_std.jpg

Ethylene = Ripening*

• *When applied later in


development

http://www.californiaavocado.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/ripen-avocado-in-bag.png
http://cen.acs.org/content/cen/articles/92/web/2014/11/Engineered-Bacteria-Ripen-Fruit-
Belching/_jcr_content/articlebody/subpar/articlemedia_0.img.jpg/1416932919785.jpg http://www.scielo.br/img/revistas/bjpp/v17n3/a02fig01.jpg
http://images.slideplayer.com/26/8484386/slides/slide_86.jpg
Ethylene = Causes plants to only produce
female flowers (when applied at the 1-5 leaf stage)
• For cucumbers, apply 250 to 500 ppm
when plants have 1,3 and 5 leaves.
• Induces gynoecious female line for
hybrid seed production

http://www.harvesttotable.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/Cucumber-flower1.jpg
https://media.licdn.com/media/p/6/005/00f/151/07d5b5d.png

*Anthesis*

• Anthesis = the period of blooming in flowers

http://www.bigpumpkins.com/DiaryImages/2014/Lrg/219464.jpg
Ethylene Promotes
Cell Development (Aly, 1999)

• Ethylene exposure has


considerable
promotive effects on
cell development that
only occur after the
initial signal subsides.
(Kazama, 2004)
(Kazama, 2004)
Exposure Time is Critical
• Continuous ethylene treatment suppresses cell
division, but when ethylene is removed, it triggers
an exceptional surge of cell division activity

http://shobitt.exteen.com/images/entries/shutterspeed.jpg
(Kazama, 2004)
Best of Both Situations
• Ethylene can promote cell proliferation and
suspend cell differentiation.

http://geneticssuite.net/files/Cell%20multiplication.jpg http://lifescitpjhs.wikispaces.com/file/view/DifferentiationPlant.png/301427382/DifferentiationPlant.png
(Zhang, 2006)
Cell Division Related to Maturation Time
• Late-maturing cultivars are larger than earlier-
maturing cultivars, and this is due to an
extended period of cell division.

https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/71AhDaKtYZL._AC_UL320_SR224,320_.jpg https://i0.wp.com/www.stclareseeds.com/images/envelopes-back.jpg
(Johnson, 2011)
More Cells = Bigger Fruit
• Variation in fruit size is often associated with
differences in cell number.
• Higher cell number is associated with larger fruit size.

https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/pub/web/92239_web.jpg
(Johnson, 2011)
Final Cell Number is Influenced By…
1) Cell production within the ovary before bloom
2) Rate and duration of cell production during fruit
growth

https://projemsulo.files.wordpress.com/2014/12/c0052343-chloroplasts_in_leaf_cells_a_moss-_lm-spl.jpg
Summary
• *Cell division is of great importance in the
variation of final fruit size.

http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-V-hSF9LKAVE/TzYhENKokKI/AAAAAAAAAGk/8YGbf4xjdHc/s1600/Elodea.jpg

http://www.mbg.com.my/MBG/images/stories/promotion/mango-size01.jpg http://www.leadingmenonly.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/What-Matters-Most-Important.jpg
(Aly, 1999)
Repeated Results
• An ethylene application during flowering or
tomato fruit set stage increased not only fruit
yield but also fruit size in both trials.

https://3c1703fe8d.site.internapcdn.net/newman/gfx/news/hires/1-genetickeydi.jpg https://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/next/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/beefsteak-tomatoes.jpg
(Aly, 1999)
Positive Results from Ethylene Application
• The ethylene application resulted in fruit diameter and
weight that were significantly increased by 8% to 34%
and ripened 10 days later than control.
What about Cytokinins?
• Increase fruit size (in apples) by increasing
number of cell layers
– not cell expansion
• Play an important role in determining
the eventual cell number of the fruit

http://education-portal.com/cimages/multimages/16/Key_Concept.png http://www.efoodsdirect.com/media/catalog/product/cache/1/image/9df78eab33525d08d6e5fb8d27136e95/a/p/apples2.jpg
http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire8e/content/cat_010/f37018.jpg

Ethylene and Cytokinins


• Ethylene production was stimulated
by submicromolar concentrations
of cytokinins in seedlings.

http://previews.123rf.com/images/maxuser/maxuser1404/maxuser140400006/27489738-Dropping-blood-sample-in-test-tube-close-up-Stock-Photo.jpg
2nd Goal of Anthesis
2. Increasing sink strength- helps the plant
allocate more nutrients to the pumpkin
– By increasing cell division and duration, this
will require more nutrients

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/McLG31Ud88Y/hqdefault.jpg
Source : Sink
Relationship

http://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/73624/fpls-05-00011-HTML/image_m/fpls-05-00011-g001.jpg http://cnx.org/resources/cd8839949717d6b04f4fade2e6b0f7cf/Figure_30_05_07.jpg
Source vs. Sink
• Source: Portions of a plant that are producing
more energy (sugar) than they are consuming
• Sink: Net consumer of energy

https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/558/flashcards/183558/jpg/picture81335365144088.jpg
http://ibbio.pbworks.com/f/translocation%20of%20sucrose.jpg
(Roitsch, 2000)
Strength of Sugar Attraction
• Ability for an organ to unload the sugar from
the phloem determines the sink strength or
flow of sucrose.

https://fitchickchitchat.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/candybowl.jpg http://6e.plantphys.net/ch/11/wt11.08/wt1008a.png
(Peleg, 2011)
Cytokinins Directing Source/Sink Changes

• Hormonal transitions
play a major role in
source/sink changes,
and cytokinins
appear to be a key
element affecting
these transitions.

http://i295.photobucket.com/albums/mm131/Junior0088/pressureflow.gif
Photosynthesis

• Process of converting light energy to produce


chemical energy (sugar)

https://ka-perseus-images.s3.amazonaws.com/b5696ba86426f4fcc8be09e1a910f0033d241d24.png
Translocation
• Movement of the products of photosynthesis
by the phloem

https://forums-wildcardproperti.netdna-ssl.com/uploads/monthly_2016_06/6359219226453491021470707808_train.jpg.ad46da2e1d9bc1c3167397851401d0fd.jpg
(Roitsch, 2000)
Sucrose Used for Long Distance Transport
• Long distance transport of carbohydrates is
mostly in the phloem and in the form of sucrose.

http://cdn.dragosroua.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/airplane-sunset.jpg http://www.nutrientsreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Sucrose.jpg
Meristems
• Site of actively dividing cells forming new tissue,
and typically found at the growing tips of roots
and shoots.

http://web.itctel.com/plantanatomy/images/3%20Allium%20root%20tip%201.JPG http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/pix/meristemoverview.gif
Xylem vs. Phloem
• Vascular connections

https://smartsite.ucdavis.edu/access/content/user/00002950/courses/sites/cknamed/xylemphloem.jpg https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/564x/6a/1c/44/6a1c4484da382cb0befceda6f0be8cd5.jpg
Phloem Contents

• Can be variable based on


plant type and current
stresses on plant
• Overall sugars are the
greatest percentage.

https://horticulturetalk.wordpress.com/2011/05/18/translocation-from-source-to-sink/
Phloem (main focus)

• Vascular tissue that


transports sugars and
other metabolic
products
• Can move materials up
or down the plant

http://figures.boundless-cdn.com/19411/full/figure-30-05-06.jpeg
Pressure- flow model

http://biologydiva.pbworks.com/f/26-013.jpg
Phloem loading
• The process when sugars enter the phloem at
the source point.

https://ibstudybuddy.wordpress.com/hl-biology/9-plant-biology/9-2-transport-in-the-phloem-of-plants/
“Sugar” = Carbohydrate
(saccarides)
• There are many different types
of sugars.
• Sucrose is mostly used for
transport in plants.

http://www.nutritionaldoublethink.com/uploads/4/4/7/3/44731651/2058519_orig.png

http://alevelbiologyrevision.weebly.com/uploads/4/5/7/1/45717451/7635829.jpg?229 https://usercontent1.hubstatic.com/9034098_f520.jpg
(Fanwoua, 2012)
Competition for Nutrients
• In general, competition for
assimilates affects fruit
growth rate more than
growth duration.

http://www.frontiersin.org/files/Articles/62120/fpls-04-00483-r2/image_m/fpls-04-00483-g005.jpg

http://static.kidspot.com.au/cm_assets/32025/a-outdoortugofwar346x210-jpg-20151022131630.jpg~q75,dx330y198u1r1gg,c--.jpg
(Fanwoua, 2012)
Sugar Movement in Plants
• Cell growth is the consequence of sugar import
from a common assimilate pool according to the
sink/source concept.
•This image shows radioactive sugar
concentrations 2.5 hours after tracer molecules
were fed to older leaves in the plant.

•The red color indicates high levels of beta


particles as those sugars emit radioactivity.

•Concentrated in young leaves, the image


indicates that these fast-growing young leaves
draw the radioactive sugar from the older leaves.

https://decodingscience.missouri.edu/2013/11/22/the-sweet-path/
http://previews.123rf.com/images/luchschen/luchschen1108/luchschen110800059/10284494-Pipette-
adding-fluid-to-one-of-petri-plate-Stock-Photo-laboratory-lab-chemistry.jpg

Site of application is important


• Localized applications of cytokinins to tomatoes
is known to increase…
• Sink strength
• Fruit size and
• Fruit dry matter at harvest

How Is This Possible?


By enabling them to attract
photoassimilates and
nutrients from foliage
http://wealthquestpartners.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/attraction.jpg
(Love, 2009)
Ethylene Can Stimulate Cell Division
• Applied ethylene stimulates xylem growth by
means of cambial cell division.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/staticarchive/cefa6286af68e3c4176397d4f83f5653c3324fd4.gif
(Roitsch, 2000)
First Discovery of Cytokinins
• Cytokinins were first shown to stimulate cell
division.

http://images.slideplayer.com/1/276145/slides/slide_15.jpg
(Foyer, 2001)
Cytokinins Help Coordinate
Source/Sink Activities
• There is now compelling evidence that two plant
hormones, abscisic acid (ABA) and cytokinin, are involved
in coordinating source and sink activities.
– ABA metabolism is implicated in sugar sensing.
• Cytokinins are involved in the carbon : nitrogen balance
of organs.
– Cytokinins are transported from roots to the shoot in the
presence of nitrogen and are able to trigger re-greening of
chlorotic shoots.

http://www.solsystems.com/blog/wp-
content/uploads/2014/12/615x200-ehow-images-a04-pd-k7-
http://www.texascitrusgreening.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Chlorosis-Foot-Rot.jpg doublepan-balance-scale-800x800.jpg
(Roitsch, 2000)
Type of Target Tissue Matters
• Process occurs mainly symplastically via plasmodesmata in storage
organs
• However, in embrotic tissue, an apoplastic unloading pathway is
required which is commonly associated with actively growing tissues
and, as a result, is likely to be under the regulation of cytokinins.

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikibooks/en/0/00/Waterpathwaysthroughrootcells.gif
(Roitsch, 2000)
Apoplastic Unloading and Cytokinin Levels
• Extracellular invertase (enzyme of an apoplasmic phloem
unloading pathway and helps break down sucrose that is released into the
apoplast) is
concentrated in actively growing tissue,
which is also known to have high cytokinin levels.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Alok_Sinha2/publication/10968303/figure/fig6/AS:324903606734
852@1454474464449/Fig-2Function-of-extracellular-invertase-in-plant-pathogen-interactions- https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nafees_Khan/publication/234013900/figure/fig2/AS:300054930837505@1448
Contribution.png 550078639/Figure-2-Action-of-gibberellins-on-source-sink-relation-under-stress-Extracellular.png
(Roitsch, 2000)
Cytokinins Can Increase Sugar Uptake
• An increased uptake of sugars (sucrose and glucose)
in response to a cytokinin treatment has been
experimentally demonstrated.
(Roitsch, 2000)
Cytokinins + Sugar Status = Cell Division
• Indicating a direct link between cytokinins, as
well as sugar status and the initiation of cell
division

=
http://www.plantcell.org/site/teachingtools/TTPB8Graphicsmall.jpg https://www.asauthors.org/files/styles/book_dvd_node/public/status_and_sugar-300px.jpg?itok=OISd77LH
http://www.muskansingh.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cell-Division-1.jpg
https://lh5.googleusercontent.com/-
Q4aksUD3zuk/AAAAAAAAAAI/AAAAAAAAAD0/lmn0xXj52bQ/photo.jpg
(Roitsch, 2000)
Cell Division Drives Sink Strength

• Since cell division will


increase sink size, the
source-sink relations
will affect the entire
plant.

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/2a/5f/8b/2a5f8b0fb08520ec9592467a030723ef.jpg
(Peleg, 2011)
Cytokinins Can Help
Keep Photosynthesis Going
• Increase in cytokinins enables plants to
maintain source strength during stress and
relatively higher yields.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yagut_Allahverdiyeva/publication/43147508/fig
ure/fig2/AS:277440350965763@1443158342859/Fig-2-Phenotype-of-the-Arabidopsis-
control-and-drought-stressed-plants-after-12-days.png

http://asianetindia.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/Vulnerable-Hydraulid-system-of-Plants-chanllenged-by-Increasing-Drought-Stress.jpg
(Peleg, 2011)
Cytokinin’s Regulatory Properties
• Cytokinin regulation of assimilates, sink
strength, and source/sink relationships is well
documented.

http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au/sites/plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au/files/Fig5.13-new-p.png
(Yashima, 2005)
Cytokinins Can Reduce
Flower Abortions
• The application of
cytokinins to raceme (flower
cluster) reduced abortion and
increased pod number in
soybean plants.

https://www.mdidea.com/products/herbextract/soy/SoyFlowerPhoto01.jpg http://imgc.allpostersimages.com/images/P-473-488-90/82/8269/2HOZ300Z/posters/david-sieren-soybean-in-flower-glycine-max.jpg
(Yu, 2015)
Plant Pathways
• Auxin, cytokinin, regulate cell
division, also regulates
nutrient biosynthesis.
• Sink strength and source
activity can be altered by
endogenous hormones and
environmental factors.

https://oncogenesandcancer.files.wordpress.com/2013/11/cell-cycle.jpg
(Yu, 2015)
Fountain of Youth Plant Hormone
• Delayed senescence caused
by overproduction of
cytokinin, delays protein
degradation and inhibits N
remobilization, also induces
increased lifespan and
drought tolerance in several
plant species

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yongfeng_Guo/publication/263206185/figure/fig1/AS:296043204890632@144759
3608730/Fig-1-Inhibition-of-leaf-senescence-by-autoregulated-production-of-cytokinins-A-The.png
(Savage, 2015)
Pumpkin Plant Water % and Carbon %
• Water % = 91%-98%
• Carbon % = 40-43%
• Sap sugar concentration % = 18-21%

• Atlantic Giants transport up to ~1.75 lbs. of


carbon and ~2.4 gal. of phloem sap per day into
their fruit at the time of maximum fruit growth.
http://www.grit.com/~/media/Images/GRT/Editorial/Articles/Magazine%20Articles/2013/03-
01/Turn%20Sugar%20Tree%20Sap%20Into%20Syrup/Tapping-Sugar-Trees.jpg

https://www.prominent.com/media/Applications/app-water-treatment-and-disinfection_Header_1.jpg https://media2.wnyc.org/i/576/573/l/80/1/carbon.jpg
(Savage, 2015)

Is Fruit Growth Carbon Limited?


• Giant pumpkins have
been bred for increased
yield associated with
shifts in carbon
partitioning and not
higher rates of
photosynthesis.

• Giant pumpkins’ daily


carbon fixation was close
to the amount required
to achieve maximum fruit
growth rate.
http://ict.server200.nucleo.com.au/content/uploads/2014/04/ICT232_1.gif
(Savage, 2015)
Is Fruit Growth Sink Limited?
• If larger fruits have longer periods of cell
division and extended growing seasons, then
this could explain size variation.
• Tissue expansion can be limited by the
elasticity of the outer wall.
• Pumpkin size could be partially limited by the
ability of the outer wall to maintain integrity
during expansion.

http://www.barransclass.com/phys1090/circus/Torres_E/rubberband.jpg
(Savage, 2015)
In General
• Source and Sink activity are
coupled at the whole plant level.
• Fruit size appears to scale with
phloem transport capacity.

http://income-labs.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/scaling-your-business.jpg http://ats.doit.wisc.edu/biology/pb/images/t2_p1.gif
Anthesis
• Is a combination of ethylene and
cytokinin
• The type of cytokinin, as well as the
concentration and timing, have been
carefully selected to help offer the
maximum effectiveness.
• Grower-supported data shows the
distinctive Anthesis curve when
compared to untreated pumpkins
that are in the same grower’s patch.
References (slide 1 of 3)
• Atta-Aly, M. A., Riad, G. S., Lacheene, Z. El.-S., and El-Beltagy,
A.S., (1999) Early application of ethrel extends tomato fruit
cell division and increases fruit size and yield with ripening
delay, J. Plant Growth Regul. 18:15-24.
• Fanwoua, J. (2012). Tomato fruit growth: integrating cell
division, cell growth and endoreduplication by
experimentation and modelling. publisher not identified.
• Fomenkov, A.A., Nosov, A.V., Rakitin, V.Y. et al. Russ J Plant
Physiol (2015) 62: 815. doi:10.1134/S1021443715060059
• Foyer, Christine H, and Paul, Matthew J(Apr 2001) Source–
Sink Relationships. In: eLS. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester.
http://www.els.net [doi: 10.1038/npg.els.0001304]
References (slide 2 of 3)
• Johnson, L. K., Malladi, A., & NeSmith, D. S. (2011). Differences in
cell number facilitate fruit size variation in rabbiteye blueberry
genotypes. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural
Science, 136(1), 10-15.
• Kazama, H., Dan, H., Imaseki, H., & Wasteneys, G. O. (2004).
Transient Exposure to Ethylene Stimulates Cell Division and Alters
the Fate and Polarity of Hypocotyl Epidermal Cells. Plant
Physiology, 134(4), 1614–1623.
http://doi.org/10.1104/pp.103.031088
• Love, J., Björklund, S., Vahala, J., Hertzberg, M., Kangasjärvi, J., &
Sundberg, B. (2009). Ethylene is an endogenous stimulator of cell
division in the cambial meristem of populus. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America,
106(14), 5984.
• Peleg, Z., Reguera, M., Tumimbang, E., Walia, H., & Blumwald, E.
(2011). Cytokinin‐mediated source/sink modifications improve
drought tolerance and increase grain yield in rice under
water‐stress. Plant Biotechnology Journal, 9(7), 747-758.
References (slide 3 of 3)
• Roitsch, T., & Ehneß, R. (2000). Regulation of source/sink
relations by cytokinins. Plant Growth Regulation, 32(2), 359-367.
• Savage, J., Haines, D., & Holbrook, N. (2015). The making of giant
pumpkins: How selective breeding changed the phloem of
Cucurbita maxima from source to sink. Plant, Cell & Environment,
38(8), 1543-1554.
• Yashima, Y., Kaihatsu, A., Nakajima, T., & Kokubun, M. (2005).
Effects of source/sink ratio and cytokinin application on pod set
in soybean. Plant Production Science, 8(2), 139-144.
• Yu, Lo, & Ho. (2015). Source–Sink Communication: Regulated by
Hormone, Nutrient, and Stress Cross-Signaling. Trends in Plant
Science, 20(12), 844-857.
• Zhang, C., Tanabe, K., Wang, S., Tamura, F., Yoshida, A., &
Matsumoto, K. (2006). The impact of cell division and cell
enlargement on the evolution of fruit size in pyrus pyrifolia.
Annals of Botany, 98(3), 537-43.

Вам также может понравиться