Lecture Note Series

Topics in College Algebra

by Joe Sweeney

Solving Exponential and

Logarithmic Equations
 Lecture Note Series: Topics in College Algebra
Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations
by Joe Sweeney
writer@astutedata.com

Copyright ©2019 by JS Blume PublishingTM. All Rights Reserved.

While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no
responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein.

Published by JS Blume PublishingTM

eBook Edition
Table of Contents
Introduction
Properties of Exponents
Properties of Logarithms
Change of Form
Example 1
Example 2
Change of Base
Example 3
Example 4
A General Approach
pH Scale
Example 5
Example 6
Decibel Scale
Example 7
Example 8
Richter Scale
Example 9
Example 10
Example 11
Exponential Growth
Example 12
Radioactive Decay
Example 13
Example 14
Newton’s Law of Cooling
Example 15
Example 16
Compound Interest
Example 17
Example 18
Continuously Compounded Interest
Example 19
About the Author
 Introduction
This booklet is designed to introduce you to techniques for solving linear equations.

For addition practice problems, visit:

http://tutoringlab.xyz/mathematics/algebra/solving/modeling.aspx

The Tutoring Lab website is designed to provide randomly generated examples for you to practice.

• You may visit for free without registering and view two examples with solutions per day.
• A free registration allows you to view five examples with solutions per day.
• Subscriptions are available.

Note: There are many financial formulas – mortgage, annuities, etc. – that also use exponents. However, those
formulas are complicated enough to deserve a booklet of their own.

Properties of Exponents

1. a0=1
2. a1=a

Properties of Logarithms

1. loga(1)=0
2. loga(a)=1
3. loga (ax)=x
4. 𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥

Change of Form

log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥

Example 1
Change log 2 8 = 3 to exponential form.
Solution:
a=2; x=8; y=3
𝑎𝑦 = 𝑥
23 = 8

Example 2
Change 53 = 125 to logarithmic form.
Solution:
a=5; x=125; y=3
log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑦
log 5 125 = 3

Change of Base
log 𝑎 𝑥
log 𝑏 𝑥 =
log 𝑎 𝑏
 where b is the current base and a is the new base.

The change of base formula is necessary because most calculators will do only common log (log, base 10) or
natural log (ln, base e).

Example 3
Change log 3 5 to base 10 (common log).
Solution:
b=3; x=5; a=10
log10 5 log⁡(5)
log 3 5 = =
log10 3 log⁡(3)

Example 4
Change log 2 8 to natural log.
Solution:
b=2; x=8; a=e
log 𝑒 8 ln⁡(8)
log 2 8 = =
log 𝑒 2 ln⁡(2)
 A General Approach
A general approach that works well is:

1. Identify the type of problem based on key words.

2. Write down the formula for the problem type.
3. List all of the variables in a column.
4. Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).
5. Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.
6. Plug the known values into the formula.
7. Solve.

Some instructors/tutors suggest one additional step before plugging in the known values:

6. Solve the formula for the unknown variable.

7. Plug the known values into the formula.
8. Solve.

In my experience, the additional step tends to be more confusing for the student. I’ll show both methods.

Some key words to look for when identifying the type of problem:

• Decibel scale problems will usually mention sound intensity and the word decibels.

• Richter scale problems deal with earthquakes and will mention the word Richter.

• pH Scale problems deal with hydrogen ion concentrations ([H+]) and will mention pH.

• Exponential growth problems generally deal with population growth.

• Radioactive decay problems deal with the decay of elements, the half-life of elements, or carbon-14
dating.

• Newton’s Law of Cooling problems deal with the time it takes for something to cool. This can include
food or any heated object, and is also used in homicide investigations to determine the time of death.

• Compound interest problems generally deal with

 pH Scale
The pH scale is used to determine whether or not a solution is an acid or a base. It is a logarithmic scale based on
the concentration of hydrogen ions ([H+]). The range is 0 to 14 where 7 is neutral, less than 7 is an acid, and
more than 7 is a base. The formula is:

pH = –log([H+])

Example 5
A solution has a hydrogen ion concentration of 3.5 x 10-8. Calculate the pH and determine if it’s an acid or a base.

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.

Because the problem mentions hydrogen ion concentration and pH, this is a pH scale problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

pH = –log([H+])

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

pH
[H+]

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

pH unknown
+
[H ]

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

pH unknown
[H+] 3.5 x 10-8

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

pH = –log(3.5 x 10-8)

Step 7: Solve.
pH = –(–7.455931956) Evaluate the log.
pH = 7.45 Simplify and round to the nearest hundredth.
This is a base because the pH is greater than 7.

Example 6
Determine the hydrogen ion concentration of an acid with a pH if 2.67.

First method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the problem mentions hydrogen ion concentration and pH, this is a pH scale problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

pH = –log([H+])

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

 pH
[H+]

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

pH
[H+] unknown

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

pH 2.67
+
[H ] unknown

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

2.67 = –log([H+])

Step 7: Solve.
–2.67 = log([H+]) Multiply both sides by –1.
10–2.67 = [H+] Change to exponential form.
2.14x10–3 Evaluate and round to the nearest hundredth.

This is the alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the problem mentions hydrogen ion concentration and pH, this is a pH scale problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

pH = –log([H+])

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

pH
[H+]

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

pH
[H+] unknown

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

pH 2.67
[H+] unknown

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

–pH = log([H+]) Multiply both sides by –1.
10–pH = [H+] Change to exponential form.

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.

10–2.67 = [H+]

Step 8: Solve.
2.14x10–3 Evaluate and round to the nearest hundredth.
 Decibel Scale

The decibel scale measures the relative power of a sound intensity to a reference intensity (a constant). The
formula is:
𝐼
𝐵 = 10log ( )
𝐼0
The variables are:

B – the intensity in decibels (dB)

I – the sound intensity in watts per square meter (W/m2)
I0 – the reference intensity 10-12 W/m2

Example 7
The sound intensity of traffic on a highway was measured at 2.67 x 10-5 W/m2. Find the intensity level in
decibels.

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.

Because we’re being asked for intensity level of a sound in decibels, this is a decibel scale problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝐼
𝐵 = 10log ( )
𝐼0

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

B
I
I0

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

B unknown
I
I0

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

B unknown
I 2.67 x 10-5 W/m2 (given)
I0 10-12 W/m2 (constant)

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

2.67⁡ × 10−5 ⁡
𝐵 = 10log ( )
10−12

Step 7: Solve.
𝐵 = 10log(2.67⁡ × 107 ) Simplify the powers of 10.
𝐵 = 10(7.426511261) Take the log.
𝐵 = 74.27 Multiply by 10 and round to nearest hundredth.
Example 8
The sound intensity of subway train was measured at 102 dB. Find the intensity level in W/m2.
First method for solving:
Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because we’re being asked for intensity level of a sound in decibels, this is a decibel scale problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝐼
𝐵 = 10log ( )
𝐼0

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

B
I
I0

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

B
I unknown
I0

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

B 102 dB (given)
I unknown
I0 10-12 W/m2 (constant)

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

𝐼⁡
102 = 10log ( −12 )
10

Step 7: Solve.
𝐼⁡
10.2 = log ( ) Divide by 10.
10−12
𝐼⁡
1010.2 = Change to exponential form.
10−12

1010.2 × 10−12 = 𝐼 Multiply by the denominator.

1.58 × 10−2 = 𝐼 Simplify and round to nearest hundredth.

Alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because we’re being asked for intensity level of a sound in decibels, this is a decibel scale problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝐼
𝐵 = 10log ( )
𝐼0

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

B
I
I0
Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).
B
I unknown
I0

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

B 102 dB (given)
I unknown
I0 10-12 W/m2 (constant)

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

𝐵 𝐼⁡
= log ( ) Divide by 10.
10 𝐼0
𝐵
𝐼⁡
1010 = Change to exponential form.
𝐼0
𝐵
1010 × 𝐼0 = 𝐼 Multiply by the denominator.

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.

1010.2 × 10−12 = 𝐼

Step 8: Solve.
1.58 × 10−2 = 𝐼 Simplify and round to nearest hundredth.
 Richter Scale
The Richter Scale is a popular measure for the magnitude of an earthquake. The formula is:

𝐼
𝑀 = log ( )
𝑆

where:

M is the magnitude
I is the intensity, measured by the amplitude in centimeters of a seismograph reading 100km
from the epicenter
S is 10-4 cm, the intensity of a “standard” earthquake

Many of the examples you might see compare the intensity ratios of one earthquake to another. The formula for
the ratio is:

𝐼1 10𝑀1
= = 10𝑀1 −𝑀2
𝐼2 10𝑀2

This formula is arrived at by first solving the Richter Scale formula for I:

𝐼
𝑀 = log ( ) Richter Scale formula.
𝑆
𝐼
10𝑀 = Change to exponential form.
𝑆

𝑆10𝑀 = 𝐼 Multiply by S.
𝐼1 𝑆10𝑀1
= Subscript for the two earthquakes and divide.
𝐼2 𝑆10𝑀2

𝐼1 10𝑀1
= Cancel the common factor of S.
𝐼2 10𝑀2
𝐼1
= 10𝑀1 −𝑀2 Simplify using laws of exponents.
𝐼2

Example 9
Calculate the magnitude of an earthquake with an amplitude intensity of 2x104 cm.

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.

Because we’re being asked for intensity of an earthquake, this is a Richter scale problem. Since we’re
not comparing earthquakes, we use the first formula.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝐼
𝑀 = log ( )
𝑆

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

M
I
S
Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).
M unknown
I
S

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

M unknown
I 2 x104 cm (given)
S 10-4 (constant)

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

2 × 104
𝑀 = log ( )
10−4

Step 7: Solve.
𝑀 = log(2 × 108 ) Simplify the fraction.
𝑀 = 8.30 Take the log and round to nearest hundredth.

Example 10
Calculate the amplitude intensity of an earthquake with a magnitude of 9.5.

First method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because we’re being asked for intensity of an earthquake, this is a Richter scale problem. Since we’re
not comparing earthquakes, we use the first formula.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝐼
𝑀 = log ( )
𝑆

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

M
I
S

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

M
I unknown
S

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

M 9.5
I unknown
S 10-4 (constant)

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

𝐼
9.5 = log ( −4 )
10
Step 7: Solve.
𝐼
109.5 = Change to exponential form.
10−4

10−4 × 109.5 = 𝐼 Multiply both sides by 10-4.

105.5 = 𝐼 Simplify using laws of exponents.
3.17 × 105 = 𝐼 Simplify and round to nearest hundredth.

Alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because we’re being asked for intensity of an earthquake, this is a Richter scale problem. Since we’re
not comparing earthquakes, we use the first formula.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝐼
𝑀 = log ( )
𝑆

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

M
I
S

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

M
I unknown
S

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

M 9.5
I unknown
S 10-4 (constant)

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

𝐼
10𝑀 = Change to exponential form.
𝑆

𝑆× 10𝑀 =𝐼 Multiply both sides by S.

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.
10−4 × 109.5 = 𝐼

Step 8: Solve.
105.5 = 𝐼 Simplify using laws of exponents.
3.17 × 105 = 𝐼 Simplify and round to nearest hundredth.

Example 11
An earthquake measures 2.4 on the Richter scale. What is the magnitude of an earthquake that has an
amplitude intensity five times greater?
First method for solving:
Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because we’re being asked for intensity of an earthquake, this is a Richter scale problem. Since we’re
comparing earthquakes, we use the second formula.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝐼1
= 10𝑀1 −𝑀2
𝐼2

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

I1
I2
M1
M2

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

I1
I2
M1
M2 unknown

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

I1 1
I2 5
M1 2.4
M2 unknown

Because the amplitude intensity of the second earthquake was five times the first, we can set up a ratio
of 1:5, using 1 as the intensity of the first and 5 as the intensity of the second.

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

1
= 102.4−𝑀2
5

Step 7: Solve.
1
log ( ) = 2.4 − 𝑀2 Change to logarithmic form.
5
1
log ( ) − 2.4 = −𝑀2 Subtract 2.4 from both sides.
5
1
−log ( ) + 2.4 = 𝑀2 Multiply through by –1.
5

. 698970004 + 2.4 = 𝑀2 Evaluate the log.

3.1 = 𝑀2 Simplify and round to nearest tenth.

Alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because we’re being asked for intensity of an earthquake, this is a Richter scale problem. Since we’re
comparing earthquakes, we use the second formula.
Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.
𝐼1
= 10𝑀1 −𝑀2
𝐼2

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

I1
I2
M1
M2

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

I1
I2
M1
M2 unknown

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

I1 1
I2 5
M1 2.4
M2 unknown

Because the amplitude intensity of the second earthquake was five times the first, we can set up a ratio
of 1:5, using 1 as the intensity of the first and 5 as the intensity of the second.

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

𝐼
log ( 1 ) = 𝑀1 − 𝑀2 Change to logarithmic form.
𝐼2
𝐼
log ( 1 ) − 𝑀1 = −𝑀2 Subtract M1 from both sides.
𝐼2
𝐼
−log ( 1) + 𝑀1 = 𝑀2 Multiply through by –1.
𝐼2

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.

1
−log ( ) + 2.4 = 𝑀2
5

Step 8: Solve.
. 698970004 + 2.4 = 𝑀2 Evaluate the log.
3.1 = 𝑀2 Simplify and round to nearest tenth.
 Exponential Growth
Exponential growth models the growth of a population. The formula is:

n(t) = n0ert

where:

n(t) is the population after time.

n0 is the initial population
e is a constant (~2.718)
r is the growth rate
t is the time

Example 12
The initial bacterium count of a culture is 10,000. After 24 hours, the count is 257,300. What is the growth rate?

First method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Since growth rate is being asked for, this would be an exponential growth problem. Another clue is that
the problem is about bacteria, which is a living organism capable of population growth.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

n(t) = n0ert

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

n(t)
n0
r
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

n(t)
n0
r unknown
t

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

n(t) 257,300
n0 10,000
r unknown
t 24 hours

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

257300 = 10000er24

Step 7: Solve.
25.7300 = 𝑒 𝑟24 Divide both sides by 10000.
ln⁡(25.7300) = 𝑟24 Change to logarithmic form using natural log because of e.
 ln⁡(25.7300)
=r Divide both sides by 24.
24
3.247657626
=r Evaluate the natural log.
24

0.135 = r Simplify and round to the nearest thousandth.

This is the alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Since growth rate is being asked for, this would be an exponential growth problem. Another clue is that
the problem is about bacteria, which is a living organism capable of population growth.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

n(t) = n0ert

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

n(t)
n0
r
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

n(t)
n0
r unknown
t

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

n(t) 257,300
n0 10,000
r unknown
t 24 hours

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

n(t)
= 𝑒 rt Divide by n0
n0
n(t)
ln ( ) = rt Change to logarithmic form using natural log because of e.
n0
n(t)
ln( n )
0
=r Divide by t.
t

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.

257300
ln⁡( 10000 )
=r
24

Step 8: Solve.
ln⁡(25.7300)
= r Divide by 10,000.
24
3.247657626
=r Evaluate the natural log.
24
0.135 = r Simplify and round to the nearest thousandth.
 Radioactive Decay
Radioactive decay measures the loss in mass of a radioactive compound. The general formula is:

𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑚0 𝑒 −𝑟𝑡

where:

m(t) is the mass after time

m0 is the initial mass
e is a constant (~2.718)
r is the rate of decay
t is the time in years

ln(2)
The half-life formula represents the time it takes for half of the mass to decay. The rate of decay r equals − .
ℎ
The formula is:

𝑡ln(2)
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑚0 𝑒 − ℎ

where:

m(t) is the mass after time

m0 is the initial mass
h is the half life
t is the time

Example 13
Radioactive thorium-234 has a rate of decay of 0.027. Starting with a 100-gram sample, how much will remain
after 30 days?

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.

Since the question is asking about mass remaining of a radioactive substance, this is a radioactive decay
problem. Because rate of decay is given, rather than half-life, we use the first formula.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑚0 𝑒 −𝑟𝑡

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

m(t)
m0
r
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

m(t) unknown
m0
r
t
Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.
m(t) unknown
m0 100 grams
r 0.0027
t 30 days

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

𝑚(𝑡) = 100𝑒 −(0.0027)(100)

Step 7: Solve.
𝑚(𝑡) = 100𝑒 −(0.27) Simplify the exponent
𝑚(𝑡) = 100(0.763379494) Evaluate e to the exponent
𝑚(𝑡) = 76.34 Simplify and round to the nearest hundredth.

Example 14
A wooden artifact contains 71% of the carbon-14 that is present in living trees. The half-life of carbon-14 is 5730
years. How long ago was the artifact made?

First method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Since the question is asking about mass remaining of a radioactive substance, this is a radioactive decay
problem. Because half-life is given, rather than rate of decay, we use the second formula.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑡ln(2)
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑚0 𝑒 − ℎ

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

m(t)
m0
h
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

m(t)
m0
h
t unknown

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

m(t) 0.71
m0 1
h 5730
t unknown

The trick to this one is that we don’t know the mass. So, we pick any initial amount and set the amount
after time to 71% of that. The easiest initial mass is 1 gram, giving us 0.71 grams for the mass after time.

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

 𝑡ln(2)
0.71 = 1𝑒 − 5730

Step 7: Solve.
𝑡ln(2)
ln⁡(0.71) = − Change to logarithmic form, using natural log because of e.
5730

5730ln⁡(0.71) = −𝑡ln(2) Multiply both sides by 5730.

5730ln⁡(0.71)
=𝑡 Divide both sides by -ln(2).
−ln⁡(2)
5730⁡(−2.645075402)
=𝑡 Evaluate the natural logs.
−0.693147181

2831 = 𝑡 Simplify and round to the nearest year.

This is the alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Since the question is asking about mass remaining of a radioactive substance, this is a radioactive decay
problem. Because half-life is given, rather than rate of decay, we use the second formula.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑡ln(2)
𝑚(𝑡) = 𝑚0 𝑒 − ℎ

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

m(t)
m0
h
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

m(t)
m0
h
t unknown

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

m(t) 0.71
m0 1
h 5730
t unknown

The trick to this one is that we don’t know the mass. So, we pick any initial amount and set the amount
after time to 71% of that. The easiest initial mass is 1 gram, giving us 0.71 grams for the mass after time.

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

𝑡ln(2)
𝑚(𝑡)
= 𝑒− ℎ Divide by m0.
𝑚0
𝑚(𝑡) 𝑡ln(2)
ln( ) =− Change to logarithmic form, using natural log because of e.
𝑚0 ℎ
 𝑚(𝑡)
hln( ) = −𝑡ln(2) Change to logarithmic form, using natural log because of e.
𝑚0
𝑚(𝑡)
ℎln( 𝑚 )
0
=𝑡 Divide both sides by -ln(2).
−ln⁡(2)

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.

0.71
5730ln( )
1
=𝑡 Divide both sides by -ln(2).
−ln⁡(2)

Step 8: Solve.
5730⁡(−2.645075402)
=𝑡 Evaluate the natural logs.
−0.693147181

2831 = 𝑡 Simplify and round to the nearest year.

 Newton’s Law of Cooling
Newton’s Law of Cooling models the rate of cooling of an object based on temperature difference. The formula
is:

𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑠 + 𝐷0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

where:

T(t) is the temperature after time

Ts is the surrounding temperature
D0 is the initial temperature difference
k is a positive constant for the object
t is the time

Example 15
Coffee has a cooling constant of 0.04855. If a fresh cup of coffee is 195° and room temperature is 68°, what will
the temperature of the coffee be after 15 minutes?

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.

Because the question is asking about temperate and mentions cooling, this is a Newton’s Law of Cooling
problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑠 + 𝐷0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

T(t)
Ts
D0
k
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

T(t) unknown
Ts
D0
k
t

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

T(t) unknown
Ts 68°
D0 195° - 68° = 127°
k 0.04855
t 15 minutes

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

𝑇(𝑡) = 68 + 127𝑒 −0.04855(15)
Step 7: Solve.
𝑇(𝑡) = 68 + 127𝑒 −0.72825
𝑇(𝑡) = 68 + 127(0.482753069)
𝑇(𝑡) = 68 + 127(0.482753069)
𝑇(𝑡) = 68 + 61.30963979
𝑇(𝑡) = 129°
Simplify the exponent
Raise e to the exponent.
Raise e to the exponent.
Multiply.
Add and round to the nearest degree.

Example 16
The cooling constant for a human body is 0.1947. If a body is currently 75° and the surrounding temperature is
58°, how long ago was the time of death?

First method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the question is asking about time of death and mentions cooling, this is a Newton’s Law of
Cooling problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑠 + 𝐷0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

T(t)
Ts
D0
k
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

T(t)
Ts
D0
k
t unknown

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

T(t) 75°
Ts 58°
D0 98.6° - 75° = 23.6°
K 0.1947
t unknown

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

75 = 58 + 23.6𝑒 −0.1947𝑡

Step 7: Solve.
17 = 23.6𝑒 −0.1947𝑡 Subtract 58 from both sides.
0.720338983 = 𝑒 −0.1947𝑡 Divide both sides by 23.6.
ln⁡(0.720338983) = −0.1947𝑡 Change to logarithmic form, using natural log because of e.
 ln⁡(0.720338983)
=𝑡 Divide both sides by -0.1947.
−0.1947
−0.328033368
=𝑡 Evaluate the natural log.
−0.1947

1.7 = 𝑡 Simplify and round to the nearest tenth.

This is the alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the question is asking about time of death and mentions cooling, this is a Newton’s Law of
Cooling problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑇(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑠 + 𝐷0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

T(t)
Ts
D0
k
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

T(t)
Ts
D0
k
t unknown

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

T(t) 75°
Ts 58°
D0 98.6° - 75° = 23.6°
K 0.1947
t unknown

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

75 = 58 + 23.6𝑒 −0.1947𝑡

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇𝑠 = 𝐷0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 Subtract Ts from both sides.
𝑇(𝑡)−𝑇𝑠
= 𝑒 −0.𝑘𝑡 Divide both sides by D0.
𝐷0

𝑇(𝑡)−𝑇𝑠
ln⁡( ) = −𝑟𝑡 Change to logarithmic form, using natural log because of e.
𝐷0
𝑇(𝑡)−𝑇𝑠
ln⁡⁡( )
𝐷0
=𝑡 Divide both sides by -r.
−𝑟

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.

 75 − 58
ln⁡⁡( )
23.6 =𝑡
−0.1947

Step 8: Solve.
ln⁡(0.720338983)
=𝑡 Simplify the parentheses.
−0.1947
−0.328033368
=𝑡 Evaluate the natural log.
−0.1947

1.7 = 𝑡 Simplify and round to the nearest tenth.

 Compound Interest
The compound interest formula is used when a fixed initial amount of money earns interest on a regular basis.
This could be a certificate of deposit or a loan (such as a car loan). The formula is:

𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑛

where:

A(t) is the amount after time

P is the principle (initial starting amount)
r is the annual interest rate
n is the number of compounding periods in a year
t is the time in years

The values for n are:

1 Annually
2 Semi-Annually
4 Quarterly
12 Monthly
24 Semi-Monthly
52 Weekly

Example 17
You buy a car for $14,999. The interest rate on the loan is 3.54% for 48 months. What is the total amount you
pay? How much interest do you pay? How much is your monthly payment?

To calculate the total amount you pay:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the problem is about a loan and mentions annual interest rate, this is a compound interest
problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑛

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

A(t)
P
r
n
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

A(t) unknown
P
r
n
 t

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

A(t) unknown
P $14,999
r 3.54% = 0.354
n 12 (unless stated otherwise, compounding is monthly)
t 48 months = 4 years

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

0.0354 12(4)
𝐴(𝑡) = 14999 (1 + )
12

Step 7: Solve.
𝐴(𝑡) = 14999(1 + 0.00295)48 Simply the fraction and the exponent
𝐴(𝑡) = 14999(1.00295)48 Add the numbers in the parentheses
𝐴(𝑡) = 14999(1.151875576) Raise to the power of 12
𝐴(𝑡) = 17,276.98 Multiply and round to the nearest penny (hundredth)

To calculate how much interest you would pay:

I = A(t) – P
= 17276.98 – 14999
= 2,277.98

To calculate your monthly payment:

Monthly Payment = A(t)/months
= 17276.98/48
= 359.94

Example 18
A bank offers a Certificate of Deposit with an annual interest rate of 2.75%. The minimum deposit is $500 and
the term is one year. You want to have $1000 by the end of the term. How much do you need to open the
account with?

First method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the problem is about savings and mentions annual interest rate, this is a compound interest
problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑛

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

A(t)
P
r
n
t
Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).
A(t)
P unknown
r
n
t

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

A(t) $1000
P unknown
r 2.75% = 0.0275
n 12 (unless stated otherwise, compounding is monthly)
t 1 year

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

0.0275 12(1)
1000 = 𝑃 (1 + )
12

Step 7: Solve.
1000 = 𝑃(1 + 0.002291667)12 Simplify the fraction and exponent
1000 = 𝑃(1.002291667)12 Add the number inside the parentheses
1000 = 𝑃(1.027849276) Raise to the power of 12
972.91 = 𝑃 Divide both sides to isolate P and round to the nearest penny

This is the alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the problem is about savings and mentions annual interest rate, this is a compound interest
problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

𝑟 𝑛𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝑃 (1 + )
𝑛

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

A(t)
P
r
n
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

A(t)
P unknown
r
n
t

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

A(t) $1000
 P unknown
r 2.75% = 0.0275
n 12 (unless stated otherwise, compounding is monthly)
t 1 year

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

𝐴(𝑡)
𝑟 𝑛𝑡
=𝑃 Divide to isolate P.
(1+𝑛)

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.

1000
0.0275 12(1)
=𝑃
(1+ 12 )

Step 8: Solve.
1000
(1+0.002291667) 12
=𝑃 Simplify the fraction and exponent
1000
(1.002291667) 12
=𝑃 Add the number inside the parentheses
1000
=𝑃 Raise to the power of 12
1.027849276

972.91 = 𝑃 Divide and round to the nearest penny

 Continuously Compounded Interest
Continuously compounded interest occurs when interest is compounded an infinite number of times per year.
The formula is:

A(t) = Pert

where:

A(t) is the amount after time

P is the principle (initial starting amount)
e is a constant (~2.718)
r is the annual interest rate
t is the time in years

Example 19
A bank offers a Certificate of Deposit with an interest that is compounded continuously. The minimum deposit is
$500 and the term is one year. You want to have $1000 by the end of the term. How much do you need to open
the account with?

First method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the problem is about savings and mentions that interest is compounded continuously, this is a
continuously compounded interest problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

A(t) = Pert

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

A(t)
P
r
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

A(t)
P unknown
r
t

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

A(t) $1000
P unknown
r 2.75% = 0.0275
t 1 year

Step 6: Plug the known values into the formula.

1000 = 𝑃𝑒 0.0275(1)
Step 7: Solve.
1000 = 𝑃𝑒 0.0275 Simplify the exponent
1000 = 𝑃(1.027881615) Raise to the power of 12
972.87 = 𝑃 Divide both sides to isolate P and round to the nearest penny

This is the alternate method for solving:

Step 1: Identify the type of problem based on key words.
Because the problem is about savings and mentions annual interest rate, this is a compound interest
problem.

Step 2: Write down the formula for the problem type.

A(t) = Pert

Step 3: List all of the variables in a column.

A(t)
P
r
t

Step 4: Identify which variable is to be found (the unknown).

A(t)
P unknown
r
t

Step 5: Identify the value for all of the remaining variables.

A(t) $1000
P unknown
r 2.75% = 0.0275
t 1 year

Step 6: Solve the formula for the variable.

𝐴(𝑡)
=𝑃 Divide to isolate P.
𝑒 𝑟𝑡

Step 7: Plug the known values into the formula.

1000
𝑒 0.0275(1) = 𝑃

Step 8: Solve.
1000
=𝑃 Simplify the exponent
𝑒 0.0275
1000
=𝑃 Raise to the power of 12
1.0278881615

972.91 = 𝑃 Divide and round to the nearest penny

 About the Author

Joe Sweeney has a Bachelor’s in Science from the State University of New York in Albany. His major was
Mathematics and his minor was Computer Science. He has been tutoring math, science, and computer
programming since 1986. His experience as an instructor includes teaching mathematics at Pima Community
College as an adjunct from Fall of 2003 through Spring of 2006 and as an instructional assistant for Hudson
Valley Community college from Spring of 2017 through Spring of 2019. His experience as a tutor includes peer,
one-on-one, and group both privately and for local colleges.