Earth science

Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth.
This is a branch of science dealing with the physical constitution of the Earth and its
atmosphere. Earth science is the study of our planet's physical characteristics, from
earthquakes to raindrops, and floods to fossils. Earth science can be considered to be a branch
of planetary science, but with a much older history. Earth science encompasses four main
branches of study, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere, each
of which is further broken down into more specialized fields.
There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to earth sciences. It is also the study of
Earth and its neighbors in space. Some earth scientists use their knowledge of the planet to
locate and develop energy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activity on
Earth's environment, and design methods to protect the planet. Some use their knowledge
about earth processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and hurricanes to plan communities
that will not expose people to these dangerous events.
The Earth sciences can include the study of geology, the lithosphere, and the large-scale
structure of the Earth's interior, as well as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
Typically, Earth scientists use tools from geography, chronology, physics, chemistry, biology,
and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how the Earth works and evolves.
Earth science affects our everyday lives. For example, meteorologists study the weather and
watch for dangerous storms. Hydrologists study water and warn of floods. Seismologists study
earthquakes and try to predict where they will strike. Geologists study rocks and help to locate
useful minerals. Earth scientists often work in the field—perhaps climbing mountains, exploring
the seabed, crawling through caves, or wading in swamps. They measure and collect samples
(such as rocks or river water), then they record their findings on charts and maps.

Fields of study[edit]
The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences:

 Physical geography covers aspects of geomorphology, soil

study, hydrology, meteorology, climatology, and biogeography.[1]
 Geology describes the rocky parts of the earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic
development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry,
geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology,
and sedimentology.[2][3]
 Geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and
its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the earth's core and mantle as well as
the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere.[3][4][5] Geophysics is commonly used to
supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal
geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Seismologists use geophysics to
understand plate tectonic shifting, as well as predict seismic activity.
 Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation
processes (or pedosphere).[6] Major subdivisions in this field of study
include edaphology and pedology.[7]
 Ecology covers the interactions between the fauna and flora. This field of study
differentiates the study of Earth from the study of other planets in the Solar System, Earth
being its only planet teeming with life.
 Hydrology, oceanography and limnology are studies which focus on the movement,
distribution, and quality of the water and involves all the components of the hydrologic cycle
 on the Earth and its atmosphere (or hydrosphere). "Sub-disciplines of hydrology include
hydrometeorology, surface water hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest
hydrology, and water chemistry."[8]
 Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).
 Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the
surface and the exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines include meteorology,
climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics.

Earth’s Interior
Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that
can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the earth's crust.[10]
Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy
elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-
perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit
slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics.[11][12][13][14]
Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the
result of seafloor spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from
the mantle to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through
subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle.[12][14][15]
Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is
brought back into the earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each
other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or
conservative) boundaries[12][14][16] Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric
plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into
the earth as part of subduction.[17]
Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is
forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light
enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes

Earth's atmosphere[edit]
Main article: Atmosphere of Earth

The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind.
(image not to scale.)
The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers
which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the gases in the atmosphere are located within the
troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen,
20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon. In addition to the nitrogen, oxygen, and argon there are small
amounts of other gases including CO2 and water vapor.[18] Water vapor and CO2 allow the
earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through a phenomenon called
the greenhouse effect.[19] This allows Earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water
and support life. In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by
shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays—which are often incorrectly thought to be
deflected by the magnetic field.[20] The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the
core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from the solar
wind.[21] As the earth is 4.5 billion years old,[22] it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there
were no protective magnetosphere.

Earth's magnetic field

An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by an electric current. The Earth has a solid
iron inner core surrounded by a fluid outer core that convects; therefore, Earth is an
electromagnet. The motion of fluid convection sustains the Earth's magnetic field.

Methodology
Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall
into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often
conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth
phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or hot spot island chains).
A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient
geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed.
In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways
throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth's history to apply knowledge of
how earth processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and
changed throughout long history.
Earth’s spheres
Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere,
the atmosphere, and the biosphere; these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included
by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and
the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere.