Tourism Management 72 (2019) 270–280

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Tourism Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman

Pop star fan tourists: An application of self-expansion theory T

a,∗ b b
SoJung Lee , Billy Bai , James A. Busser
a
Apparel, Events, and Hospitality Management Department, Iowa State University, 8A MacKay Hall, Ames, IA, 50011, USA
b
William F. Harrah College of Hospitality, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway Box 456021, Las Vegas, NV, 89154-6021, USA

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Given the growth of pop culture tourism, fans are recognized as an important destination market segment. This
Pop culture study applied self-expansion theory to examine if pop star fans' self-expansion was a significant motivation to
Fans seek fan club membership and lead to a positive relationship with their favorite pop star's country. South Korea
Group identity pop star fans revealed that highly self-expanded fans were more likely to belong to fan clubs and to exhibit
Membership
stronger group identity, higher travel satisfaction, and greater destination loyalty. The application of self-ex-
Travel satisfaction
Destination loyalty
pansion theory offers a new theoretical perspective to understand pop star fans' psychological characteristics that
affect their travel behaviors. By purposefully choosing pop star fans, the study makes a unique contribution with
new insights regarding pop culture tourism fans. Destination marketing organizations should recognize pop star
fans as potential loyal tourists and develop tailored travel products and services to capture this market.

1. Introduction tourists place high importance on the film or celebrity in destination

In recent years, pop culture tourism has come into the spotlight. It
involves travel to a destination featured in film, sports, literature,
drama, music, and/or television; those related to a particular celebrity;
or any other location that may be associated with pop culture themes
(Miller & Washington, 2007, p. 162). For example, over 600,000
tourists a year have visited Elvis Presley's home in Memphis, Graceland,
which is one of the most famous private homes in America (Hendricks,
2016). Given the growing interest in pop culture tourism, researchers
have begun to appreciate the impact of pop culture on tourism man-
agement, such as an improved destination image and increased tourist
interest (Kim & Richardson, 2003; Lee & Bai, 2016; Riley, Baker, & Van
Doren, 1998). However, much of the empirical findings indicate that
popular culture plays a minor tourism motivation role (Croy, 2010;
Macionis & Sparks, 2009). For example, Macionis and Sparks (2009)
found that about four percent of tourists were motivated to travel by
movies filmed at a destination site. Croy (2010) found that less than one
percent indicated film was a secondary motive to visit the country.
Most pop culture tourism research has focused on general audiences
or tourists (Kim, 2012; Kim & Wang, 2012; Kozinets, 2001; Lee & Scott,
2009; Lee, Scott, & Kim, 2008). More recently the focus has moved to
the much smaller niche of those more likely to be influenced by popular
culture, especially including fans (Lee & Bai, 2016; Lee, Song, Lee, &
Petrick, 2017; Yen & Croy, 2016). Indeed, in spite of their relatively
small numbers, recent studies have demonstrated that purposeful fan
decision-making, and demand a deep experience (Croy & Heitmann,
2011; Yen & Croy, 2016).
Pop culture fans tend to travel to a destination featured in pop
culture media to seek experiences associated with a particular celebrity,
subculture, or theme (Lee & Bai, 2016; Lee et al., 2017; Yen & Croy,
2016). Pop star fans exhibit high involvement with and emotional at-
tachment to their favorite celebrity (Fiske, 1992). Fan membership
provides a sense of belongingness, which fosters a pervasive social bond
and identification (Bhattacharya, Rao, & Glynn, 1995). Fans can obtain
membership status through various ways, including a membership
purchase and active participation. As a result, fans have a similar group
identity with other fans in the same group of fan clubs. Fans foster their
identification with other members through involvement and partici-
pation in pop culture activities (Fiske, 1992). A fan's identification and
active involvement can also develop into a form of worship, leading to
visiting destinations related to a pop star. The process of developing
group identity through a trip to a pop star's country is akin to a pil-
grimage where people look for a religious experience (Reader, 2007).
Although previous studies have examined fans' situational behaviors
such as attachment, commitment, involvement, loyalty in celebrity re-
lationships, the inherent characteristics that motivate these behaviors
have been overlooked.
Lasch (1979) claimed that a person follows heroes as an extension of
oneself and identify with them to satisfy one's desire for fame and social
approval. Thus, individuals can become fans of famous figures if they

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sjlee@iastate.edu (S. Lee), billy.bai@unlv.edu (B. Bai), james.busser@unlv.edu (J.A. Busser).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.12.006
Received 5 May 2018; Received in revised form 6 December 2018; Accepted 8 December 2018
0261-5177/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Lee et al.
have a strong motivation to expand and identify themselves with others
to meet their goals. Aron and Aron (1986) introduced self-expansion
theory in which people possess an inherent desire to broaden them-
selves and a motivation to include others into one's self. In addition,
Aron and McLaughlin-Volpe (200l) argued that highly self-expanded
people are motivated to join and identify with groups to gain exclusive
membership benefits that provide a chance to expand the self and
achieve their goals. Furthermore, Reimann and Aron (2009) suggested
that self-expansion influences one's relationship with an environment
through positive affect. This implies that fans' high self-expansion can
be an important factor in building a relationship with the pop star's
country through positive travel experiences (Lee, 2012). Therefore, this
study identifies that self-expansion theory provides a potential con-
ceptual framework to describe pop culture fans' unique characteristics
and travel behaviors in the pop culture tourism context. It is proposed
that high self-expansion fans would be increasingly satisfied and
therefore loyal to the celebrity-associated destination.
Customer satisfaction and loyalty have been broadly researched in
the marketing research, with customer satisfaction being an important
determinant of loyalty (e.g., Mittal & Kamakura, 2001; Oliver, 1999). In
tourism research, this linkage has also been supported (e.g., Severt,
Wang, Chen, & Breiter, 2007). Since pop culture fans are a special group
of travelers when they visit a tourism destination, it is critically sig-
nificant to examine their travel satisfaction and destination loyalty.
The purpose of this study is to examine pop star fans' membership,
group identity, travel satisfaction, and destination loyalty by applying
self-expansion theory. More specifically, this study aims to: 1) cate-
gorize pop star fans based on the degree of self-expansion, 2) compare
differences in self-expansion, membership, and identity between cate-
gorized groups, and 3) explore group differences in travel satisfaction
and destination loyalty toward a pop star's country. The research setting
was Korean pop culture and the sample included fans of South Korea's
pop stars.
2. Literature review
2.1. Self-expansion theory
Self-expansion theory was developed based on a theoretical foun-
dation to explain individuals' inner motivation that influences cogni-
tion, affection, and behavior in intimate relationships between people
(Aron & Aron, 1986). It centers on the human motive to expand one's
self by acquiring identities, resources, and views that aid one's ability to
accomplish goals in a series of expansion processes (Aron, Aron, &
Norman, 2001; Aron, Fisher, Mashek, Strong, & Brown, 2005). In a new
romantic relationship, rapid self-expansion occurs, which leads to high
degrees of positive affect (Aron et al., 2004). Aron and Aron (1986)
proposed that self-motivation and the inclusion of others in the self are
two important aspects of self-expansion. Self-motivation focuses on the
drive for one's ability to expand and achieve a goal. Meanwhile, the
inclusion of others in the self focuses on one's resources, views, and
identities to develop a strong relationship.
Self-expansion theory also explains the motivation for joining and
identifying with groups (Aron & McLaughlin-Volpe, 200l). Wright,
Aron, and Tropp (2002) proposed that individuals are interested in
joining groups because membership offers the chance to expand the self
and greater potential to achieve goals by providing access to substantial
benefits such as resources (e.g., connections, network), identities (e.g.,
student, teacher), and perspectives (e.g., a set of values). Therefore,
group membership can help individuals to achieve their goals by of-
fering benefits and experiences that result in positive affects through
interpersonal interactions emanating from self-expansion (McLaughlin-
Volpe, Aron, Wright, & Lewandowski, 2005). When membership offers
considerable benefits, highly self-expanded people are greatly moti-
vated to join and maintain their member status (Wright et al., 2002).
Self-expansion theory has been applied to various disciplines where
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Tourism Management 72 (2019) 270–280
there are significant relationships between a person and an object, such
as brand marketing, political science, and social psychology (Reimann
& Aron, 2009). Carroll and Ahuvia (2006) employed the theory to
branding research and revealed that high self-expanded motivation to a
brand was important to develop brand commitment and loyalty
through a long-term relationship. Harris (2011) explored the self-ex-
pansion of adult volunteers, focusing specifically on commitment, so-
cial identity, and volunteer features. The findings of the study sup-
ported the self-expansion model as a framework that describes ageing
as a personal growth process of psychological development. Further-
more, Reimann and Aron (2009) noted that environmental psychology
is a potential field for the application of self-expansion theory to ex-
plore the relationship between individuals and environment in natural
locales. Overall, self-expansion theory describes individuals’ inherent
motivation toward their goals, interacting with others or objects.
2.2. Pop culture tourism
Popular culture, in the context of this study, is manifested in the
aspects of entertainment including movies, soap operas, music, litera-
ture, television programs, and pop stars (Beeton, Yamamura, & Seaton,
2013). Popular culture is noted as a very effective medium to attract
visitors to a destination (Beeton, 2001), boost economic impact (Busby
& Klug, 2001), and develop positive destination images (Lee, Busser, &
Yang, 2015; Lee & Bai, 2016). Tourists travel to destinations that fea-
ture one or more of types of popular culture. This kind of trip or pop
culture tourism portrays a diverse range of tourism motivators such as
film, literature, and music.
Pop culture tourism has been often discussed within the theoretical
context of content tourism, which originated in Japan (Beeton et al.,
2013). Content tourism focuses on pop culture (e.g., literature, char-
acters, narratives, film) and the role popular culture plays in driving
tourism (Seaton & Yamamura, 2015). Research on pop tourism has
further been classified by media format, such as film-induced tourism,
music tourism and literature tourism (Beeton et al., 2013).
Film tourism, a type of pop culture tourism, particularly discusses
the impact of movies, television, and videos on tourism (Beeton, 2005).
The film industry has been widely recognized as a driving force in
tourism development for many destinations. Tourism associated with
film and television has recently taken off, resulting in a growing body of
research over the past few decades (Connell, 2012). The concept of film
tourism is not limited to viewing a moving image, but also encompasses
television, pre-recorded music and videos, and digital products
(Connell, 2012; Hudson & Ritchie, 2006). Film tourism includes dif-
ferent forms and activities, such as film festivals and tours to celebrity
homes, film-themed attractions, and portrayed locations. Film tourism
represents a specialized and niche marketing opportunity for film-fea-
tured destinations of several countries including the UK, USA, South
Korea, Australia, and New Zealand.
However, most of this film role is unsubstantiated. While film may
play a critical role for some tourists' travel experiences and decisions
(Roesch, 2009), for the vast majority, film played no or only a minor
role in driving people to the destination (Busby & Klug, 2001; Croy &
Heitmann, 2011; Heitmann, 2010). This may be attributed to the
sample of general tourists that visited film venues rather than a specific
segment of purposeful film tourists (Yen & Croy, 2016).
South Korean pop culture, particularly movies and soap operas, has
experienced a rapidly growing popularity in a number of Asian coun-
tries since the late 1990s. Beginning with Korean television programs,
What is Love All About? in 1997 and Stars in My Heart in 1998, addi-
tional dramas (e.g., Winter Sonata in 2003 and Jewel in the Palace in
2005) have spurred travel to Korea from around the globe (Korea
National Tourism Organization [KNTO], 2004; Lee, 2007). In addition,
Korean pop music or K-pop has garnered widespread audiences across
Asian countries in the early 2000s and has steadily increased outside of
Asian countries (e.g., the United States, Latin America, and Australia)
S. Lee et al.
(Seo, Lee, Hong, & Jung, 2012). These are examples of pop culture
tourism that span the range of entertainment facets, including celeb-
rities and music as well as films and dramas.
Korean pop culture representations have enhanced the status of the
country as a tourist destination (Naidu-Ghelani, 2013). For instance,
Psy, a Korean famous singer for the song Gangnam Style, was credited
with attracting numerous tourists to Korea after the release of his hit
record in 2012. In that year, South Korea had record high tourism
revenues of $13.1 billion and received more than 10 million tourists
(World Travel Tourism Council, 2017). Additionally, the number of
Korean pop culture fans increased from 11 million in 2011 to an esti-
mated 90 million in 2014 with approximately 1000 fan clubs across 80
different countries (Jeong, 2011; Korean Tourism Organization, 2014).
Korean pop culture has clearly attracted widespread interest and ser-
ious fans.
As a result, numerous studies have recently focused on Korean pop
culture's impact on tourism from various perspectives. Kim, Agrusa,
Lee, and Chon (2007) explored the impacts of Korean soap operas on
Japanese tourists. Lee et al. (2008) developed a research model to as-
sess the relationships between celebrity involvement, familiarity, and
destination image. Lee and Scott (2009) focused on leisure constraints
and celebrity involvement. Yen and Teng (2015) examined perceived
value and involvement. Lee et al. (2015) studied how destination image
formation agents form cognitive and affective images and develop at-
tachment to a destination. Lee and Bai (2016) explored the role of ce-
lebrities and their events in shaping destination image. Su, Hunag,
Brodowsky, and Kim (2011) investigated parasocial relationships and
attitudes. Lastly, Lee et al. (2017) examined pop culture tourists' deci-
sion-making processes. Overall, these studies clearly showed that
Korean pop culture has significant impacts on tourism, including the
image of a destination and tourist behaviors at the destination.
2.3. Fans’ membership and group identity
Fans are committed, loyal customers who invest more of themselves
in their special interest (Kozinets, 2001). A fan is defined as “an in-
dividual who has an avid liking or love for something” (Gray, Sandvoss,
& Harrington, 2007, p. 76). Fans exhibit a higher level of belonging,
emotional attachment, group identity, and shared beliefs than general
audiences (Obst, Zinkiewicz, & Smith, 2002a; 2002b).
Fans' characteristics have been explored from various perspectives,
including attachment, involvement, and emotion. Fiske (1992), for
example, described fans as those who show interest, emotion, and
connection to figures. Hills (2002) claimed that fans present a sig-
nificantly emotional relationship with their interests. Lee et al. (2008)
stated that fans' heightened involvement plays an important role in
converting fan loyalty into a positive image toward the filming location.
Kim (2012) viewed fans’ involvement as parasocial interactions with
celebrities.
Fans form their social identities through diverse social conditions
(Stryker, 1968). Pop culture fans foster their identification through pop
culture-related activities and participation (Fiske, 1992). They exhibit
consistent behaviors, categorizing themselves as the in-group and non-
fans as the out-group (Voci, 2006). Social identity theory offers a salient
perspective on fans’ group identity as it represents the processes and
reasons that people choose specific identity-associated activities, based
on all potential options (Serpe, 1987; Tajfel, 1978; Tajfel & Turner,
1979). Tulloch and Jenkins (1995) found that fans possess a social
identity as “active participants within fandom as a social, cultural, and
interpretive institution” (p.23), distinguished from general consumers.
On the other hand, from the view of self-expansion theory, Ellemers
(1993) argued that highly self-expanded people tend to be more moti-
vated to join and engage in groups that support their social status.
Jones (2000) argued that fan membership is a significant mediator
of a fan's cognitive, affective, and behavioral processes in a social
group. This assertion is similar to an imagined collective, defined as “a
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collection of individuals who do not interact synchronously with each
other, and who presuppose the existence of the collection of individuals
who share a common ground” (Kashima, Klein, & Clark, 2007, p. 35).
Accordingly, people have not only their own “personal self,” but rather
several selves, representing diverse forms of group membership. In-
deed, fans view themselves as fan group members even though they
may not physically belong to a certain fan club (Sandvoss, 2005). Group
membership is formed through the processes of self-categorization and
differentiation between the in-group and out-group. That is, the per-
ceived group identity and membership among fan members is con-
sidered to be a prominent fan characteristic.
2.4. Travel satisfaction and destination loyalty
Oliver (1980) viewed customer satisfaction as customers’ evaluation
on a good, service, or performance concerning their needs and ex-
pectations. Destinations can be considered a product that tourists can
revisit and recommend (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). A number of tourism
researchers have investigated travel satisfaction with a destination by
incorporating theoretical foundations of customer satisfaction (e.g.,
Baker & Crompton, 2000; Chi & Qu, 2008; Severt et al., 2007; Yuksel &
Yuksel, 2007). Research has consistently found that travel satisfaction
impacts destination loyalty. For example, Chi and Qu (2008) proposed
an integrative model to test how destination image influenced attribute
satisfaction and overall satisfaction, resulting in destination loyalty.
They found that both attribute and overall satisfaction have a sig-
nificant effect on destination loyalty.
Tourism research has also focused on cognitive and affective com-
ponents and emotional experience in order to fully understand what
satisfaction entails and the impacts on destinations. Rodriguez del
Bosque and San Martin (2008) developed a cognitive-affective model to
examine how positive and negative emotions, along with disconfirma-
tion and destination image, influenced satisfaction. While dis-
confirmation and destination image were not significant, emotional
responses had significant effects on satisfaction. Similarly, McMullan
and O'Neill's (2010) research focused on product and service cognitive
satisfaction and evolved to include emotional satisfaction and cognitive
dissonance in their model. Positive effects were detected between these
constructs, except for cognitive dissonance on overall satisfaction. Fu-
ture behavioral intention was also significantly influenced by cognitive
and emotional satisfaction.
In addition, destination satisfaction was also examined as the ulti-
mate outcome. For example, Veasna, Wu, and Huang (2013) in-
vestigated the factors that contribute to destination satisfaction. In their
study, destination source credibility, destination image, and destination
attachment were considered as antecedents of destination satisfaction.
Results showed that all these factors contributed to destination sa-
tisfaction. In particular, destination attachment was found to mediate
the effect of destination source credibility and destination satisfaction
while destination image mediated destination source credibility and
destination attachment. Albayrak and Caber (2018) found that while
motivation influenced overall satisfaction, the so-called performance
model, that is, post-visit experience motivation evaluation had more
meaningful impact on overall satisfaction to the destination.
Loyalty is defined as “a deeply held commitment to re-buy or re-
patronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby
causing repetitive same-brand or same brand set purchasing, despite
situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to
cause switching behavior” (Oliver, 1999, p. 34). In tourism, general
product theory is often applied to destination loyalty to explore the
relationships between travel satisfaction and future intention to revisit
and word of mouth (WOM) (Alexandris, Koutouris, & Meligdis, 2006;
Kozak & Rimmington, 2000; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Satisfaction is a
salient indicator of loyalty in destination studies. Particularly, WOM is
considered a significant factor in helping tourism marketing develop-
ment because it is perceived as a more credible destination source by
S. Lee et al.
potential visitors than destination advertisements created by tourism
organizations (Chi & Qu, 2008; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Also, revisit in-
tention is another frequently used measure for destinations (Chi & Qu,
2008; McMullan & O'Neill, 2010; Rodriguez del Bosque & San Martin,
2008).
In the tourist context, scholars also discovered the frequent use of a
single unit of analysis such as one destination, and applying similar
indicators (McKercher, Denizci-Guillet, & Ng, 2012). To address this
issue, Almeida-Santana and Moreno-Gil (2018) examined horizontal
loyalty, that is, consumer's loyalty divided among several destinations
and found different effects for the factors that influence horizontal
loyalty and destination loyalty. It implied that for destinations to
achieve horizontal loyalty, the destination marketing organizations
(DMOs) should design and implement joint promotions with those
destinations that share similar traveler preferences.
2.5. Research hypotheses
Given the recently emerging theoretical grounding in pop culture
tourism research, this study adopted self-expansion theory as the un-
derlying framework and focused specifically on pop star fans. Some
recent research has used the concept of parasocial relationships to ex-
amine celebrity involvement, which is a situational relationship (Kim,
2012; Su et al., 2011). However, self-expansion theory in this study was
employed to focus on fans' inherent motivation that explains their as-
sociation with pop stars (e.g., membership and group identity) and
travel behaviors (e.g., satisfaction and loyalty). The following hy-
potheses were developed with theoretical support to understand fans’
unique self-expansion characteristics and the role of self-expansion on
their travel behaviors.
First, self-expansion theory centers on the human motive to expand
the self in close relationships between persons to achieve goals (Aron
et al., 2005). This study views fans as individuals who have a strong
motivation for self-expansion in general, and experience self-expansion,
especially in the relationship with their favorite pop star (Aron & Aron,
1986). Fans with a high degree of self-expansion are not just passive
recipients of the pop star's resources (e.g., music, drama, film, television
programs); they are also active subjects that make considerable in-
vestments of their own resources (e.g., time, finance) for a pop star
relationship (Aron et al., 2001). In this sense, a pop star is considered
the main source for fans' self-expansion experiences. Thus, the fol-
lowing hypothesis was formed:
H1. Fans with a high degree of self-expansion are more motivated for
self-expansion in a relationship with pop stars than fans with a low
degree of self-expansion.
Moreover, self-expansion theory predicts that people with a high
degree of self-expansion are more willing to join a group, maintain their
member status, and identify themselves with groups because group
membership offers considerable benefits such as resources, perspec-
tives, and identities (Aron & McLaughlin-Volpe, 200l; Tropp & Wright,
2001). In addition, membership can provide access to additional re-
sources and help individuals to achieve their goals by offering positive
affect and experiences through interpersonal interactions (Aron & Aron,
1986; Ellemers, 1993; McLaughlin-Volpe et al., 2005). With this per-
spective, the following two hypotheses were developed:
H2. Fans with a high degree of self-expansion are more likely to belong
to fan clubs than fans with a low degree of self-expansion.
H3. Fans with a high degree of self-expansion experience a stronger
sense of group identity than fans with a low degree of self-expansion.
Lastly, self-expansion can help an individual to build a relationship
with nature or an environment through positive affect. Further, the
environment, interpreted here as a pop star's native country, can be an
important resource in providing immediate access to the pop star's fan
meeting or activities (Lee, 2012). That is, fans with a high degree of
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Tourism Management 72 (2019) 270–280
self-expansion are more likely to make a trip to their favorite pop star's
country to enhance their pop-star relationship. As a result, they are
more likely to have positive travel experiences because of a high degree
of self-expansion (Reimann & Aron, 2009). Moreover, people who are
highly self-expanded to their favorite brand exhibit strong brand com-
mitment and loyalty (Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006). In this respect, fans with
a high degree of self-expansion are more likely to build strong emo-
tional bonds with their favorite pop star (Lee, 2012). Therefore, fans
with a high-degree of self-expansion are more likely to experience
travel satisfaction and destination loyalty through the connection with
their favorite pop star, while building an expanding association with
the pop star's country. Therefore, the following two hypotheses were
proposed:
H4. Fans with a high degree of self-expansion exhibit higher travel
satisfaction than fans with a low degree of self-expansion.
H5. Fans with a high degree of self-expansion foster a stronger sense of
destination loyalty than fans with a low degree of self-expansion.
3. Methodology
3.1. Sampling
The research setting of this study was Korean pop culture and spe-
cifically fans of South Korea's pop stars constituted the sample. This
study used two criteria for sampling: participants must be fans of
Korean pop star(s) and have visited South Korea in the past. This
sampling aimed at selecting purposeful pop star tourists who had ac-
tually traveled to the pop star's home country (Yen & Croy, 2016). Fans
in this study represented both members of official pop star fan clubs and
non-members who do not have a fan club membership.
3.2. Survey instrument and measures
The questionnaire consisted of four measures: self-expansion, group
identity, travel satisfaction, and destination loyalty. Self-expansion
items were developed from the Self-Expansion Questionnaire (SEQ)
(Lewandowski, Aron, & Bassis, 2006). The original items in a question
format were revised into a statement (e.g., “This person/activity pro-
vides a source of exciting experiences,” “This person/activity increases
my ability to accomplish new things”). The measurement scale included
seven items on a 7-point unipolar scale ranging from 1 (not very much)
to 7 (very much). In addition, a follow-up question was asked to de-
termine the nature of the relationship with the individual, thing, or
activity that generated self-expansion experiences.
Group identity was evaluated with the measurement scale, proposed
by Cameron (2004) and confirmed by Obst and White (2005). Eight
measurement items were slightly modified to fit the research setting.
The scale was presented with a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).
Travel Satisfaction was measured in three dimensions: destination
product satisfaction, service satisfaction, and overall satisfaction
(McMullan & O'Neill, 2010). The section regarding product satisfaction
consisted of eight items (e.g., accommodation, attractions, and drama-
featured venues), while that of service satisfaction was composed of five
items (e.g., service personnel, information centers, safety, and cleanli-
ness). Finally, the overall satisfaction section included seven items (e.g.,
“It is a good place to visit”; “My overall experience is positive”; “I am
pleased with my experience of visiting it”). All items were evaluated on
a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree).
Destination loyalty toward South Korea addressed psychological
and behavioral perspectives including WOM recommendation (two
items), and revisit intention (two items) (Backman & Crompton, 1991;
Oliver, 1999; Petrick, 2004; Shoemaker & Lewis, 1999). All destination
S. Lee et al.
loyalty measurement items were evaluated on a 7-point Likert response
scale ranging from 1 (very unlikely) to 7 (very likely).
In addition, questions on the number of previous visits and reason
for visiting were included to better understand respondents' travel ex-
periences. Regarding fans profile, questions about fans’ favorite pop
star and fan club membership were included in the questionnaire.
Lastly, demographic information included gender, age, income, edu-
cation, nationality, and ethnic background.
3.3. Survey translation
The questionnaire in English was translated into Japanese and
Chinese, as most Korean pop star fans were Asian, non-English speakers
(Lee & Bai, 2016). Three Japanese and three Chinese research scholars
reviewed the respective translated versions. The Japanese and Chinese
questionnaires were then re-translated twice into English to validate the
survey translation and ensure the instrument reflected the original
meaning.
3.4. Pre-test and pilot test
First, a pre-test was employed to detect wording and response errors
to determine internal consistency and face validity of the measurement
scales. Two Japanese and Chinese fans and two hospitality and tourism
research faculty members at a US university reviewed the ques-
tionnaire, resulting in minor wording modifications. Second, a pilot test
was conducted with 400 fan club members at a Korean pop star's fan
meeting. Fan club members represented various nationalities including
Japanese, Chinese, Malaysian, Filipino, Taiwanese, Hong Kongese,
Singaporean, and American. The pilot survey was completed by 123
attendees in one of three language versions of Japanese, Chinese, or
English. All measurement scales had a satisfactory Cronbach's alpha
value ranging from 0.76 to 0.97.
3.5. Data collection
An online survey was conducted, targeting Korean pop stars' fans.
The questionnaire was provided in three languages: Chinese, Japanese,
and English. For fan club members of pop stars (e.g., Ahn Jae-wook,
Rain, JYJ, Girls’ Generation, TVXO, Super Junior), email addresses
were collected with the help of fan club management agencies and
representatives in each country. An email of the survey announcement
and Qualtrics.com link was sent to current fan club members. For non-
members, about 50 pop star-related websites and blogs were used to
recruit Korean pop star fans with the assistance of registered fan club
members. A survey invitation and link were posted to fan websites and
blogs.
In total, 535 people completed the survey. However, only 275 re-
spondents met the criteria of having visited South Korea, and 50 cases
were further eliminated due to duplicate IP addresses and identical
response patterns or were not fans of Korean pop stars. Furthermore, six
cases were identified as outliers at the multivariate level, netting 219
responses or a 40.9% usable rate for data analysis. Testing of the ade-
quacy of the sample size was undertaken. A power analysis using
G*power version 3.1.9.2 indicated that a total sample of 210 and 145
for a two-tailed t -test and chi-square test, respectively, was necessary to
detect medium effects with 95% power, α = 0.05 (Prajapati, Dunne, &
Armstrong, 2010). Therefore, the sample size of 219 was determined to
be adequate for further data analysis.
3.6. Data analysis
Data normality is determined if skewness ranges between −2 and
+2 and Kurtosis between −7 and +7, which indicates that the data
met the normality assumption (Byrne, 2010; Hair, Black, Babin, &
Anderson, 2010). The results of normality tests indicated that skewness
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ranged between 0.03 and 1.87, and kurtosis between 0.08 and 2.69
(Table 1), which indicated that most responses were normally dis-
tributed.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), cluster analysis, independent t
tests, and chi-square tests were performed to achieve the research ob-
jectives. First, CFA was conducted to determine if the items represented
the corresponding variable of self-expansion, travel satisfaction, and
destination loyalty, and the factor loadings were acceptable. The eva-
luation of model adequacy was based on the Chi-square statistic (χ2),
comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of approx-
imation (RMSEA).
Cluster analysis, independent t-tests, and chi-square tests were
conducted to examine differences in tourist behaviors based on the
degree of self-expansion. First, cluster analysis was used to determine
groups of pop star fans based on their self-expansion. This approach
provided explicit evidence whether respondents' self-expansion was
homogeneous based on different degrees of intragroup and inter-group
variation (Hair et al., 2010). Specifically, a hierarchical clustering
procedure was employed with Ward's method and squared Euclidean
distance. Discriminant analysis was followed to assess the classification
for internal consistency by evaluating structure matrices among the
factors. Finally, independent sample t-tests and chi-square tests were
performed to compare differences in self-expansion, membership,
group identity, travel satisfaction, and destination loyalty between the
clustered groups.
4. Results
4.1. Demographics and membership of respondents
Respondents consisted of 84% females and 16% males, which is
similar to previous studies (Rittichainuwat & Rattanaphinanchai, 2015;
Yen & Croy, 2016). The age of respondents ranged between 18 and 75
years old with the average age of 38. About 76% of respondents re-
ported that they had received a higher education degree from a 2-year
(24%) or 4-year college (45%), and graduate school (7%). This high
education level is consistent with most film tourism/popular culture
tourism studies (Rittichainuwat & Rattanaphinanchai, 2015; Yen &
Croy, 2016). Respondents were almost evenly distributed across each
income category from a low of US$20,000 to more than US$140,000.
The majority of respondents were Japanese (54%), followed by main-
land Chinese (21%), and American (15%), while the remaining (12%)
were from the Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Taiwan, and
Hong Kong. By ethnicity, the majority of respondents were Asian
(90%), with the remaining 10% made up of Hispanic, European, Cau-
casian, Native American, and African American. The study sample
consisted of 60% fan club members and 40% non-members. Re-
spondents included fans of Ahn Jae-wook (32%), TVQX/JYJ (24%),
Rain (8%), and others (38%).
4.2. Confirmatory factor analysis
CFA with a robust maximum likelihood (MLR) method revealed that
travel satisfaction had three dimensions while the remaining variables
were unidimensional. The goodness of fit test showed that measure-
ment scales reasonably fit to the data (χ2 = 1050.548, df = 612,
CFI = 0.908, RMSEA = 0.057, SRMR = 0.073). Composite reliability
(CR) ranged from 0.77 to 0.94, which shows adequate reliability for
each variable. Average variance extracted (AVE) values of all variables
were greater than 0.5, which confirmed convergent validity. Squared
correlations between variables were less than the AVE of the corre-
sponding variable, which indicates good discriminant validity. Table 1
presents results of descriptive analysis and CFA. Based on the CFA re-
sults, the items of each variable were averaged in order to compare
group differences on self-expansion, group identity, travel satisfaction,
and destination loyalty.
S. Lee et al. Tourism Management 72 (2019) 270–280

Table 1
Results of descriptive analysis and confirmatory factor analysis.
Constructs and items Factor loading Mean SD Skew Kurt

Self-Expansion (CR = .93, AVE = 0.65) 5.78 1.01

Being with this person/doing the activity results in having new experiences. 0.72 6.09 1.22 −1.65 2.69
This person/activity increases my ability to accomplish new things. 0.81 6.05 1.22 −1.38 1.70
I often learn new things about this person/activity. 0.79 5.94 1.26 −1.23 1.15
This person/activity provides a source of exciting experiences. 0.89 6.31 1.18 −1.87 2.25
Knowing this person/doing the activity has made me a better person. 0.88 5.75 1.33 −1.08 0.88
This person/activity increases my knowledge. 0.79 5.91 1.23 −1.10 0.88
When I am with this person, I feel a greater awareness of things. 0.74 5.74 1.33 −1.04 0.63
Group Identity (CR = .94 AVE = 0.65) 5.14 1.46
I identify with other fans toward my STAR. 0.77 5.20 1.74 −0.91 −0.08
I feel strong ties to other fans. 0.79 5.10 1.76 −0.83 −0.11
I would like to continue working with other fans. 0.89 5.37 1.68 −1.05 0.45
In general I'm glad to be a fan. 0.81 5.76 1.56 −1.45 1.54
I have a lot in common with other fans. 0.78 5.16 1.72 −0.85 −0.11
Being a fan is an important part of myself image. 0.77 4.71 1.85 −0.42 −0.81
I often think about my STAR fan-club. 0.80 4.95 1.75 −0.57 −0.58
I feel good about myself when I think about being a fan. 0.80 4.88 1.78 −0.69 −0.35
Travel Satisfaction (CR = 0.77, AVE = 0.53)
Products (CR = 0.88, AVE = 0.54) 5.26 1.58
Entertainment 0.76 5.11 1.27 −0.05 −0.87
Restaurants 0.69 5.58 1.14 −0.57 −0.18
Drama featured venues 0.73 5.21 1.25 −0.06 −0.83
Visitor attractions 0.76 4.88 1.38 −0.09 −0.53
Parks and beaches 0.74 5.14 1.26 0.03 −1.06
Festivals and Events 0.73 5.27 1.31 −0.14 −1.07
Cultural Heritage 0.76 5.50 1.19 −0.46 −0.22
Accommodation 0.69 5.36 1.23 −0.29 −0.66
Services (CR = 0.89; AVE = 0.59) 5.18 2.02
Cleanness of location/site 0.77 4.91 1.54 −0.45 −0.62
Service personnel 0.75 5.03 1.49 −0.43 −0.63
Safety at location/site 0.83 5.39 1.31 −0.81 0.64
Tourism information centers 0.77 5.24 1.34 −0.34 −0.67
Access to location/attraction 0.75 5.42 1.30 −0.78 0.65
Overall (CR = 0.91; AVE = 0.59) 5.92 1.08
I am pleased with my past experience of visiting South Korea. 0.81 6.03 0.95 −0.97 0.72
South Korea was better than I expected. 0.72 5.90 1.06 −0.90 0.42
My overall evaluation on visiting South Korea is positive. 0.56 6.05 0.99 −1.14 1.11
I think that I did the right decision to visit South Korea 0.78 6.16 0.96 −1.10 0.74
South Korea offers good value for money. 0.81 5.67 1.12 −0.64 −0.21
South Korea is a good place to visit. 0.83 5.65 1.17 −0.51 −0.69
South Korea is easy to get around. 0.82 6.01 0.99 −1.08 1.04
Destination Loyalty (CR = 0.82; AVE = 0.55) 5.78 1.41
I would like to recommend South Korea to people who seek my advice. 0.56 5.78 1.26 −1.11 1.47
I would like to tell other positive things about South Korea. 0.92 5.98 1.15 −1.36 2.35
I would like to visit South Korea for traveling purpose next year. 0.86 5.95 1.42 −1.45 1.67
I consider myself a loyal visitor of South Korea. 0.56 5.39 1.44 −0.82 0.42

Note. N = 219, CR = Composite Reliability, AVE = Average Variance Extracted, SD = Standard Deviation, Skew = Skewness, Kurt = Kurtosis.

4.3. Cluster analysis
Cluster analysis was used to determine pop star fan groups based on
self-expansion. The six self-expansion items were used to identify fan
groups in a hierarchical cluster analysis. Based on the dendrogram,
frequency table, mean scores, and plotting the cluster solutions, a two-
cluster solution was deemed appropriate (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson,
& Tatham, 2006). The hit ratio of the original data was 94.1% and the
cross-validation value was 93.2%, indicating that the clusters were
classified properly in the two-cluster solution. The two groups were
named “Low SE” for fans with a low degree of self-expansion
(M = 5.03, SD = 0.39) and “High SE” for fans with a high degree of
self-expansion (M = 6.54, SD = 0.88). The Low SE group had 110 fans,
while the High SE group had 109 fans.
4.4. Independent sample t-tests and chi-square tests
4.4.1. Fan's self-expansion
The mean values of the Low SE and High SE groups were sig-
nificantly different, t (217) = 16.36, p < 0.0005 (see Table 2).
The responses to the open-ended question of “Who generates self-
expansion experiences the most?” were examined to highlight differences
between the two self-expansion groups. Of 219 respondents, 175 an-
swered the question, and the responses were divided into two categories
of “Pop stars” and “Others” (spouses, friends, and activities). For both
self-expansion groups, the favorite pop star was as the main source to
generate self-expansion experiences. However, the two groups were
significantly different based on the frequencies of each category, χ2 (1,
N = 175) = 6.62, p = 0.01 (Table 3). On the one hand, among the High
SE group, 77 respondents answered that they experienced self-expansion
in the relationship with pop stars and their activities, while the re-
maining people (N = 18) reported other sources such as their spouses,
parents, and favorite hobbies. On the other hand, among the Low SE
group, 51 fans answered pop stars, while 29 respondents answered
others such as friends, spouse, parents, and favorite hobbies. More fans in
the High SE group experienced self-expansion generated by their favorite
pop stars than fans in the Low SE group. The findings indicate that for the
High SE group, the favorite pop star was a far more dominant source of
motivation for self-expansion (Aron & Aron, 1986; Aron et al., 2001).
That is, fans with a high degree of self-expansion were more motivated
for self-expansion in the relationship with pop stars than those with a low
degree of self-expansion, thereby supporting H1.

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Table 2 scores for satisfaction across all three dimensions of product, service,
Independent sample T-test results. and overall satisfaction than the Low SE group, t (217) = 4.27,
Cluster T-value p < 0.0005, t (217) = 3.79, p < 0.0005, and t (217) = 4.80,
p < 0.0005, respectively. The finding supports H4 that fans with a high
High SE (n = 109) Low SE (n = 110) t (217) degree of self-expansion exhibited higher travel satisfaction than those
with a low degree of self-expansion. Therefore, a high degree of self-
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
expansion was an important driving force for fans to experience posi-
Self-expansion 6.54 (0.39) 5.02 (0.88) 16.36 * tive affect toward the destination while traveling in the pop star's
Group Identity 5.54 (1.42) 4.74 (1.37) 4.24 * country (Reimann & Aron, 2009). One notable finding is that overall
Travel Satisfaction satisfaction (N = 5.92) was higher compared to satisfaction with des-
Products 5.51 (0.96) 5.00 (0.80) 4.27 *
Services 5.45 (1.08) 4.90 (1.06) 3.79 *
tination products (N = 5.26) and services (N = 5.18) across the groups
Overall 6.18 (0.72) 5.67 (0.84) 4.80 * (Table 1).
Destination loyalty In addition, the High SE group had statistically higher scores for
Revisit 6.23 (1.19) 5.50 (1.30) 4.38 * destination loyalty than the Low SE group. That is, fans with a high
WOM 6.27 (1.01) 5.50 (1.15) 5.26 *
degree of self-expansion were more likely to possess positive WOM,
The number of visits 9.18 (12.26) 6.13 (8.12) 2.18 *
Reasons to visit (past) revisit intention, and attitudinal loyalty toward South Korea, t
For pop-star activities 66% 49% 3.81 * (217) = 4.38, p < 0.0005, t (217) = 5.26 p < 0.0005, and t
For travel only 23% 36% 3.75 * (217) = 2.18, p < 0.0005, respectively. These findings support H5 that
For others 11% 15% 1.74 * fans with a high degree of self-expansion were more likely to re-
commend South Korea as a travel destination, revisit South Korea
Note. SD = Standard Deviation; The t-value with “*” is significant at the level of
0.005.
within the next year, and consider themselves to be loyal visitors of
South Korea (Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006).
Table 2 also shows that fans in the High SE group had, on average,
Table 3
Chi-square test results. visited South Korea more than nine times in the past 5 years, while fans
in the Low SE group visited on average six times, which was sig-
Overall High SE Low SE χ2 value
nificantly different (p < 0.0005). In addition, the High SE group re-
N (%) N (%) N (%) ported that pop star events and activity participation was the most
important reason (65.94%) to visit South Korea, followed by traveling
Self-expansion generator (22.63%), and others (11.43%). On the other hand, the Low SE group
Pop star 128 (73%) 77 (81%) 51 (64%) 6.62 *
reported pop star events (49.19%) as the most important reason to visit
Others 47 (27%) 18 (19%) 29 (36%)
Membership
South Korea followed by traveling (35.82%), and others (14.99%).
Yes 132 (60%) 76 (70%) 56 (51%) 8.10* There were significant differences in the number of previous visits and
No 87 (30%) 33 (30%) 54 (49%) reason for visiting between the two groups. However, one notable
finding is that for both groups, pop stars were the main reason to visit
Note. The χ2 value with “*” are significant at the level of 0.005. the destination (57.56%) and their revisit rates were high (N = 8.89).

4.4.2. Fans' membership and group identity 4.5. Discussion

The relationships between self-expansion and membership were
examined by comparing self-expansion between fan club members and
non-members. First, the independent sample t-test revealed that fan
club members’ self-expansion (M = 5.92, SD = 1.003) was statistically
higher than non-members (M = 5.57, SD = 1.015), t (217) = 2.51,
p = 0.013, although the difference was marginal. However, the chi-
square test further revealed a significant difference in the number of
fans between the two groups based on membership, χ2 (1,
N = 219) = 8.10, p = 0.004 (Table 3). The High SE group consisted of
far more fan club members (N = 76 of 109) than the Low SE group
(N = 56 of 110). That is, fan club membership is significantly more
common among fans in the High SE group than among those in the Low
SE group (Aron & Aron, 1986; Ellemers, 1993; McLaughlin-Volpe et al.,
2005). This finding supports H2 that fans with a high degree of self-
expansion belonged to fan clubs more than those with a low degree of
self-expansion.
Fans' group identity was examined to further investigate the re-
lationship between self-expansion and membership. The results showed
that the High SE group (M = 5.54, SD = 1.42) had statistically higher
group identity than the Low SE group (M = 4.74, SD = 1.37), t
(217) = 4.24, p < 0.0005, which supports H3. This finding indicates
that fans with a high degree of self-expansion experienced stronger
group identity as a fan of their favorite pop star than those with a low
degree of self-expansion (Aron & McLaughlin-Volpe, 200l; Tropp &
Wright, 2001).
4.4.3. Fans’ travel satisfaction and destination loyalty
Fan's travel satisfaction and destination loyalty for both groups are
shown in Table 2. The High SE group exhibited significantly higher
This study explored pop star fans' characteristics and their travel
satisfaction and loyalty toward a pop star's country by applying self-
expansion theory. This study purposefully chose pop star fans that
traveled to the pop culture-featured destination. This study revealed
that pop stars were the main reason to visit the destination and revisit
frequently. The findings reflect that respondents were pop culture
driven, which is in strong contrast to numerous studies on general au-
diences or at film sites (e.g. Croy, 2010; Lee et al., 2008; Lee & Scott,
2009; Macionis & Sparks, 2009). Indeed, these findings demonstrate
that popular culture fan tourists have distinct motivational and desti-
nation loyalty differences compared to general popular culture-asso-
ciated tourists, often documented in other studies (Croy & Heitmann,
2011; Yen & Croy, 2016). Such findings enrich our understanding of
how a tourist destination targets a niche market, which makes an im-
portant contribution to the literature.
This study intentionally asked the general self-expansion questions
first, and then a follow-up question to identify the main self-expansion
motivator. This approach aimed at determining if fans' self-expansion
motivation is inherent, not a situational, temporary response due to the
pop star's impact (Kim, 2012; Su et al., 2011). The mean rating of fans'
self-expansion (M = 5.78) indicates that fans have a strong inherent
desire. This finding supports Lasch’s (1979) argument that fans have a
strong motivation to expand and identify themselves with others to
achieve their goals. Thus, self-expansion is an important psychological
characteristic that drives fan attitudes and behavior. The follow-up
question further supported that a pop star was the main source for fans
to generate their self-expansion experiences. Fans with a high degree of
self-expansion were highly motivated for self-expansion in the

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S. Lee et al.
relationship with pop stars compared to others. It implies that fans have
strong self-motivated desires to expand their abilities with the goal of
having a close relationship with their favorite pop star (Aron & Aron,
1986). In addition, they invest in obtaining pop star resources (e.g.,
music, film or event) to develop this strong relationship (Aron et al.,
2001). That is, for highly self-expanded fans, pop stars were the key
figures that drive their self-expansion motivation.
This study further revealed that highly self-expanded fans were
more likely to have a fan-club membership and strong group identity.
This implies that highly self-expanded fans viewed fan-club member-
ship as an access to their favorite pop stars' resources and benefits,
which enabled them to achieve their goals of having a closer pop star
relationship (Aron & Aron, 1986; Ellemers, 1993). Research also sup-
ports that membership provides an opportunity to expand the self by
granting access to the group's resources, benefits, and identities and to
foster interpersonal interactions between group members (McLaughlin-
Volpe et al., 2005). Therefore, this study demonstrates that self-ex-
pansion is an important motivation of fans to seek fan-club membership
(Wright et al., 2002).
Moreover, fans with a high degree of self-expanded motivation ex-
hibited stronger group identity. This result is supported by research that
those high in group identity are more likely to view themselves as in-
group members, have positive affect, feel close to other members, and
share benefits within the in-group (e.g., Ellemers, 1993; Smith & Tyler,
1997; Tropp & Wright, 2001). Strong group identify allows fans to form
high levels of belonging, identification, and an overall sense of com-
munity (Obst et al., 2002a; 2002b). Thus, this study revealed that due
to self-expansion, fans build strong group identities to distinguish
themselves from others.
The research further showed that fans with a high degree of self-
expansion experienced a great deal of travel satisfaction and destination
loyalty to the pop star's country. Several studies found that higher self-
expansion can influence stronger positive affect on newly acquired or
expanded objects, brands, or people (Aron & Aron, 1986; Carver &
Scheier, 1990; Reimann & Aron, 2009). Furthermore, people with a
high degree of self-expansion toward a brand tend to exhibit brand
loyalty while maintaining brand relationships (Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006).
That is, for fans with a high degree of self-expansion, the pop star's
country was an important resource in enhancing fans' relationship with
their pop star through direct access to pop star activities. And traveling
to a pop star's country may be a new opportunity to learn more about
their favorite pop star, which leads to a positive evaluation of the
destination and the development of strong loyalty. Overall, the findings
indicate that fans are more likely to show positive satisfaction and
develop destination loyalty due to strong self-expansion by seeking an
opportunity to expand the relationship with the pop star.
5. Conclusion
5.1. Theoretical contribution
There are several findings from this study that make important
contributions to the literature. First, this research offers a unique ap-
proach to examine the impact of pop culture on tourism. While most
pop culture tourism research has studied general mass media watchers
or general tourists (e.g., Lee et al., 2008; Lee & Scott, 2009), this study
focused on pop culture tourists that have actually visited the country
where the pop star was born and resides (Yen & Croy, 2016). They
traveled mainly for their favorite pop star, had positive experiences in
the destination, and were loyal to the destination. Therefore, through
the lens of pop star fans, this research makes a unique contribution to
extending the tourism literature on pop culture tourism and enhancing
our understanding of its importance for destinations.
More importantly, this research provides new theoretical insights on
understanding pop star fans' behavior by introducing self-expansion
theory to tourism research. While most research on pop culture tourism
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Tourism Management 72 (2019) 270–280
has been exploratory to describe fans' situational behaviors (Kim, 2012;
Lee et al., 2008; Su et al., 2011; Yen & Croy, 2016), this research took a
conceptual and theoretical approach on pop star fans’ traits that in-
fluence their behaviors. By employing self-expansion theory as a the-
oretical framework, self-expansion was identified as a unique psycho-
logical fan characteristic that has significant positive impact on pop
culture-featured destinations (Reimann & Aron, 2009). Self-expansion
theory explained why fans engage with groups, and how this translates
to the destination, visitation, satisfaction, and loyalty (Aron & Aron,
1986; Ellemers, 1993; Smith & Tyler, 1997; Tropp & Wright, 2001).
Moreover, the theory supported that fans with a high degree of self-
expansion motivation were more likely to become satisfied and loyal
fan tourists (Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006; Carver & Scheier, 1990). There-
fore, this study offers a theoretical perspective to understand the role of
pop star fans in the tourism context.
In addition, this research highlights the importance of pop star fans
as potential loyal tourists. High levels of self-expansion toward a brand
results in brand loyalty (Carroll & Ahuvia, 2006). In this respect, fans
with a high degree of self-expansion are more likely to build strong
destination loyalty in both attitudinal and behavioral dimensions (Aron
et al., 2001, 2005). This study revealed that fans demonstrated ex-
tremely high levels of loyalty through repeat visits, overall averaging
about nine country-visits over five years. With the presence of strong
self-expansion, fans perceived the country as an extension of their pop
star relationship, building positive attitudes and behaviors toward the
destination over time (Reimann & Aron, 2009). That is, this study de-
scribes the potential mechanism - how fans can become loyal to the
particular destination. Thus, by adding the significant value of pop star
fans as potential loyal tourists to the destination, this study makes a
notable contribution to expand the literature on the role of pop culture
in tourism, especially for destination loyalty.
5.2. Practical implications
Destination marketing organizations (DMOs) can benefit from the
study findings. First, fans were found to have an inherent strong mo-
tivation for self-expansion, experience self-expansion in their relation-
ship with pop stars, and travel to the pop stars' homeland. Therefore,
DMOs should recognize this newly revealed characteristic of potential
tourists and utilize this understanding in motivating and attracting fans
to visit the destination. DMOs may develop destination promotions that
involve pop stars' events and activities. These efforts will stimulate fans'
strong desire to expand themselves to have a close relationship with
pop stars and to explore new experiences in the pop star's country.
Second, highly self-expanded fans were found to often belong to fan
groups and possess a strong group identity. This suggests that a fan club
may be an ideal travel group, as they tend to travel for pop star events
such as concerts, fan meetings, and fan activities (Lee & Bai, 2016).
DMOs should treat pop star fans as a small but important travel group
and develop marketing strategies that focus on in-group activities. For
example, DMOs can work closely with travel agencies to develop tour
packages that offer group activities emphasizing added value and depth
of experience related to their favorite pop stars such as privileged access
to specific sites and events that enhance fan club member's travel sa-
tisfaction and destination loyalty. This group-based approach may re-
present a more effective strategy for tourism marketing (Voci, 2006).
Moreover, by connecting with pop-star management agencies, DMOs
may find opportunities to directly communicate with fans, providing
them with desirable travel information and promoting destination
features that correspond with their interests. These intimate marketing
efforts could further stimulate fans' strong desire to expand their abil-
ities in order to meet their needs and goals toward their favorite pop-
stars, which in turn results in motivating them to visit the destination
and explore their interests at the destination.
Third, fans with a high degree of self-expansion were found to be
highly satisfied with the destination's culture, features, and services. It
S. Lee et al.
is recommended that DMOs develop travel products and services that
provide fans with various learning opportunities for self-expansion. For
example, a tour program can be designed to visit a pop culture-featured
venue, including hands-on cultural learning experiences (e.g., cooking a
pop star's favorite food and visiting a pop star's favorite restaurants).
These efforts will eventually lead to more positive travel experiences.
Moreover, DMOs can conduct post-trip satisfaction surveys in order to
evaluate the current products and services, and further create, develop,
or modify marketing practices to better serve travelers' wants and
needs.
Finally, pop star's fans with a high degree of self-expansion were
more likely to be loyal tourists and recommend the destination to
others. DMOs should take advantage of these loyal tourists in devel-
oping and promoting the country as a tourism destination. While this
group of fans is a small segment compared to the whole market, it
deserves special attention by the DMO because they are more likely to
become loyal tourists compared to general tourists. Therefore, DMOs
should recognize fans as potential ambassadors of the destination. By
working with pop star management agencies, DMOs can develop pro-
grams to encourage fans to promote the destination. Fans' positive
travel experiences can be credible sources of information that other
members can access when making future travel plans. In addition,
DMOs can regularly communicate with fan clubs or groups by sending
updates such as new events, restaurants and attractions. This will sti-
mulate fans motivation to revisit the destination to develop the re-
lationship with their pop star and country through new learning op-
portunities.
5.3. Limitations and future research
This study chose Korean pop stars and their fans aiming to capture
various respondents from multiple countries and regions (e.g., Japan,
China, America, Taiwan). Future research should consider selecting
fans of other countries’ pop stars (e.g., Beatles, Taylor Swift, Madonna,
Prince) and examine if the results are consistent with this study. In
addition, follow-up research is needed to validate the research design
and findings.
In this study, most respondents were Asian. Thus, the results may
not be generalizable to other populations. In particular, the high per-
centage of Japanese fans may have introduced cultural biases into the
findings. The recent Korean Wave trend is not just limited to Asian
countries and regions anymore (Seo et al., 2012). It would be beneficial
to broaden the demographic makeup of the sample by targeting more
pop star fan clubs from other countries. Future research should include
more diverse contexts with different study populations in order to
generalize the findings and enhance external validity.
The descriptive approach and univariate statistical analyses in this
study are inherently limiting. While this study revealed differences
between the groups in self-expansion, group identity, satisfaction, and
loyalty, causal relationships among the variables were not examined.
Future research should conduct multivariate analyses so that causal
relationships can be further examined.
This study divided pop star fans into subgroups based on self-ex-
pansion. However, fans may have different behaviors depending on
their level of involvement and intensity (Thorne, 2011). Therefore, it is
recommended that further research classify fans into subgroups by
various factors such as involvement, intensity, and group identity to
further investigate group differences among fans. If distinctive levels in
a fan group are properly measured and recognized, findings will help
destination marketers to identify which group is more important and
influential and to promote the destination more effectively.
In conclusion, the current study makes both theoretical contribu-
tions to the literature and offers practical implications for the industry.
With the growth of pop culture tourism, this study brings forward an
understanding of pop culture fans and their impacts on tourism.
Utilizing self-expansion theory as the underlying framework, this study
278
Tourism Management 72 (2019) 270–280
offers a theoretical perspective to understand the role of pop star fans in
the tourism context. The findings provide DMOs with managerial gui-
dance to identify fans as a niche segment and suggestions on how to
better retain them as loyal tourists.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
SoJung Lee: Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – original
draft. Billy Bai: Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – original draft.
James A. Busser: Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – original
draft.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.12.006.
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S. Lee et al. Tourism Management 72 (2019) 270–280

SoJung Lee is Assistant Professor in the Apparel, Events,
and Hospitality Management Department at Iowa State
University. Her research focuses on consumer behavior
(e.g., motivation, attachment, commitment, group identity,
loyalty, and destination image) in pop-culture tourism, club
industry, agritourism, and sustainable tourism.
James A. Busser is Professor and Doctoral Program
Director in the William F. Harrah College of Hospitality at
the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. He has published re-
search on tourism, human resources and services marketing
and management.

Billy Bai is Professor and Associate Dean of Research &

International Programs in the William F. Harrah College of
Hospitality at the University of Nevada Las Vegas. His
current research interests focus on hospitality and tourism
marketing with a particular emphasis on tourism destina-
tions, social media, and consumer research.

280