Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016

Copyright © Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research

ISSN: 1680-8584 print / 2071-1409 online
doi: 10.4209/aaqr.2015.04.0272 

Deposition and Impact of Urban Atmospheric Dust on Two Medicinal Plants

during Different Seasons in NCR Delhi

Gyan Prakash Gupta, Bablu Kumar, Sudha Singh, Umesh Chandra Kulshrestha*
Jawaharlal Nehru University, School of Environmental Sciences, Delhi 110067, India

ABSTRACT

This study reports dustfall deposition on foliar surfaces of two medicinally important plant species i.e., Arjun
(Terminalia arjuna) and Morus (Morus alba) in relation with its impact on biochemical constituents and surfaces
morphology of the foliar. The study was carried out at a residential (JNU) and an industrial site (SB) of National Capital
Region (NCR) Delhi. The results showed that at the industrial site, the dustfall fluxes were almost 2.5 times higher than
that at the residential site. Dustfall fluxes were noticed higher on Morus foliar than Arjun foliar as the roughness of Morus
foliar is greater. Deposition fluxes of major anions (F–, Cl–, NO3–, SO42–) and cations (Na+, NH4+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) ions
were also calculated by analyzing aqueous extract of dustfall at both the site. The results showed that with the increase in
dustfall fluxes on the foliar surfaces, the levels of photosynthetic pigments and soluble sugar decreased while the levels of
ascorbic and proline amino acid were increased at both the sites for both the plants. Dustfall fluxes had distinct seasonality
having the order of fluxes as winter > summer > monsoon. Surface morphological study revealed that dust deposition
adversely affects the foliar surface, cuticle and epidermal layers. Dust particle deposition ruptures and blocks the stomatal
pores. As compared to the residential site, the foliar samples collected from the industrial site showed a more significant
impact of dust on biochemical constituents and surface morphology.

Keywords: Urban dust; Ionic fluxes; Biochemical constituents; Foliar surface; Stomata damage.

INTRODUCTION CaSO4 which is also removed through dustfall (Kulshrestha et

Generally, dry deposition of gaseous and particulate
pollutants takes place through diffusion, Brownian movement
and impaction (Finlayson-Pitts and Pits, 1986). However,
coarse particles which are generated through disintegration
processes are primarily deposited via sedimentation commonly
referred as dustfall in a region like India (Rao et al., 1992;
Kulshrestha et al., 1995; Kulshrestha et al., 2003; Gupta et al.,
2015). The major sources of dust pollution include suspension
of soil, agriculture related activities, road dust, vehicular
exhaust, power plants, construction activities, brick kilns
and cement factories etc. (Karanasiou et al., 2014; Upadhyay
et al., 2015). In addition, transboundary and long range
transport also contributes a significant amount of atmospheric
dust in the south Asian region (Begum et al., 2011).
Countries like India have high loading of soil derived dust
in the atmosphere under prevailing dry weather conditions.
The soil derived particulate matter is rich in CaCO3 and
acts as an effective scavenger of atmospheric SO2 forming
*
Corresponding author.
Tel.: 0091 11 26704320
E-mail address: umeshkulshrestha@gmail.com
al., 2003; Kulshrestha, 2013; Gupta et al., 2015). Deposition
of such particulate matter on the foliar may lead to different
phytotoxic effects depending on the characteristics of the
deposited material. The sulphate, nitrate and heavy metals
are the most commonly reported air pollutants responsible
for phytotoxic effects (Sheppard, 1994; Reeves and Baker,
2000). Sulphate and nitrate being acidic species have higher
aqueous affinity which allows theses ions to mobilize into
the foliar mesophyll cells creating stress (Fowler et al., 1989;
Grantz et al., 2003; Buchner 2004; Gupta et al., 2015).
Dustfall having pH values ≥ 9 might cause direct or indirect
injury to the foliar tissues (Vardak et al., 1995; Auerbach
et al., 1997).
Deposition of dust on the foliar surface may alter its
optical properties, particularly the foliar surface reflectance
in the visible and near infrared region (Hope et al., 1991;
Keller and Lamprecht, 1995). Dustfall also alters optical
properties of snow-cover which can lead to an increase in
temperature of vegetation surface (Spatt and Miller 1981;
Spencer and Tinnin, 1997), changes in grazing patterns of
animal (Walker and Everett 1987; Auerbach et al., 1997;
Spencer and Tinnin, 1997). According to Sharifi et al. (1997),
the deposition of road dust of 40 g m–2 can cause the 2–3°C
increase in leaf temperature in desert environments. The
species having stomata in grooves might be less affected
 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016  2921
than the species in which the stomata are located at the outer
surface of the leaf. Hence, dustfall on foliar surfaces has
significant impacts on the photosynthesis and growth (Sharifi
et al., 1997, Wijayratne et al., 2009). Trees and shrubs are
considered as efficient filters for road dust (Farmer, 1993;
Beckett et al., 2000). Dustfall removal efficiency of a tree
species depends on its surface geometry, hairs, cuticle and
height (Nowak, 1994). In Indian region, dust is abundant in
the atmosphere. Unfortunately, consequences of dustfall on
plant health have not been studied comprehensively.
Hence, this study was carried out at two sites of different
characteristics in National Capital Region of Delhi to find
out the effects of dustfall deposition on the biochemical
parameters of foliar of two medicinally important plants. The
response of these selected plant species to the urban dust
pollution has not been reported so far. The study also presents
the effects of dustfall on the surface morphology of the foliar.
METHODOLOGY
Site Description
Two sites viz. JNU (Jawaharlal Nehru University) and
SB (Sahibabad) located in the National Capital Region
(NCR) of Delhi were selected for this study. JNU site
represents residential characteristics while SB site is a
typical representative of industrial characteristics. The
locations of both these sites have been shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Map showing the collection of sampling sites.
Table 1. Meteorological parameters during different seasons at Delhi.
Season Temperature (°C) Relative Humidity (%)
Monsoon 28.0 ± 1.8 72.5 ± 11.5
Winter 15.8 ± 3.0 74.3 ± 10
Summer 28.5 ± 5.0 44.1 ± 16
The meteorological conditions of different seasons of
Delhi were given in Table 1.
The campus of the Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU) is
located south of Delhi city. It has huge green cover as part
of ridge forest having the abundance of Prosopis plant
species. There is no major industry located nearby. However,
vehicular traffic and construction activities are important
sources of air pollution in and around the campus. In addition,
several residential colonies are located in the immediate
vicinity of the campus from where air is moved over to
JNU influencing the air quality of the campus. Sahibabad
(SB) site has several industries in the surrounding area which
include paint, plastic, steel, electrical processing units etc.
and the site is affected by the emissions of vehicles passing
through two national highways i.e., NH-24 and NH-58. In
addition, the construction activities, diesel driven heavy
duty vehicles are the major contributors of road dust in this
area. Besides, transboundary pollution from brick kilns and
crop residue burning from nearby states is another source
of dustfall and other air pollutants.
Sample Collection and Analysis
Dustfall was collected on the foliar surface of two plants
i.e., Arjun (Terminalia arjuna) and Morus (Morus alba)
trees. Arjun tree is very tall (15–20 m) having smooth, grey
bark, simple foliars with opposite to sub-opposite alignment.
The petiole of Arjun is short (2–4 cm long), sericeous with
Mean Wind Speed (km h–1) Wind Direction (Degrees)
7.1 ± 2.0 SW
6.2 ± 1.5 SW
9.5 ± 1.3 SW
2922 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016
2 (or 1) prominent two glands at petiole apex. Arjuna plant
is used for the heart related disorders such as edema,
angina and hypercholesterolemia. The bark of Arjun plant
has diuretic and prostaglandin enhancing properties. The
Morus tree is relatively short (10–15 m) smooth dark green
leaves with alternate arrangement and often lobed. The Morus
plant has antibacterial, astringent, diaphoretic, hypoglycaemic,
odontalgic and ophthalmic properties.
Foliar dustfall was collected on 10 days exposure basis
from both the plants during 2012–2014. The foliar were
selected at around 3 m height from the road side which
were tagged, cleaned and properly washed with distilled-
deionised water. Thorough cleaning of foliar made it free
from any dust particles. Each time the foliar were plucked
after 10 days and washed with 50 mL distilled-deionised
water using surface washing method (Davidson and Wu,
1990). Usually, each sample was collected between 10 and
11 a.m. every tenth day after the cleaning. Total 31 and 35
samples of dustfall on Arjun and Morus plant, respectively
were collected during the period (2012–2014) of study. In
the aqueous extract of dustfall, major anions (Cl–, F–, NO3–
and SO42–) and cations (Na+, K+, NH4+, Ca2+ and Mg2+)
were determined by Ion Chromatography (Metrohm 883
Basic IC Plus) equipped with Anion (Metrosep A SUPP 4,
250/4.0) and Cation (Metrosep C4-100/4.0) columns.
Dustfall fluxes (DF) were calculated by using the
gravimetric method using the formula: DF = (m2 – m1)/(A ×
d), where, DF is dustfall fluxes (mg m–2 d–1), m1 is the initial
weight of petri dish, m2 is the final weight of the petri dish,
A is the surface area of the selected foliar (m2) and d is the
number of days. Area of the leaf was calculated by the
graph sheet drawing method (Gupta et al., 2015b).
Analysis of Biochemical Parameters
The foliar samples were processed and analyzed by
optimizing colorimetric standard methods using UV-Vis
spectrophotometer techniques (Perkin Elmer LAMBDA 35
and Spectrum SP-UV 500 DB). Photosynthetic pigments-
chlorophyll a (Chl a), chlorophyll b (Chl b), total chlorophyll
(Total Chl), carotenoids (Car) were determined by Hiscox
and Israealtm’s (1979) method, soluble sugar was determined
by Dubois et al. (1956) method, ascorbic acid (AsA) content
was determined by Keller and Schwager (1977) method and
proline amino acid (Pro) was determined by Bates (1973)
method.
Foliar Surface Morphology Analysis
Selected numbers of foliar were studied for their
morphological characteristics by using Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) (Carl Zeiss EVO 40, Germany) at the
Advance Instrumentation Research Facility (AIRF) of the
University. The collected foliar samples were washed with
distilled-deionised water using a soft hair brush followed
by gently wiping with tissue paper. Then four small pieces
(1 cm2 approx.) were cut from this leaf (two for adaxial
and two for abaxial surface study) and fixed in 2.5%
glutaraldehyde (in phosphate buffer, pH 7.2). Further, it was
dehydrated twice in 50, 70, 90, 100% ethanol and a sample
was chemically dried by HMDS (Hexamethyldisilazane) for
 
2–3 minutes. Then the sample was mounted on the aluminium
stubs with carbon tape and it was sputter-coated with a thin
layer of gold (Sputter coater-Polaron SC7640). The coated
samples were then observed under scanning electron
microscope at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV at variable
magnification range.
Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC)
The quality of sampling and analysis was ascertained by
analyzing blank of pertidish used for foliar extraction. Figs.
2(a) and 2(b) show the chromatograms of anion and cation
separation in the blank. All the anionic species had area
below the detection limit in the balnk while cationic species
viz. Na+ and Ca2+ showed negligible area. However, while
calculating the net area of the sample, the area of these
cations in blank was subtracted. Calibration of methods
and quantification of components were carried out using
MERCK reference standards (CertiPUR).
The Calibration equation, correlation coefficient, detection
limit and analytical precision are given in Table 2. Whereas
freshly plucked foliar samples were firstly kept in sealed
polythene and in an ice box and then brought to the laboratory
for the further investigation. For analysis of different
biochemical parameter, the foliar samples were taken as
triplicate. During biochemical analysis, the margin and mid
rib portions were avoided in all the triplicates to ensure the
authenticity of the results.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Dustfall Fluxes and their Seasonal Variation
The values of dustfall fluxes on Arjun and Morus foliar
surfaces have been given in Table 3. Sample wise variation
of the dustfall fluxes on Arjun and Morus foliar surfaces
has been shown in Figs. FS1 and FS2, respectively. The
average dustfall fluxes on Arjun foliar were noticed as 229
± 12 mg m–2 d–1 and 95 ± 6 mg m–2 d–1 at SB and JNU site,
respectively whereas 271 ± 13 mg m–2 d–1 and 108 ± 6
mg m–2 d–1 on Morus foliar at SB site and JNU site,
respectively. The results showed that the average dustfall
deposition on Morus foliar was around 2.5 times higher at
SB than those of JNU site. Higher dust deposition at SB
site may be due to its contribution from various sources such
as road dust, industrial emissions, construction activities
and vehicular exhaust etc. The soot emitted from diesel driven
trucks may also increase the dust load at SB site. Unpaved
roads and poor road conditions further enhance atmospheric
dust load which is settled on the various surfaces including
foliar. In addition, transboundary pollution especially the
emissions from brick kilns and crop residue burning from
nearby states might be contributing to higher pollutant load
including dustfall. In general, North India has been reported
having high loading of atmospheric dust due to natural
sources (Sharma and Kulshrestha, 2015) which contribute
to high particulate matter often violating the NAAQS limits
and also contributing to high aerosol optical depth (CPCB.
2012; Kulshrestha and Sharma, 2015). The dustfall fluxes
of this study have been compared with the values reported at
various surfaces and sites worldwide as given in Table TS1.
 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016  2923

(a)

(b)
Fig. 2. (a) Chromatogram of a extracted petridish water sample (anions); (b) Chromatogram of a extracted petridish water
sample (Cations).

Table 2. Calibration equation, correlation coefficient, analytical precision and detection limit for different ionic species.
Major ions Calibartion eqaution Correlation coefficient (r2) Precision Detection limit (mg L–1)
F– y = 0.186x – 0.004 0.9999 0.79% 0.157
Cl– y = 0.115x + 0.020 0.9999 1.60% 0.323
NO3– y = 0.065x + 0.000 0.9999 2.13% 0.440
SO42– y = 0.086x + 0.003 0.9999 2.18% 0.435
Na+ y = 0.211x + 0.008 0.9999 0.23% 0.045
K+ y = 0.111x + 0.008 0.9999 0.17% 0.074
Ca2+ y = 0.177x + 0.069 0.9999 0.37% 0.250
NH4+ y = 0.247x + 0.004 0.9999 1.23% 0.034
Mg2+ y = 0.368x + 0.154 0.9999 0.70% 0.138
2924 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016 

Table 3. Average (± SE) dustfall flux (mg m–2 d–1) of major ions on Arjun and Morus foliar surface at residential site (JNU)
and Industrial site (SB).
JNU SB
Parameter
Arjun (n = 31) Morus (n = 35) Arjun (n = 31) Morus (n = 35)
Dustfall 95 ± 6 108 ± 6 229 ± 12 271 ± 13
Na+ 0.14 ± 0.02 0.13 ± 0.01 0.69 ± 0.08 0.54 ± 0.04
NH4+ 0.13 ± 0.02 0.29 ± 0.02 0.50 ± 0.07 0.58 ± 0.04
K+ 0.32 ± 0.02 0.30 ± 0.02 0.79 ± 0.10 0.96 ± 0.27
Ca2+ 4.25 ± 0.39 4.54 ± 0.45 9.29 ± 0.85 12.25 ± 1.24
Mg2+ 0.23 ± 0.02 0.27 ± 0.01 0.75 ± 0.07 0.59 ± 0.04
F– 0.11 ± 0.02 0.14 ± 0.01 0.24 ± 0.02 0.29 ± 0.02
Cl– 0.43 ± 0.06 0.60 ± 0.05 1.89 ± 0.21 1.67 ± 0.16
NO3– 1.26 ± 0.16 1.60 ± 0.05 0.70 ± 0.14 1.49 ± 0.25
SO42– 2.56 ± 0.22 2.84 ± 0.28 10.32 ± 1.38 12.05 ± 1.44

Fig. 3. Dustfall flux (mg m–2 d–1) of major ions (average ± SE) on Arjun (Fig. a) and Morus (Fig. b) foliar surface at
residential site (JNU) and Industrial site (SB) in different seasons.
 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016  2925
The dustfall fluxes on Morus foliar at JNU site were
recorded as 69 ± 2, 138 ± 6 and 119 ± 8 mg m–2 d–1 during
monsoon, winter and summer seasons, respectively and
182 ± 5, 349 ± 7 and 285 ± 14 mg m–2 d–1 during monsoon,
winter and summer seasons, respectively at SB site. The
average dustfall fluxes on Arjun foliar at JNU site were
recorded as 57 ± 3, 120 ± 5 and 117 ± 7 mg m–2 d–1 during
monsoon, winter and summer seasons, respectively and
151 ± 4, 286 ± 6 and 259 ± 8 mg m–2 d–1 during monsoon,
winter and summer, respectively at SB site. Apart from
source contribution dustfall at two sites, the higher dust
accumulation during the winter season may be due to lower
temperature and calm conditions which reduce the mixing
height further reducing the dispersion of pollutants. Besides
these conditions, high humidity can help in retaining dust
particles on the foliar as the available moisture wets the
foliar surfaces. The lowest fluxes of dustfall during monsoon
season are due to the wash out effect of rain. It is reported that
rains effectively scavenge the particulate material in Indian
region (Kulshrestha et al., 2009).
Arjun foliar are arranged at right angles to the stem with
small petiole whereas Morus foliar are arranged along the axis
of the stem with a long petiole. Inspite of this arrangement, it
is interesting to note that Morus foliar have higher
deposition of dustfall primarily due to surface characteristics.
Morus foliar surface is rough with depressions which allow
greater adherence of fine and coarse particles while Arjun
foliar is smooth where particle adherence to the foliar is lower.
In addition, as mentioned earlier, sources and meteorology
also play very important role for such variations (Kulshrestha
et al., 2010).
Ionic Fluxes and their Seasonal Variations
Average values of deposition fluxes of major ions through
dustfall on Arjun and Morus foliar surfaces at residential
(JNU) and industrial (SB) site have been given in Table 3.
Fig. 3 shows the seasonal variation of ionic fluxes on both
the foliar surfaces at both the sites during different seasons.
The percentage contribution of various ionic species to the
total dustfall fluxes for both Arjun and Morus plants at both
the sites has been shown in Figs. FS3(a)–FS3(d). The results
of seasonal variation of ionic species on Arjun and Morus
have been described below-
Arjun Foliar
At JNU site, the average deposition flux was the highest
for Ca2+ following the order of SO42– > NO3– > Cl– > K+ >
Mg2+ > K+ > Na+ > NH4+ > F–. At JNU site, the order of
ionic fluxes during winter season was Ca2+ > SO42– > NO3–
> Cl– > K+ > Mg2+ > NH4+ > Na+ > F– while during
summer season, the order was Ca2+ > SO4– > NO3– > Cl– >
K+ > Mg2+ > F– > Na+ > NH4+. During monsoon season,
the order of deposition fluxes of the ionic species was Ca2+
> SO42– > NO3– > K+ > Cl– > Mg2+ > Na+ > F– > NH4+. At
SB site, the deposition flux was the highest for SO42–
following the order- Ca2+ > Cl– > K+ > Mg2+ > NO3– > Na+
> NH4+ > F–. At SB site, the order of deposition flux was
SO42– > Ca2+ > Cl– > Na+ > Mg2+ > K+ > NH4+ > NO3– > F–
during winter season while in summer season, the order was
Ca2+ > SO4– > NO3– > K+ > Cl– > Na+ > Mg2+ > F– > NH4+.
During monsoon season, the order of fluxes was SO42– > Cl–
> Mg2+ > Na+ > NO3– > K+ > NH4+ > F–.
Morus Foliar
At JNU site, the average deposition flux was the highest
for Ca2+ following the order SO42– > NO3– > Cl– > K+ >
Mg2+ > K+ > NH4+ > F– > Na+. Seasonal variation of ionic
fluxes at JNU site followed the order Ca2+ > SO42– > NO3–
> Cl– > Mg2+ > K+ > NH4+ > Na+ > F– during monsoon,
Ca2+ > SO42– > NO3– > Cl– > K+ > Mg2+ > NH4+ > F– > Na+
during winter while Ca2+ > SO42– > NO3– > Cl– > NH4 + >
K+ > Mg2+ > F– > Na+ during summer seasons. At SB site
also, the average deposition flux was the highest for Ca2+
and it decreased in the order of SO42– > NO3– > Cl– > K+ >
Mg2+ > NH4+ > Na+ > F–. Seasonal variation of ionic fluxes
at SB site followed SO42– > Ca2+ > K+ > Cl– > NO3– > Mg2+
> Na+ > NH4+ > F– order during winter, Ca2+ > SO42– > Cl–
> NO3– > K+ > NH4+ > Na+ > Mg2+ > F– order during summer,
Ca2+ > SO42– > NO3– > Cl– > Mg2+ > K+ > Na+ > F– > NH4+
order during monsoon season. Significantly higher deposition
of SO42– at SB site clearly indicated the impact of emissions
from industrial and vehicular sources in the industrial area.
Besides this, interstate transboundary pollution is also
responsible for elevated fluxes of ionic species.
Data showed that Ca2+ has been the most dominating ion
representing as a major constituent of aqueous extract of
dustfall. Ions such as SO42–, NO3– and NH4+ are important
to discuss as they are formed through the oxidation of their
precursor gases and are considered as the indicators of
anthropogenic activities. Percent increase of four ions (Ca2+,
SO42–, NO3– and NH4+) during summer and winter with
respect to monsoon values has been given in Table 4.
Dustfall fluxes (DF) of Ca2+ was the highest during all
the seasons indicating its association with calcite and dolomite
of this region contributed as soil dust and road dust (Kumar
et al., 2014). In addition, long range transport of dust has
also been reported from middle-east and African regions
(Begum et al., 2011; Ghosh et al., 2014; Kulshrestha and
Kumar, 2014). It is worth mentioning that both Ca2+ and
SO42– are the major ions contributed through dustfall. The
possible reasons for very high Ca2+ and SO42– are associated
with the oxidation of SO2 onto CaCO3 rich dust forming
CaSO4 in Indian region (Kulshrestha, 2013; Kulshrestha et
al., 2003). The highest fluxes of these ionic species during the
winter season can be attributed to meteorological conditions
such as lower temperature, lower mixing height and high
relative humidity which favor stagnation of pollutants. The
lowest fluxes during monsoon could be due to washout
effect of rain which removes the pollutants reducing their
loadings in the air.
Variation of Biochemical Constituents in Morus and
Arjun Foliar Extract
Photosynthetic Pigments
The average concentration of pigments of Arjun and
Morus foliar has been given in Table 5. In case of Arjun
foliar, the average concentrations (fresh weight, f.w.) of
Chl a, Chl b, total Chl and Car were recorded as 1.73
2926 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016 

Table 4. Percent increase in foliar Ca2+, SO42–, NO3– and NH4+ fluxes during summer and winter with respect to monsoon
season at both the sites.
JNU SB
Parameter Arjun Morus Arjun Morus
Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer Winter Summer
Ca2+ 98% 42% 163% 17% 59% 23% 120% 33%
SO42– 89% 51% 115% 16% 187% 37% 229% 42%
NO3– 88% 4% 22% 23% 229% 47% 70% 47%
NH4+ 329% 55% 137% 192% 118% 26% 68% 128%

Table 5. Average value of biochemical constituents (mg/g) and dustfall fluxes ((mg/m2/d) on Arjun and Morus at JNU and
SB sites. (Average value ± SE).
JNU SB
Parameters
Arjun (n = 31) Morus (n = 35) Arjun (n = 31) Morus (n = 35)
Chlorophyll a 1.73 ± 0.06 2.93 ± 0.12 1.45 ± 0.04 2.38 ± 0.11
Chlorophyll b 0.68 ± 0.03 0.66 ± 0.02 0.44 ± 0.03 0.43 ± 0.03
Total Chlorophyll 2.41 ± 0.07 3.58 ± 0.13 1.89 ± 0.06 2.81 ± 0.13
Carotenoids 0.89 ± 0.07 1.35 ± 0.13 0.80 ± 0.02 1.06 ± 0.05
Soluble sugar 131 ± 4 153 ± 4 110 ± 3 123 ± 4
Ascorbic acid 0.79 ± 0.03 1.03 ± 0.04 1.16 ± 0.04 1.64 ± 0.08
Proline amino acid 0.65 ± 0.03 3.45 ± 0.19 0.80 ± 0.04 4.72 ± 0.23
Dustfall Fluxes 95 ± 6 108 ± 6 229 ± 12 271 ± 13

± 0.06, 0.68 ± 0.03, 2.41 ± 0.07 and 0.89 ± 0.07 mg g–1
respectively at JNU and 1.45 ± 0.04, 0.44 ± 0.05, 1.89 ±
0.06 and 0.80 ± 0.02 mg g–1 (f.w.), respectively at SB. In
case of Morus foliar, average concentrations of Chl a, Chl
b, total Chl and Car were recorded as 2.93 ± 0.12, 0.66 ±
0.02, 3.58 ± 0.13 and 1.35 ± 0.13 mg g–1 (f.w.), respectively at
JNU site and 2.38 ± 0.11, 0.43 ± 0.03, 2.81 ± 0.13 and 1.06
± 0.05 mg g–1 (f.w.), respectively at SB site. As shown in
Fig. 4, the concentrations of Chl a, Chl b, total Chl and Car
decreased with an increase in dustfall fluxes at SB site.
Trendlines clearly show a reduction in pigment levels at
SB site. The seasonal variation of pigment content has been
presented in Fig. FS4. The results showed that the chlorophyll
a; chlorophyll b; total Chlorophyll and carotenoid were the
highest during monsoon season and the lowest during
winter season at both the sites.
At SB site, a decrease in the chlorophyll content of the
foliar as compared to JNU site might be due to the
development of alkaline condition due to mobilization of
soluble content to the meosphyll cell. Also, the shading
effect of dust could also reduce sunlight availability further
reducing the chlorophyll synthesis (Anthony, 2001; Singh
et al., 2002). Reduction in chlorophyll content of leaves in
polluted areas has been reported by other workers at different
sites worldwide (Somashekar et al., 1999; Singh, 2000; Samal
and Santra, 2002). In addition, the photosynthesis process
is SO42– sensitive because it acts as a competitive inhibitor
of ribulose-1, 5- biphosphate carboxylase inhibiting the
photophosphorylation process (Kaiser et al., 1986).
Soluble Sugar
Carbohydrates are important components of storage and
structural material in plant species. On an average, the
concentrations of total soluble sugar in Arjun foliar were
noticed as 131 ± 4 and 110 ± 3 mg g–1 (dry weight, d.w)
whereas, in Morus foliar the concentrations were recorded
as 153 ± 4 and 123 ± 4 mg g–1 (d.w) at JNU and SB,
respectively (Fig. FS5 and Table 5). Results showed that
the relative decrease in soluble sugar content with the
increase in dustfall fluxes at SB site was more as compared
to JNU site (Fig. 4). Further, the greater reduction was
observed in a case of Morus. The decrease in soluble sugar
content may correspond to a lower photosynthetic rate and
higher energy requirements due to high dust loadings. A
decrease in sugar content of plant foliar with an increase in
air pollutant level in industrial and urban areas has been
reported by other workers too (Tzvetkova and Kolarvo,
1996; Sharma and Tripathi, 2009).
Ascorbic Acid (AsA)
Ascorbic acid is a cellular antioxidant and a strong
reducing agent. It reduces the effect of air pollution and
protects the plant against oxidative damage. The average
AsA content of Arjun foliar was estimated 0.79 ± 0.03 and
1.16 ± 0.04 mg g–1 (f.w) whereas, in case of Morus foliar
1.0 ± 0.05 and 1.64 ± 0.08 at JNU and SB site, respectively
(Fig. FS6 and Table 5). Results showed that AsA content
increased with the increase in dustfall fluxes at the SB site
as compared to the JNU (Fig. 4), the greater increase was
observed in Morus foliar. Seasonal variation indicated that
the increase in AsA content in the Arjun and Morus foliar
from the SB site was greater as compared to the JNU site.
The higher levels of ascorbic acid AsA may be attributed
to the greater oxidative stress due to a greater accumulation
of dust at SB site. Increased rate of production of reactive
oxygen species (ROS) during photo-oxidation of SO2 to
SO3– results in higher levels of ascorbic acid content
(Smirnoff, 2005, Athar et al., 2008).
 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016  2927
Fig. 4. Effects of dustfall fluxes (DF) on biochemical parameter of Arjun (a, b) and Morus (c, d) plant foliar at JNU and
SB site.
Proline Amino Acid (Pro)
Amino acid proline (Pro) is a stress-indicator which
plays a major role in plant defense mechanisms, in particular
oxidative damage, and its greater accumulation in stressed
plants (Van-Assche and Clisjsters, 1990; Sinha and Saxena,
2006). The average proline (Pro) content was estimated as
0.65 ± 0.03 and 0.80 ± 0.03 mg g–1 (f.w.) whereas, in case
of Morus foliar it was 3.45 ± 0.19 and 4.72 ± 0.23 mg g–1
(f.w.) at JNU and SB site respectively (Fig. FS7 and Table 5).
Results showed that increase in Pro content with the increase
in dustfall fluxes at SB site was greater as compared to
JNU site (Fig. 4). It was noticed that the foliar of both the
plant species from the industrial site (SB) showed greater
increase in Pro content during different seasons than at the
residential site (JNU). This is probably due to greater stress
at SB site which affects nitrogen metabolism in plants
resulting in increased Pro levels (Atanasova, 2008).
Relative Change in Biochemical Constituent Levels
during Different Seasons: JNU vs. SB Sites
In order to compare the concentrations of different
biochemical parameters during different seasons at residential
site and the industrial site, the relative difference has been
calculated in term of percent difference with respect to the
level of corresponding parameter during corresponding
seasons at the industrial site (SB) using the formula: ((Aj –
As)/Aj) × 100), where Aj is the concentration of biochemical
constituent at JNU site and As is the concentration of
biochemical constituent at SB site.
The calculation showed that the percent difference in
biochemical constituent levels between JNU and SB foliar
was the lowest during monsoon season (Table TS2). This is
probably due to the wash out effect of rain during monsoon
season which results in clearing off dust particles from the
foliar surface reducing the dustfall deposition further resulting
in the lowest difference in dust deposition at both the sites.
Besides this, atmospheric dust loadings are the lowest
during monsoon season due to scavenging of particulate
matter by rain as mentioned earlier (Figs. FS1 and FS2).
The results showed that during winter and summer seasons,
urban dusts play a significant role in determining the levels
of biochemical constituents of the plants. These levels are
more affected at the industrial site (SB) as compared to the
residential site (JNU).
Changes in Foliar Surface Morphology
Plants act as pollution receptors as these are directly
exposed to air. Both gases as well as particulate pollutants are
2928 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016 

deposited onto the foliar surfaces affecting their physiological
and morphological characteristics (Rai et al., 2010).
Sedimentation of coarse particles has more effect on the upper
surfaces of foliar (Kim et al., 2000; Chaturvedi et al., 2013)
while finer particles affects lower surfaces (Ricks and
Williams, 1974; Krajickova and Mejstrik, 1984; Fowler et
al., 1989; Beckett et al., 2000). Smaller particles are entered
through the stomata while larger size particles are piled up on
the foliar surfaces and block the stomata further affecting
photosynthesis, water retention, gaseous exchange and finally
plant growth and yield (Thompson et al., 1984; Tomasevic
et al., 2010; Rai et al., 2010). Deposition of dust particles on
the foliar can cause a decrease in stomatal diffusive resistance
and increase in leaf temperature (Fluckinger et al. 1979).
According to a study reported by Stevovic et al. (2010)
more damage in upper and lower epidermis along with the
reduction in palisade parenchyma cells was noticed in the
polluted area than that of the non-polluted area.
The deposition of dust is seen higher at SB site as
compared to JNU site. The same is the case for SB site where
adaxial and abaxial surfaces of the foliar show more number
of particles. In case of Arjun foliar, the adaxial surface of
foliar is seen with restructuring of cuticle and epicuticular wax
due to abrasive effect of the dust deposition (Rocha et al.,
2014) (Figs. 5(a)–5(b)). These effects are more prominently
seen at SB site (Fig. 5). As shown in Fig. 5, the number of
dust particles per unit area is seen higher at SB site as
compared to JNU site. The size of stomatal pore is seen
narrow and shrinked at SB site as compared to JNU site,
probably due to the formation and deposition of secondary
particles which might be the cause of more damaged upper
and lower epidermis and guard cells at SB site as compared
to JNU site (Figs. 5(e)–5(f)). At SB site, ruptured and swollen
guard cells are seen which are raised from the epidermis at
the abaxial surface (Figs. 5(c)–5(f)). Figs. 5(c)–5(f)) shows
the dust particles deposited in and around stomata on
abaxial leaf surface clogging the stomatal pores.
Fig. 6 shows the morphological changes in Morus foliar
surface. As shown in Figs. 6(a)–6(b), the adaxial surface is
seen more rough, degraded having highly disturbed striations
of an epidermal surface at the industrial site (SB). The size
of stomatal pore is normal at JNU as compared to SB
(Figs. 6(c)–6(f)) which is probably due to more stress of air
pollution at the industrial site, because of the same reasons
the guard cells are seen more damaged at SB site as compared
to JNU site. The guard cells and the epidermal cells are
seen ruptured and swollen at the abaxial surface (Figs. 6(d)
and 6(f)). As seen in Fig. 6(f), the stomata are clogged due
to deposition of the particles on the abaxial surface in and
around stomata.

Fig. 5. SEM images of Arjun foliar showing dust particles and ruptured epidermal cells (a, b-adaxial surface); dust
particles clogged stomata and ruptured the guard cells (c, d, e, f- abaxial surface) with different size of stomatal pores (e, f-
abaxial surface) at JNU and SB.
 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016  2929
Fig. 6. SEM images of Morus foliar showing dust particles and ruptured epidermal cells (a, b-adaxial surface); dust
particles clogged stomata and ruptured the guard cells (c, d, e, f-abaxial surface) with different size of stomatal pores (e, f-
abaxial surface) at JNU and SB.
CONCLUSIONS
The foliar dustfall fluxes were almost 2.5 times higher at
industrial site than at residential site due to higher emissions
of dust from industrial sources, road dust, heavy duty
vehicle, construction activities etc. in Sahibabad area. At
JNU site, the average dustfall fluxes were recorded as 95 ±
6 mg m–2 d–1 and 108 ± 6 mg m–2 d–1, respectively for
Arjun and Morus foliar, respectively. At SB site, the average
dustfall fluxes were recorded as 229 ± 12 mg m–2 d–1 and
271 ± 13 mg m–2 d–1 for Arjun and Morus foliar respectively.
These fluxes had distinguished variations during different
seasons. Apart from local and transported pollution, winter
season had the highest fluxes which were probably due to
meteorological conditions such as low temperature, high
humidity, lower mixing height etc. which favored dust
deposition while the lowest fluxes as observed during
monsoon season were probably due to the wash out effect
of rain which reduced the dust loadings in the atmosphere.
The dustfall fluxes were noticed higher on Morus foliar as
compared to the Arjun foliar. This is probably due to suitable
foliar arrangement and surface characteristics of Morus plant.
Morus foliar surface is rough while Arjun foliar is smooth.
The rough surface of Morus foliar allows greater adherence
of dust particles. At JNU site, both Morus as well as Arjun
foliar had the highest fluxes for Ca2+ followed by SO42–
and other ions. But at the SB site, SO42– flux was the
highest at Arjun foliar while Ca2+ flux was the highest at
Morus foliar following the same order of remaining ions
very similar to that at the JNU site. In case of both the plants,
the dust deposition had significant impact on biochemical
constituents. The levels of chlorophyll, carotenoids and
soluble sugar have decreased while the levels of ascorbic
acid and proline amino acid which are considered as stress
indicators have increased with the increase in dustafall
fluxes at both the sites. SEM results of surface morphology
also verified that the deposition of industrial and road dust
has affected the foliar surface of both the plants particularly
damaging the cuticle and epidermal layer at adaxial site,
and guard cells and stomatal pores at abaxial site.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the University Grant Commission
(UGC), New Delhi for financial support to conduct this
research work. The author also would like to thank the
Advance Instrumentation Research Facility (AIRF), JNU,
New Delhi for analytical assistance.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Supplementary data associated with this article can be
2930 Gupta et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 16: 2920–2932, 2016
found in the online version at http://www.aaqr.org.
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Received for review, April 29, 2015
Revised, August 19, 2015
Accepted, September 30, 2015